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Green Energy and Technology
Lin Chen Editor
Advances in
Clean Energy
Systems and
Technologies

Green Energy and Technology

Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge
scientic research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green
Energy and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientic and
technological approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and
sustainable—technologies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also
covers “green” solutions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green
Energy and Technology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical
consultants as well as decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of
presentation spans from instructional to highly technical.
**Indexed in Scopus**.
**Indexed in Ei Compendex**.

Lin Chen
Editor
Advances in Clean Energy
Systems and Technologies

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)
Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-3-031-49786-5 ISBN 978-3-031-49787-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49787-2
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2024
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microlms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specic statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional afliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Paper in this product is recyclable.
Editor
Lin Chen
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing, China
School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing, China

v
Preface
The challenges of sustainable development and the climate emergency situate the
goal of creating and deploying clean energy technologies as one of the most impor-
tant for humanity right now. With this in mind, the 2023 8th International Conference
on Advances on Clean Energy Research (ICACER 2023) was scheduled to be con-
vened in Barcelona, Spain, on April 28–30, 2023, hosted in Universitat Politècnica
de Catalunya BarcelonaTech (UPC), Spain and supported by Universitetet of Agder,
Norway and Galati University ‘Dunarea de Jos’, Romania.
The objective of this conference is to present progressions in applied research of
clean energy technologies and their system integration for ‘Energy Transition’ in
moving towards sustainable societies. Applied research is needed to integrate the
existing clean energy technologies for a low-carbon economy through focused and
integrated efforts with the usage of smart network. The ICACER 2023 is an inter-
disciplinary clean energy research conference organized with objective of bringing
together researchers, scientists, engineers, academics and graduate students in the
elds of advances on clean energy technologies, energy economics and policy to
share up-to-date research results.
ICACER 2023 proceedings span over created eight topic tracks including ‘Solar
Photovoltaic Power Generation Technology and Solar Energy Applications’, ‘Wind
Power Generation and Marine Energy Development’, ‘New Power System Analysis
and Power Grid Control Technology’, ‘Advanced Hydrogen Production System and
Fuel Cell Technology’, ‘Renewable Energy Transformation and Energy Market
Analysis’, ‘Clean Energy Combustion and Thermal Engineering’, ‘Building-
Integrated Renewable Energy, Building Energy-Saving Design and Energy
Efciency’ and ?Environmental Impact Assessment and Management of Different
Power Generation Technologies’. As the program, we had three keynote speeches,
three onsite sessions and four online sessions. It will be a golden opportunity for the
researchers, scientists, engineers, academics and graduate students to interact
among themselves to get better views on technical development and trends for the
near future.

vi
On behalf of the Organizing Committee, thanks are extended to the keynote
speakers for their distinguished presentations and sharing. Thanks are also extended
to the paper reviewers and the members of the organizing committee, for their con-
tribution and commitment to putting together a program of paper presentations that
conference participants should nd benecial in their professional development.
Finally, we are grateful to all the authors and presenters of the papers as well as all
the attendees for their contributions to this wonderful conference.
Barcelona, Spain Conference Organizing Committees
ICACER 2023
Preface

vii
Conference Committees
Advisory Committees
Jean Mahseredjian, Polytechnique Montreal, Canada
Le Yi Wang, Wayne State University, USA
Conference Chair
Mohan Lal Kolhe, Universitetet of Agder, Norway
Conference Co-Chair
Javier Contreras Sanz, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Local Organizing Chair
Marc Alier, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain
Program Chairs
Lin Chen, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Zhenzhi Lin, Zhejiang University, China
Program Co-Chairs
Qingguang Yu, Tsinghua University, China
James Marco, University of Warwick, UK
Eugen Rusu, Galati University ‘Dunarea de Jos’, Romania
Steering Committee Chairs
Adem Akpinar, Uludag University, Turkey
Stanislaw Szwaja, Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland
Technical Committees
Jinshun Wu, North China Institute of Science and Technology, China
Rafael C. F. Mendes, Universidade de Brasilia, Spain
Mahmoud Elgendi, United Arab Emirates University, UAE
Silvia Ruggiero, University of Sannio, Italy
Abdul Quader, Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) Research and
Development Center, UAE
José Manuel González Martín, Universidad de Burgos, Spain

viii
Maisa El Gamal, Zayed University, UAE
Ameera Mohammad, United Arab Emirates University, UAE
Marianela Machuca Macías, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain
Ali Saberi Derakhtenjani, Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) Research
and Development Center, UAE
Tarek Safwat Kabel, University of Sadat City, Egypt
Marie Sawadogo, Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement
(2iE), Burkina Faso
Arta Babapour, Cukurova University, Turkey
Paweł Madejski, AGH University of Science and Technology, Poland
Sawsan Dagher, Abu Dhabi Polytechnic, UAE
Yanzhe Li, NewYork University, USA
Faezeh Bagheri Moghaddam, University of Strathclyde, UK
Imen Ben Salem, Zayed university, UAE
Wisam Al Saadi, Australian College of Kuwait, Kuwait
Kittipong Tissayakorn, Ofce of the National Economic and Social Development
Council, Thailand
Roberto Garay-Martinez, University of Deusto, Spain
Wei He, Tianjin University of Commerce, China
Yulong Zhao, Hebei University of Technology, China
Manickam Minakshi, Murdoch University, Australia
Yang Han, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), China
Chengcheng Xia, University of Padova, Italy
Ottorino Veneri, National Research Council of Italy, Italy
Mohammad Golam Rasul, Central Queensland University, Australia
Angela Russo, Dipartimento Energia “Galileo Ferraris”, Italy
Quan Li, The University of Edinburgh, UK
Nina Almasifar, Cukurova University, Turkey
Imane Belyamani, Zayed University, UAE
Benjapon Chalermsinsuwan, Chulalongkorn university, Thailand
Basil T. Wong, Swinburne University of Technology, Malaysia
Chaiyan Chaiya, Rajamangala University of Technology Thunyaburi, Thailand
Teerawat Sema, Chulalongkorn university, Thailand
Amit Sant, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, India
Piotr Olczak, Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of
Sciences, Poland
Liliana Rusu, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania
Poomiwat Phadungbut, Mahidol University, Thailand
Malligunta Kiran Kumar, Koneru Lakshmiah Education Foundation, India
Duong Minh Bui, Vietnamese-German University, Viet Nam
Chitrarekha Kabre, School of Planning and Architecture, India
Islam Al-Akraa, The British University in Egypt, Egypt
Masoud Taghavi, Technical and Vocational University (TVU), Iran
Krisztina Uzuneanu, “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, Romania
Cristian Paul Chioncel, UNIVERSITATEA “BABEŞ-BOLYAI”, Romania
Conference Committees

ix
Sorin Ciortan, “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, Romania
Nilofar Asim, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Masita Mohammad, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Woraphon Yamaka, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
S. Suresh, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal, India
N. Balasubramanian, Anna University, India
Adel Younis, Australin University, Kuwait
Udara S.P.R. Arachchige, University of Sri Jayewardenepura Pitipana, Sri Lanka
Santanu Koley, Birla Institute of Technology and Science-Pilani, India
Alagappan Pandian, Koneru Lakshmiah Education Foundation, India
Abdul Waheed Badar, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
Ali Mohammadipour, Iranian Association for Energy Economies & Payame noor
University, Iran
Ravishankar Sathyamurthy, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Laveet Kumar, Mehran University of Eng. & Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan
Yarrapragada K S S Rao, Aditya College of Engineering, India
Banza Bonaventure Wa Banza, University of Lubumbashi, Congo
Madhusudhanan J, Anand Institute of Higher Technology, India
Conference Committees

xi
Part I Solar Photovoltaic Power Generation Technology
and Solar Energy Applications
Cloud Effects on Photovoltaic Power Forecasting:
Initial Analysis of a Single Power Plant Based
on Satellite Images and Weather Forecasts�� 3
Franko Pandžić, Ivan Sudić, Tomislav Capuder,
and Amalija Božiček
1 Introduction�� 3
1.1 Showcase: Vis Solar Power Plant�� 4
2 Data�� 4
2.1 SE Vis Historical Production�� 5
2.2 WRF Forecasts�� 5
2.3 EUMETSAT Satellite Imagery�� 6
3 Analysis�� 6
4 Model Training and Results�� 8
5 Conclusion and Future Work�� 9
References�� 10
Enhancing the Performance of Photovoltaic Panels
by Evaporative Cooling in Hot and Arid Climates�� 13
Waleed M. Alharbi, Ahmed M. Alshwairekh,
and Ahmed Alaa Mahfouz
1 Introduction�� 13
1.1 Cooling Solutions for PV Modules�� 14
2 Methodology�� 15
2.1 Uncertainty Analysis�� 17
3 Results and Discussion�� 17
3.1 Weather Conditions�� 17
3.2 Temperature of the PV Module�� 18
Contents

xii
4 Conclusion�� 20
References�� 21
Influence of Absorber Layer Thickness and Band Gap Tuning
on the Optical and Electrical Properties of Semi-transparent
Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells�� 23
Muhammad Noman, Adnan Daud Khan, and Shayan Tariq Jan
1 Introduction�� 23
2 Device Modelling�� 24
3 Results and Discussion�� 25
3.1 Band Gap Tuning�� 25
3.2 Thickness Tuning�� 28
4 Conclusion�� 29
References�� 30
Evaluation of Energy Payback Time (EPBT) and Carbon Emission
by a Medium-Sized PV Power Plant in Burkina Faso�� 33
Kodami Badza, Marie Sawadogo, and Y. M. Soro
1 Introduction�� 33
2 Methodology�� 34
2.1 Description of the solar PV plant�� 34
2.2 Energy Payback Time (EPBT)�� 34
2.3 Life Cycle Assessment�� 35
3 Results and Discussion�� 37
3.1 Energy Payback Time (EPBT)�� 37
3.2 Climate Change�� 38
4 Conclusion and Recommendations�� 39
References�� 40
Conceptual Design for Active Solar Still with an Adsorption Unit�� 43
Mahmoud Elgendi, Maryam Nooman AlMallahi, Afra AlNuaimi,
Sheikha AlKetbi, Wadima AlKaabi, and Wdeema AlKhyeli
1 Introduction�� 43
2 Materials and Methods�� 45
3 Results and Discussion�� 45
3.1 Target Market, Survey, and Customer Requirements�� 45
3.2 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)�� 46
3.3 Objectives Tree�� 47
3.4 Morphological Chart�� 48
3.5 Decision Matrix�� 50
4 Conclusion�� 50
References�� 50
Contents

xiii
Heat Transfer and Collector Thermal Efficiency
of Magnesium Oxide/Water Nanofluids in Solar Flat Plate
Collector Under Thermosyphon Conditions�� 53
B. Deepanraj and L. Syam Sundar
1 Introduction�� 53
2 Experimental Study�� 54
3 Flat Plate Collector�� 55
4 Formulation�� 56
4.1 Nusselt Number�� 56
4.2 Friction Factor�� 56
4.3 Thermal Efciency�� 57
5 Results and Discussion�� 57
5.1 Nusselt Number�� 57
5.2 Friction Factor�� 59
5.3 Collector Efciency�� 60
6 Conclusion�� 60
References�� 61
Part II Wind Power Generation and Marine Energy Development
Long-Term Wind Speed Evaluation for Romanian Wind Farms�� 65
Marin Romeo, Sorin Ciortan, Valentin Amortila, and Eugen Rusu
1 Introduction�� 65
2 Materials and Methods�� 67
2.1 Locations of Interest�� 67
2.2 RCP Scenarios�� 67
3 Results and Discussions�� 68
3.1 RCP4.5 Scenario-Based Results�� 68
3.2 RCP8.5 Scenario-Based Results�� 69
3.3 RCP4.5-RCP8.5 Scenarios Compared Results�� 70
4 Conclusions�� 72
References�� 73
User-Defined Pitch Controller and Variable Wind Speed Turbine
Aero-Dynamics Model in PSS/E�� 75
Qiumin Yu, Shimin Guo, and Qunneng Gao
1 Introduction�� 76
2 PSS/E Generic Wind Turbine Generator Model�� 76
2.1 Mechanism of the Generic Turbine Aero-Dynamics Model�� 77
2.2 Mechanism of the Generic Pitch Controller Model�� 78
3 PSS/E User-Dened Variable Wind Speed WTG Model�� 79
3.1 The User-Dened Modeling Function of PSS/E�� 79
Contents

xiv
3.2 User-Dened Modeling of a Variable Wind Speed
Turbine Aero-Dynamics�� 80
3.3 User-Dened Modeling of a Pitch Controller�� 81
4 Study Cases of the User-Dened Variable Wind Speed WTG Model�� 82
5 Conclusions�� 83
References�� 84
Expected Performances of WEC Systems Operating
Near the European Offshore Wind Sites�� 85
Florin Onea and Eugen Rusu
1 Introduction�� 85
2 Materials and Methods�� 86
3 Results�� 88
4 Conclusions�� 91
References�� 92
Design and Performance Analysis of a Bio-Inspired
Small Wind Turbine with Maple Seed Aerodynamics�� 93
Amr Khedr and Francesco Castellani
1 Introduction�� 93
2 Maple Seed Turbine Design�� 95
3 Numerical Methods�� 95
4 Results and Discussion�� 99
5 Conclusions�� 100
References�� 101
Wind Climate Analysis at the Future Wind Farm Positions
in the Mediterranean Sea�� 103
Ana-Maria Chirosca and Liliana Rusu
1 Introduction�� 103
2 Wind Farms in the Mediterranean Sea�� 104
3 Analysis of Wind Climate�� 105
4 Conclusions�� 108
References�� 108
A Computational Platform to Assess the Coastal Impact
of the Marine Energy Farms�� 111
Eugen Rusu and Florin Onea
1 Introduction�� 111
2 Materials and Methods�� 112
3 Results�� 114
4 Conclusions�� 116
References�� 118
Contents

xv
Part III New Power System Analysis
and Power Grid Control Technology
Directional Relay for Outlet Ground Faults Based
on Zero Sequence Voltage Comparison�� 123
Tao Jiang, Minghao Wen, Kun Qian, and Xiang Zeng
1 Introduction�� 123
2 Line Outlet Ground Fault Characteristic Analysis�� 124
2.1 Fault in the New Energy Side of the Line Outlet�� 125
2.2 Fault in the System Side of the Line Outlet�� 126
3 Principle of Relay Protection�� 126
3.1 Outlet Ground Fault Direction Discrimination�� 126
3.2 Flow of Protection�� 127
4 Simulation Validation�� 129
4.1 Build Simulation Models�� 129
4.2 Directional Relay Performance Test�� 129
5 Conclusion�� 132
References�� 133
Power Outages Quota Decomposition Method Based
on Power Supply Mesh Reliability Comprehensive Evaluation�� 135
Feng Mingcan, Zheng Yuguang, Jin Oiang, Tian Ye, and Li Hongjun
1 Introduction�� 135
2 Analysis on Reliability Factors of Distribution Grid�� 136
2.1 Grid Structure�� 136
2.2 Equipment Level�� 136
2.3 Distributed Power Supply�� 137
2.4 Distribution Automation Level�� 137
2.5 Operation Without Power Failure�� 137
2.6 Inuence of Mobile Energy Storage
on Power Supply Reliability�� 138
2.7 Power Grid Operation Management�� 138
3 Analysis of Distribution Grid Reliability Evaluation�� 138
3.1 Two-Dimensional Analysis Method of Line Data�� 138
3.2 The Theory and Method of Distribution
Network Reliability Evaluation�� 138
4 Decomposition of Regional Outage Index�� 139
4.1 Construction Process of Regional Indicator System�� 139
4.2 Decomposition of Regional Outage Indicators�� 140
4.3 Index Evaluation Standard and Its Combination
with Power Supply Reliability�� 141
4.4 Index Weight and Its Combination
with Power Supply Reliability�� 142
5 Example�� 142
5.1 Analysis of Grid Reliability Index�� 142
Contents

xvi
5.2 Power Failure Type Analysis�� 142
5.3 Comprehensive Assessment and Analysis
of Regional Reliability�� 142
6 Conclusion�� 148
References�� 148
A Harmonic Impact Assessment Method
for Multiple Harmonic Sources Connected to Distribution Network�� 151
Chaoda Li and Zonghua Zheng
1 Introduction�� 151
2 Power Flow Calculation�� 152
3 Harmonic Compatibility Level�� 153
4 Weighting Method Considering Harmonic Effects�� 155
5 Weighting Method Considering Harmonic Effects�� 156
6 Weighting Method Considering Harmonic Effects�� 159
References�� 159
Optimal Scheduling of an Islanded Multi-Energy Microgrid
Considering Power-to-Gas and Carbon Capture Technologies�� 161
Seyed Ehsan Ahmadi, Mousa Marzband, Augustine Ikpehai,
and Abdullah Abusorrah
1 Introduction�� 162
2 Problem Formulation�� 163
3 Illustrative Implementations�� 166
4 Conclusions�� 169
References�� 170
The Coordination Control Strategy of Clustering PCS
and Its Application�� 171
Daxing Li, Guilian Ma, Qingguang Yu, Yixiang Cheng,
Sihui Li, Weixi Sun, YuTong Man, Zihao Wang, and Zitong Wang
1 Introduction�� 171
2 Generalization of System Function�� 172
2.1 System Composition�� 172
2.2 Control Algorithm�� 173
2.3 Articial Intelligence Algorithm�� 174
3 The Coordinated Control Algorithm�� 174
4 The Implementation of the System�� 176
4.1 Simulation Realization�� 176
4.2 The Graphical User Interface Realization�� 177
5 System Implementation Installation�� 178
6 Conclusion�� 178
References�� 178
Types of Grid Scale Energy Storage Batteries�� 181
Moses Jeremiah Barasa Kabeyi and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju
1 Introduction�� 181
Contents

xvii
1.1 Problem Statement�� 183
1.2 Rationale of the Study�� 183
1.3 Methodology�� 184
2 Storage Systems�� 185
2.1 The International Installed Capacity
of Energy Storage and EES�� 185
3 Grid Scale Storage Battery Solutions�� 187
3.1 Solid State Versus Flow Batteries�� 187
3.2 AGM-VRLA Batteries (Lead-Acid (LA) Cells)�� 190
3.3 Gel-VRLA Batteries (GEL-Batteries)�� 190
3.4 Lead-Carbon Batteries (LCBs)�� 190
3.5 Lithium-Ion Batteries (Li-Ion)�� 191
3.6 Sodium-Sulfur (Na-S) Batteries�� 192
3.7 Aqueous Ion Hybrid Batteries (AIHBs)�� 193
3.8 Electrochemical Capacitors�� 193
3.9 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Batteries�� 195
4 BESS Input Data�� 195
4.1 LCOS Calculation�� 196
4.2 LCOS Method Results and Discussion�� 197
5 Results and Discussion�� 198
6 Conclusions�� 201
References�� 202
Part IV Advanced Hydrogen Production System
and Fuel Cell Technology
Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar and Wind Energy
Systems for Power and Hydrogen Production�� 207
Mathna Salah Al-Sumri, Feroz Shaik, Nageswara Rao Lakkimsetty,
and M. J. Varghese
1 Introduction�� 207
2 Potential Use of Hybrid Solar-Wind Energy Systems�� 208
3 Methodology�� 209
4 Optimization�� 210
5 Results and Discussion�� 210
6 Conclusion�� 212
References�� 213
Construction of a Prototype System for Hydrogen Production
from Water Electrolysis with Homemade Materials�� 215
Ariana Koryn Casimiro Salazar, Dagner Lorenzo de la Cruz Laurente,
Edelman Lepikov Castillo Curasma, and Jose Vladimir Cornejo Tueros
1 Introduction�� 215
2 Materials and Methods�� 216
2.1 Methodology�� 216
2.2 Materials�� 218
Contents

xviii
2.3 Mass Balance�� 219
2.4 Energy Balance�� 222
3 Results�� 223
4 Conclusion�� 224
References�� 224
Facile Electro-Oxidation of Methanol at Pd-Au/C Nanocatalyst�� 227
Abdelrahman Hosam, Yaser M. Asal, Ahmad M. Mohammad,
and Islam M. Al-Akraa
1 Introduction�� 227
2 Experimental�� 228
3 Results and Discussion�� 229
3.1 Characterization�� 229
3.2 Electrocatalytic Activities of the Catalysts Toward EOM�� 230
3.3 Parameters Affecting EOM�� 231
4 Conclusion�� 233
References�� 233
Part V Renewable Energy Transformation
and Energy Market Analysis
Renewable Energy and Economic Growth
in “Next Eleven” Emerging Markets�� 237
Ismail Aremu Muhammed and Abdulbaki Teniola Ubandawaki
1 Introduction�� 237
2 Literature Review�� 238
2.1 The Impact of Renewable Energy Consumption
on Economic Growth�� 238
2.2 Renewable Energy Policy in Nigeria�� 240
2.3 Renewable Energy Policy in Egypt�� 240
2.4 Renewable Energy Policy in Iran�� 241
2.5 Renewable Energy Policy in Bangladesh�� 241
3 Hypothesis Development�� 242
4 Methodology and Data�� 242
4.1 Summary of Variables�� 243
4.2 Models�� 243
5 Empirical Results�� 245
6 Conclusion�� 248
References�� 251
Energy Configuration in the Ever-Changing Upheaval
in the Health Sector in Our Era: Embracing Industrial Revolutions�� 253
Bantubenzani Nelson Mdlolo and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju
1 Introduction�� 253
2 Methodology�� 254
2.1 Data Gathering�� 254
2.2 Analytical Approach�� 255
Contents

xix
3 Results and Discussion�� 255
4 Conclusion�� 257
References�� 258
Europe’s Post Pandemic Electricity Price Evolution�� 259
Fratita Michael, Popescu Florin, and Eugen Rusu
1 Introduction�� 259
2 The Evolution of Electricity Prices in Europe�� 260
3 Conclusions�� 265
References�� 266
Can Community Energy Meet Distribution Network Operators’
Expectations to Deliver Consumer Flexibility?�� 267
Simon Lawry-White, Abdul-Hadi G. Abulrub, and Chris McMahon
1 Introduction�� 267
2 Methodology�� 268
2.1 Trends in UK Electricity Distribution Network�� 268
3 UK Government Policy�� 270
4 Status of Community Energy�� 271
5 DNO to DSO Transformation�� 274
6 Community Energy in DNO Business Plans�� 276
7 Discussion�� 278
8 Conclusion�� 279
References�� 280
Part VI Clean Energy Combustion and Thermal Engineering
Increasing Flow Rates of Air and Coconut Shell Producer
Gas Mixed with PME20 for a Diesel Engine Generator�� 285
Pisak Chermprayong, Ekkachai Sutheerasak, Worachest Pirompugd,
Sathaporn Chuepeng, and Surachai Sanitjai
1 Introduction�� 285
2 Methodology�� 287
3 Results and Discussion�� 288
4 Conclusions�� 291
References�� 292
Investigation on Combustion Processes of Gasoline Blended
with Dissociated Methanol Gas�� 295
Chen Yexin, Xu Weihong, Zhang Yuchao, Zhang Beidong,
and Jiang Yankun
1 Introduction�� 295
2 Methodology�� 297
3 Results and Discussion�� 298
3.1 Validation of the Mathematical Model�� 298
3.2 Effect on Flame Speed�� 299
3.3 Effect on Flame Structure�� 300
Contents

xx
4 Conclusion�� 302
References�� 303
Lee’s Model and Determination of the Thermal Effect Zones
of an LNG BLEVE Fireball�� 305
Abderraouf Guelzim, Aziz Ettahir, and Anas Mbarki
1 Introduction�� 305
2 Methods�� 306
3 Results�� 307
3.1 Determination of Lethal Doses�� 308
3.2 The Analytical Transformation of the Thermal Dose Equation�� 308
3.3 The Realization of the Abacus of the Chosen Model�� 309
3.4 Exploitation of the Thermal Dose Abacus Calculated
from Lee’s Model�� 311
4 Discussion�� 312
5 Conclusion�� 312
References�� 313
Design Comparison for the Supercritical CO
2 Brayton Cycle
with Recompression and Thermal Regeneration: Numerical Results�� 315
Jiaxiang Chen, Lin Chen, Jinguang Zang, and Yanping Huang
1 Introduction�� 316
2 System Description�� 318
2.1 Model Set-Up�� 318
2.2 Thermodynamic Model�� 320
3 Results and Discussion�� 322
3.1 Compression Ratio�� 322
3.2 Recuperator Parameter�� 324
3.3 Compressor Inlet Parameter�� 325
3.4 System Efciency Analysis�� 328
4 Conclusion�� 330
References�� 331
Part VII Building-Integrated Renewable Energy,
Building Energy-Saving Design and Energy Efciency
An Optimized Setpoint Framework for Energy
Flexible Buildings in Hot Desert Climates�� 335
Ali Saberi Derakhtenjani, Juan David Barbosa,
and Edwin Rodriguez-Ubinas
1 Introduction�� 335
2 Building Thermal Modeling�� 337
3 Thermal Energy Flexibility KPIs�� 339
4 Analysis of Energy Flexibility�� 340
5 Predictive Control with a Dynamic Marginal Cost of Electricity�� 341
Contents

xxi
6 Conclusion�� 343
References�� 344
A State-of-the-Art Approach for Assessing
the Environmental Sustainability of Multi-renewable
Energy Systems in the Built Environment�� 345
Joseph Akpan, Oludolapo Olanrewaju, and Rubén Irusta-Mata
1 Introduction�� 345
1.1 Background�� 345
1.2 The Energy Efciency Process and Best Available
Techniques for the Built Environment�� 346
1.3 The Challenge and Issues Related to BAT
and Energy Efciency in the Built Environment�� 348
2 Global Adoption of Life Cycle Assessment Concepts
in the Built Environment�� 350
2.1 Renewable Energy System in the Built Environment
and LCA Overview�� 352
2.2 Materials and Energy Requirements for the LCA
of Energy Systems in the Built Environment�� 354
3 Comparative Study of the Tools for LCA of Energy Systems
in the Built Environment�� 355
3.1 Comparison of Tools�� 357
3.2 Evaluation Criteria for the Adaptability in Developing
Unied LCA Tool for Building Integrated RES�� 359
4 Conclusion�� 359
References�� 363
Realizing Visual Comfort Parameters and Adaptive
Thermal Comfort Models for Hot Climates�� 367
Boshra Akhozheya, Sawsan Dagher, Maryam Akho-Zahieh,
Farhan H. Malik, Ariel Gomez, and Maisa El Gamal
1 Introduction�� 367
1.1 Thermal Comfort�� 368
1.2 Visual Comfort�� 369
2 Methodology�� 369
2.1 Visual Comfort Parameters�� 369
2.2 Adaptive Thermal Comfort Models�� 370
3 Results�� 370
3.1 A Review of Visual Comfort Parameters in Literature�� 370
3.2 Adaptive Thermal Comfort Models in Hot Climates�� 371
4 Discussion�� 373
5 Conclusion�� 374
References�� 375
Contents

xxii
Assessment of the Potential of Commercial Buildings for Energy
Management in Energy Performance Contracts�� 377
Antonio Garrido-Marijuan, Roberto Garay-Martinez, Pablo de Agustín,
and Olaia Eguiarte
1 Introduction�� 377
2 Methodology�� 378
3 Results�� 381
3.1 Qualitative Outcomes�� 381
3.2 Quantitative Assessment�� 382
4 Conclusions�� 382
References�� 384
The Incidence of Lighting System on Thermal Comfort Sensation:
Experimental Evaluation�� 387
Nicoletta Del Regno, Rosa Francesca De Masi, Valentino Festa,
Silvia Ruggiero, and Giuseppe Peter Vanoli
1 Introduction�� 387
2 Methodology�� 389
3 Case Study�� 390
4 Sensor Setup and In-Field Monitoring�� 391
5 Results�� 392
6 Conclusions�� 393
References�� 394
Investigating the Effect of Distance Between Windows
and Floor on Energy Losses in Residential Building Façades
by Using Design Builder�� 395
SeyedehSara Yazdi Bahri, Marc Alier Forment,
and Alberto Sanchez Riera
1 Introduction�� 395
2 Theoretical Framework�� 396
2.1 Natural Ventilation and Thermal Comfort�� 396
2.2 Natural Ventilation and Thermal Comfort�� 397
3 Methodology�� 398
3.1 Case Study�� 398
3.2 Climatic Characteristics of the Study Area�� 399
4 Findings and Simulations�� 401
5 Findings and Simulations�� 405
References�� 406
Optimization of Window-to-Wall Ratio in a Transfer Hall
of an Urban Integrated Transportation Hub�� 409
Nan Yu, Zheng Shen, Xiaona Zheng, Peng Gao, Jinshun Wu,
and Xuan Liu
1 Introduction�� 409
2 Materials and Methods-Building Model�� 410
Contents

xxiii
2.1 Project Overview�� 410
2.2 Computational Model�� 411
2.3 Model Validation�� 413
3 Results and Discussions�� 413
3.1 Heating Load Comparison�� 413
3.2 Determination of Optimal Window Wall Ratio�� 414
3.3 Sensitivity Analysis of Three Annual Total Energy
Consumption for Window-to-Wall Ratios
in Different Orientations�� 415
4 Conclusion�� 416
References�� 417
Forecasting Future Climate with a Neural Network Trained
on Monitored Data: An Analysis of the Energy Demand
of a Detached House�� 419
Valentino Festa, Rosa Francesca De Masi, Antonio Gigante,
Michele Parrotta, Silvia Ruggiero, and Alessandro Russo
1 Introduction�� 419
2 Methodology�� 420
3 Case Study�� 422
4 Results�� 423
5 Conclusions�� 426
References�� 426
Part VIII Environmental Impact Assessment and Management
of Different Power Generation Technologies
Solar Photovoltaic End-of-Life Waste Management Policies
in Leading Countries and the Lessons Learned
for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia�� 431
Abdulrahman Aleid, Amjad Ali, and Md Shaullah
1 Introduction�� 431
2 Germany�� 433
2.1 Business-to-Business (B2B)�� 433
2.2 Business-to-Consumer (B2C)�� 433
3 Japan�� 434
3.1 Japan’s Waste Management Law�� 434
4 China�� 435
4.1 China’s Waste Management Law�� 435
5 India�� 435
6 Saudi Arabia�� 436
6.1 Saudi Arabia Waste Management Law�� 436
7 Recommendations and Proposals for a General Initial Framework�� 436
8 Conclusion�� 437
References�� 438
Contents

xxiv
Electrification of the Portuguese Railway: Life Cycle Analysis
of Current Scenario and Future Decarbonization Goals�� 439
Tiago Ramos da Silva, Bruna Moura, and Helena Monteiro
1 Introduction�� 439
2 Materials and Methods�� 440
3 Results and Discussions�� 441
4 Conclusions�� 443
References�� 444
Environmental Impacts of Power Plants
and Energy Conversion Systems�� 445
Moses Jeremiah Barasa Kabeyi and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju
1 Introduction�� 445
1.1 Problem Statement�� 447
1.2 Rationale of the Study�� 447
1.3 Potential Uses of Life Cycle Assessment�� 448
2 Generation Options�� 448
2.1 Analysis of Intermittent Sources�� 449
2.2 Main �� 449
3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis�� 449
3.1 De�� 450
3.2 Multi-output Processes�� 452
3.3 Reporting�� 452
4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method�� 452
5 Exergetic LCA Studies�� 454
6 Results of Life Cycle Assessments�� 455
6.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Environmental Impacts�� 455
6.2 Understanding the Studies on Greenhouse Gas Emissions�� 455
6.3 Main Findings Concerning Greenhouse Gas Emissions�� 455
6.4 Future Performance of Energy Systems Concerning
Greenhouse Gas Emissions�� 456
6.5 Acid Precipitation�� 456
6.6 Future Performance of Energy Systems
Concerning Land Requirements�� 458
6.7 En�� 459
6.8 Future Performance of Energy Systems
Concerning the Payback Ratio�� 460
6.9 The Atmospheric Emissions�� 460
7 Carbon Capture and Sequestration�� 461
8 Results and Discussion�� 464
9 Conclusion�� 465
References�� 466
Contents

xxv
Hydrokinetic Turbine Impact Assessment on Fish�� 471
Marianela M. Macias, Rafael C. F. Mendes, Taygoara F. Oliveira,
and Antonio C. P. Brasil Junior
1 Introduction�� 471
2 Materials and Methods�� 473
2.1 HK-10 Turbine�� 473
2.2 Numerical Simulations�� 474
3 Results�� 475
3.1 Bio-Criteria Assessment on HK-10 Turbine�� 475
3.2 Flow Description�� 477
4 Conclusions�� 478
References�� 478
Repurposing of the Industrial Hydrated Lime
in Storing Carbon Dioxide and Producing Calcium Carbonate�� 481
Maisa El Gamal, Ameera F. Mohammad,
and Abdel-Mohsen O. Mohamed
1 Introduction�� 481
2 Experimental Setup and Procedure�� 482
3 Results and Discussion�� 484
3.1 Reaction Temperature Effect on Morphology�� 484
3.2 pH Effect on Morphology�� 486
4 Conclusion�� 488
References�� 489
Index�� 491
Contents

Part I
Solar Photovoltaic Power Generation
Technology and Solar Energy Applications

3
Cloud Effects on Photovoltaic Power
Forecasting: Initial Analysis of a Single
Power Plant Based on Satellite Images
and Weather Forecasts
Franko Pandžić , Ivan Sudić , Tomislav Capuder ,
and Amalija Božiček
1 Introduction
The growing demand for clean and sustainable energy sources has accelerated the
adoption of renewable energy systems. Among these systems, photovoltaic (PV)
technology has gained signi cant popularity due to its cost-effectiveness and envi-
ronmental bene ts. However, PV systems? performance is subject to weather condi-
tions, making it challenging to accurately forecast their power output. The ability to
forecast PV production is crucial for optimal grid integration, ef cient energy man-
agement, and trading activities. Accurate forecasting also helps to minimize the
uncertainty associated with renewable energy production, reducing operational
risks and costs.
This chapter presents a study on PV production forecasting for a single solar
power plant, with a goal to explore the effect of local cloud cover through satellite
imagery on the plants’ production. The study’s primary motivation is to gain insights
in data most important for accurate production forecasting along with validating
sources of data. The authors distinguish the following papers of importance:
Benavides Cesar et al. [1], Hong et al. [2], and Yang et al. [3] provide extensive
research foundation as review papers regarding solar forecasting and forecasting
energy quantities in general. Qin et al. [4] focus on enhancing PV output forecast by
integrating satellite and ground data. They capture cloud motion patterns which they
use to forecast PV output forecasts. Holland et al. [8] go a step further and incorpo-
rate numerical weather models along with satellite images and ground measure-
ments for large power plants (>500 MW). Contrarily, this study focuses on a
F. Pandžić (*) · I. Sudić · T. Capuder · A. Božiček
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
e-mail: [email protected]
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
L. Chen (ed.), Advances in Clean Energy Systems and Technologies, Green Energy
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49787-2_1

4
3.5 MW power plant which can pose an issue if following the aforementioned paper.
Yu et al. [10] focus on PV forecasting using cloud images as well; rst they forecast
the amount of cloud coverage and consequently PV output using a convoluted
LSTM. Son et al. [5] devise a solution without forecasts of solar irradiance, using
only cloud cover images for ultra-short-term and short-term PV forecasting. These
papers give foundation for the inclusion of satellite images in order to enhance PV
output forecasting, but they mostly use sources of satellite data which may not be
easily accessible. Consequently, the authors believe that the source of cloud satellite
images in this study is a possible solution to that issue.
The ndings of this study have practical implications for any operator in charge
of a solar power plant enabling them to make informed decisions based on accurate
PV production forecasts generated with the help of satellite images.
1.1 Showcase: Vis Solar Power Plant
For this chapter, the showcased power plant is the solar power plant of island Vis,
Croatia. HEP Group, which is the national energy company of Croatia, constructed
the Vis solar power plant in 2020, with an investment of 31 million kunas (approx.
4.1 million euros), leading to the successful establishment of the plant. The design
and construction were done by Končar – Power Plant and Electric Traction
Engineering Inc. At the time of its commissioning, SE Vis (from Croatian: Sunčana
elektrana) was the highest-capacity solar production sight in Croatia with the capac-
ity of 3.5 MW. SE Vis contains 11,200 modules with an individual power of 340
Wpp. Next to SE Vis, a battery tank with a power of 1 MW and a capacity of
1.44 MWh is installed, the rst of its size in Croatia at that time. The battery tank is
used to provide power system balancing services and for the purpose of preserving
the stability of the network on the island, capable of powering up to 1600 house-
holds. The total area on which the facility is located is 5.5 ha (13.6 acres) [11]. The
coordinates of the power plant are 16.141 longitude and 43.038 latitude, and its
layout can be seen using Google Maps.
2 Data
Available data includes production measurements from Vis solar power plant,
weather forecasts for the location of the plant obtained by Weather Research &
Forecasting Model (WRF) [9] and EUMETSAT satellite imagery [6].
F. Pandžić et al.

5
Fig. 1 SE Vis mean and median production through time of day
2.1 SE Vis Historical Production
Production measurements of SE Vis are available in 15-minute intervals from
03.09.2020. 02:00 UTC until 14.07.2022. 06:45 UTC (almost 2 years of data).
Figure 1 shows the mean and median photovoltaic production for SE Vis for the
aforementioned period. The median peak production (1.96 MW) is higher than the
mean peak production (1.67 MW). This discrepancy implies that there are non-
insigni cant number of days when the production levels, which are expected to be
at their highest, are impeded by factors such as local cloud cover.
2.2 WRF Forecasts
WRF forecasts are available every 6 hours for the next 72 hours starting from mid-
night UTC every day for SE Vis location. Speci cally, new forecasts are available at
00:00, 06:00, 12:00, and 18:00 UTC every day. Forecasts of 7 meteorological phe-
nomena are available to the authors:
• Wind speed (m/s)
• Wind direction (°)
• Composite reectivity (dBZ)
• Air temperature (°C)
• Air pressure at sea level (hPa)
• Relative humidity (%)
• Solar irradiance (W/m
2
)
Cloud Effects on Photovoltaic Power Forecasting: Initial Analysis of a Single Power…

6
Table 1 Color meaning on
clm images
Pixel colorDescription
Clear sky over land
Cloud
Clear sky over water
2.3 EUMETSAT Satellite Imagery
The European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
(EUMETSAT) was created through an international convention agreed by a current
total of 30 European Member States. Their primary goal is to establish, maintain,
and utilize the European system of meteorological satellites. They offer multiple
weather products such as images of cloud masks, microphysics models, etc. For the
purpose of this chapter, the simplest product will be investigated – clm (Cloud
Mask) which is obtained via Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) Geostationary
(GEO) satellites. These satellites use an optical spinning enhanced visible and infra-
red imager (SEVIRI) sensor to obtain cloud mask images.
clm products categorize surfaces into four classes, one of which is not processed
surfaces, leaving three classes that offer valuable information. Table 1 explains the
three classes and their representation on an image.
Images were retrieved via EUMETSAT API for latitudes between 41° and 45°
and longitudes between 14° and 18°. In other words, the images cover an area of
approximately 444.4 km × 444.4 km. This area was chosen to have the island of Vis
in the middle and have enough of the surrounding area for further research (fore-
casting cloud movement, etc.). clm image resolution is approximately 2.2 km (one
pixel covers an area of approximately 2.2 km × 2.2 km). Figure 2 shows examples
of clm images. The red ellipsoid highlights the island of Vis. Figure 2a features a
clear day without much cloud coverage (few white pixels) while Fig. 2b shows a
cloudy day over the Mediterranean. Although clm images are available in 5-min
intervals, they were retrieved at 15-min intervals for times corresponding to those of
SE Vis production measurements for easier data manipulation and analysis.
3 Analysis
To represent satellite images as a time series variable, a simple transformation was
done. Only pixels part of the bounding box encompassing the entirety of the island of
Vis were taken into consideration (Fig. 2c). Information from images was converted
to cloud coverage (cc). For every time step t (image), the following was calculated:

cc
t
c
to
=
P
P

(1)
F. Pandžić et al.

7
Fig. 2 (a) clm image for 05.09.2020. 08:15 UTC – clear day (b) clm image for 14.09.2020. 05:00
UTC – cloudy day (c) key pixels for determining cloud coverage
P
c is the number of cloud pixels and P
tot is the number of total pixels. If relied solely
on the global Pearson?s correlation coef cient (singular value for the entire time
series), which stands at ρ = −0.28, the relationship between cloud coverage and
production would be considered weak. Figure 3 displays the correlation coef cient
calculated for each 15-minute interval of the day (00:00–23:45). The results indi-
cate that during the night hours when there is no production, the correlation is weak.
In other words, the night hours reduce the global correlation signi cantly. On the
other hand, for hours when there is irradiance and thus production, the dependence
between cloud coverage and production is relatively strong (ρ~ − 0.7).
To isolate the impact of cloud coverage, only the most signi cant WRF forecast
will be utilized hereafter. To effectively merge the 15-minute interval production
data with the forecast data, which is recorded in hourly intervals, the production
data needed to be averaged over hourly intervals. Figure 4 shows the correlation
between all available meteorological parameters and SE Vis production. As
expected, forecasts of solar irradiance have the highest positive linear dependence
with production (ρ = 0.89). As the goal of this chapter is to explore the effect of local
clouds on production forecasting, and not speci cally the optimal production fore-
cast, other meteorological phenomena are disregarded. If developing an optimal
forecast of production, exploring other meteorological variables would be neces-
sary. In the next subsection, simple regression models are used to determine the
effect of cloud coverage on production forecasting.
Cloud Effects on Photovoltaic Power Forecasting: Initial Analysis of a Single Power…

8
Fig. 3 Pearson correlation coef cient for cloud coverage and SE Vis production
Fig. 4 Bar plot of correlations of meteorological parameter forecasts SE Vis production
4 Model Training and Results
To determine the impact of cloud coverage acquired from cloud mask satellite
images on power production, two simple regression models based on the same
architecture were trained. One is a base model as it only uses solar irradiance fore-
casts as inputs while cloud model uses cloud coverage and irradiance forecasts as
inputs. Comparing errors of both models can clearly show if the inclusion of cloud
coverage helps improve production forecasting.
Ridge regression with the same level of regularization was used for both base
and cloud models. Samples (input, target) for every timestep t were created as:
F. Pandžić et al.

9
Fig. 5 MSE (base and cloud) for each hour of the day with scaled average production for refer-
ence of error signi cance

sample
t
base
t

t

(2)

sample
t
cl
t
,
t

Only the most recent WRF irradiance forecasts were considered. Seventy percent of
the samples were used for training, 15% for validation, and the remaining 15% for
testing. Models were trained, validated, and tested only for hours of the day for
which production was measurable (night hours were disregarded). Figure 5 shows
the mean squared error (MSE) for base and cloud models for each hour of the day
of the test set. Scaled average production is also shown as the errors for peak pro-
duction hours (7th to 14th hour UTC) are more important than the ones which have
less production. cloud model outperforms the base model for almost all hours
based on MSE.
cloud model performs even better when observing only peak production hours,
with the 12th hour exhibiting the largest MSE discrepancy (0.322 vs 0.421, 24%
difference). Table 2 condenses information from Fig. 5 and shows the improve-
ments made using clm images in one-hour ahead forecast production.
5 Conclusion and Future Work
It was shown in this chapter that the simple inclusion of EUMETSAT satellite
images, speci cally the cloud mask product, can greatly improve one-hour ahead
production forecasting. The ndings of this research can be implemented by any
solar power plant operator to optimize management. Still, it needs to be mentioned
Cloud Effects on Photovoltaic Power Forecasting: Initial Analysis of a Single Power…

10
Table 2 Average MSE for
total and peak hours
MSE
(total)
MSE (peak
hours)
base 0.2060.283
cloud 0.1910.225
Improvement7.3 %20.5 %
that satellite images are taken in real-time and not available in advance (an hour
before). As this chapter is considered as an initial case study, cloud images were
regarded as perfect forecasts. Consequently, results of this work can be considered
as best-case scenarios (having perfect forecast of cloud coverage). The authors rec-
ognize three important factors that can be improved upon and potentially greatly
improve one-hour ahead production forecasts:
(i) Image representation as a single value to models resulted in information loss.
To improve upon this, more advanced transformations need to be explored.
(ii) A simple linear architecture was used to investigate the effect of cloud infor-
mation on production forecasting. More advanced architectures need to be
explored, namely, deep neural networks which can extract key information
from original images directly.
(iii) clm product does not differentiate between clouds. More advanced EUMETSAT
products can address this limitation. Namely, a microphysics product (mphys)
[7] categorizes clouds into ve possible classes which extends available
information.
To create a viable model, cloud forecasts must be developed. This can be done using
advanced algorithms such as deep neural networks using consequent images or with
motion estimation algorithms. However, the next step before cloud forecasting
would be determining the most adequate EUMETSAT product (possibly mphys) for
tackling this issue.
References
1. Benavides Cesar, L., Amaro e Silva, R., Manso Callejo, M.Á., Cira, C.I.: Review on spatio-
temporal solar forecasting methods driven by in situ measurements or their combination with
satellite and numerical weather prediction (NWP) estimates. Energies. 15(12), 4341 (2022)
2. Hong, T., Pinson, P., Wang, Y., Weron, R., Yang, D., Zareipour, H.: Energy forecasting: a
review and outlook. IEEE Open Access J. Power Energy. 7, 376–388 (2020)
3. Yang, D., Kleissl, J., Gueymard, C.A., Pedro, H.T., Coimbra, C.F.: History and trends in solar
irradiance and PV power forecasting: a preliminary assessment and review using text mining.
Sol. Energy. 168, 60–101 (2018)
4. Qin, J., Jiang, H., Lu, N., Yao, L., Zhou, C.: Enhancing solar PV output forecast by inte-
grating ground and satellite observations with deep learning. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 167,
112680 (2022)
5. Son, Y., Yoon, Y., Cho, J., Choi, S.: Cloud cover forecast based on correlation analysis on satel-
lite images for short-term photovoltaic power forecasting. Sustainability. 14(8), 4427 (2022)
F. Pandžić et al.

11
6. EUMETSAT.: https://www.eumetsat.int/. Accessed 14 Mar 2023
7. SEVIRI Day Microphysics RGB Quick Guide.: https://www.eumetsat.int/media/41625.
Accessed 14 Mar 2023
8. Holland, N., Pang, X., Herzberg, W., Karalus, S., Bor, J., Lorenz, E.: Solar and PV forecasting
for large PV power plants using numerical weather models, satellite data and ground mea-
surements. In: 2019 IEEE 46th Photovoltaic specialists conference (PVSC), pp. 1609–1614.
IEEE (2019)
9. Skamarock, W.C., Klemp, J.B., Dudhia, J., Gill, D.O., Liu, Z., Berner, J., … Huang, X.-yu: A
description of the advanced research WRF model version 4.3 (No. NCAR/TN-556+STR) (2021)
10. Yu, D., Seowoo, L., Sangwon, L., Wonik, C., Ling, L.: Forecasting photovoltaic power genera-
tion using satellite images. Energies. 13(24), 6603 (2020)
11. HEP.: https://www.hep.hr/u-rad-pustena-suncana-elektrana-vis-najveca-suncana-elektrana-u-
hrvatskoj/3549. Accessed 14 Mar 2023
Cloud Effects on Photovoltaic Power Forecasting: Initial Analysis of a Single Power…

13© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
L. Chen (ed.), Advances in Clean Energy Systems and Technologies, Green Energy
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49787-2_2
Enhancing the Performance
of Photovoltaic Panels by Evaporative
Cooling in Hot and Arid Climates
Waleed M. Alharbi , Ahmed M. Alshwairekh ,
and Ahmed Alaa Mahfouz
1 Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) panels are the most commonly used method of electricity produc-
tion using solar energy due to its ease of use and long life. Moreover, it directly
converts solar radiation into electrical energy. A solar cell or photovoltaic (PV) con-
verts only a small portion of incident sun insolation to a power source, while the
remainder is converted into heat. Najaf et al. [1] proved numerically that a rise in
cell temperature will lead to a decrease in the produced power at various irradiation
levels. Osarumen O. et al. [2] stated that the operations that cause a cell temperature
of 43–63 °C or higher are critical and cause the most damage to the solder connec-
tion. However, according to Royo et al. [3] the application of cooling methods to PV
panels could increase the lifespan from a 25–30 years to 48 years. Many different
cooling methods have been used by several researchers to cool solar PV panels.
W. M. Alharbi (*)
Renewable Energy Program, College of Engineering, Qassim University,
Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. M. Alshwairekh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qassim University,
Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. A. Mahfouz
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qassim University,
Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: [email protected]

14
Nomenclature
A Module area (m
2
) MPP Maximum power point
PV Photovoltaic FF Fill factor
V Voltage (V) Isc Short-circuit current (A)
P Power Vsc Open-circuit voltage (V)
I Current (A) STC Standard Test condition
T Temperature TC With cooling
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride TU Without cooling
ω The uncertainty of several parametersAc Cross section area
1.1 Cooling Solutions for PV Modules
Most of the previous work on PV panels cooling was divided into two main sec-
tions, passive and active cooling. Nižetić et al. [4] used active cooled PV panels,
which is using the water spray method on the front and backside of the PV panel
which resulted in reducing the PV temperature from 54 to 24 °C, in return increas-
ing the electrical efciency of the panel by 2%. Bahaidarah et al. [5] used a back
surface water cooling technique. Their results showed about a 9% increase in elec-
trical efciency. Hadipour et al. [6] studied the performance and economic effects
of the active cooling for the PV panel. The researchers have used three cooling
methods, steady-ow, spray cooling system, and pulsed-spray water cooling sys-
tems. Their results showed an increase in the electrical power output of the photo-
voltaic panel by about 33.3%, 27.7%, and 25.9%, respectively. Hernández et al. [7]
have evaluated the performance of photovoltaic (PV) panels by using a forced air
stream to improve the output performance of the PV module. According to their
results, the temperature of the PV panels dropped by 15 °C, and the power output
increased by up to 15%. Hasan et al. [8] performed many experiments with various
Phase Change Materials (PCMs) and dropped the maximum temperature to
21 °C. Hussam et al. [9] carried out both experimental and numerical studies utiliz-
ing a heat sink with improved plate ns. It was observed that the PV system?s power
output reached about 55% and a 35% increase in electrical efciency. Chandrasekhar
et al. [10] have developed a simple passive cooling system with a heat spreader and
a cotton wick structured on the rear of the PV module to regulate the temperature of
at PV modules. Their experimental results showed a reduction in the module tem-
perature by about 12%. Alami [11] investigated the incorporation of a layer of syn-
thetic clay into the back of the module and allowed a thin lm of water to evaporate.
The result showed 19.10% improvement in the output power compared with the PV
module without cooling. Chandrasekhar et al. [12] studied a passive cooling system
with cotton wick structures to cool at PV panels. Their study showed a 30% tem-
perature decrease when cooling was used compared with the case without cooling.
Mustapha Dida et al. [13] studied an evaporative cooling system that achieved a
signicant temperature reduction of 26%. The output power was improved from
W. M. Alharbi et al.

15
58.11 to 65.07 W, which is equivalent to a 12% output power improvement.
Furthermore, the cooling procedure consumed only 0.39 /ℎ of water. Agyekum
et al. [14] presented a cotton wick-based dual surface cooling system for a photovol-
taic panel. The average temperature difference between the cooled and referenced
modules, according to their experimental work?s preliminary −ndings, is 24°C, and
the overall electrical ef−ciency has increased by 12%. The goal of the current study
is to improve the ef−ciency of the PV module by evaporative cooling system under
actual outside surroundings over summer days.
2 Methodology
The experiment setup consists of two at PV modules of polycrystalline with the
same standard test conditions (STC). The modules? speci−cations are illustrated in
Table 1. The burlap material of capillary action was directly attached to the mod-
ule?s back surface. A −rm press is applied to ensure a permanent adhesion between
the burlap and the rear surface of the module to keep the burlap material wet and
avoid sagging. A metal grid is positioned on the material and timber roof with suit-
able sizes placed between the metal grid and the aluminum frame of the module.
This assembly ensures a −rm −xation of the burlap material on the backside to the
PV panel as shown in Fig. 1. Waterproof paint is used to protect the grid and the
wood rods from corrosion and decay. The water source of this system is a water tank
that is placed above the PV panels with a manual control valve to allow the water to
ow by gravity through a PVC pipe. The PVC pipe is longitudinally cut to allow the
burlap material ends to be inserted. Hot melt glue is used between PVC and burlap
cloth to avoid water leaks and ows through the burlap cloth only. By utilizing this
method, the PV panel’s temperature can be decreased and uniformly distributed
throughout the module. The PV setup is tilted at an angle of 26° over toward the
south, which is about the latitude of Buryadah city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The experiment was carried out during the summer of 2022 on clear hot days on the
roof of the Engineering College at Qassim Universityas as shown in Fig. 2, starting
from 9:00 to 15:00 local time for four consecutive days. The PV panel power and
ef−ciency are calculated using the following two equations:
Table 1 PV module characteristics at am:1.5, 1000 W/m
2
, and 25 °C
Parameter Standard
Technology Polycrystalline
Maximum power (w) 80
Maximum voltage (V)
Maximum current (A)
18
4.62
Open circuit voltage (V) 20.76
Short circuit current (A)
Dimension (mm
2
)
Weight (kg)
5.18
780 × 675 × 25
6.2
Enhancing the Performance of Photovoltaic Panels by Evaporative Cooling in Hot…

16
PV
module capillar
y
action of
burla
p
Water recuperation
A
76.2 mm P
VC
p
ipe tu
b
e
Water
of tank
Control valve
Fig. 1 Schematic view of the PV panel with evaporative cooling system and a rear side of panel
Fig. 2 The experimental test setup

PV I
(1)

P
AG
(2)
where G is the solar irradiation incident on the PV panel.
W. M. Alharbi et al.

17
Table 2 Speci−cations for measurement instruments
Measurement Device construct Range Accuracy
Digital multimeter PeakTech 3315 (0–20 A) (0–600 V)±0.8%
Thermocouple (K-type)HUATO (S220-T8) −200 ~ 1800 °C ±1%
Pyranometer LP02 0 ~ 2000 W/m
2
±0.9%
Temperature RHT20 0–70 °C ±1%
Humidity RHT20 0–100% ±3%HR
Load resistor LEYBOLD
®
330 Ω ±0.8%
Wind velocity Testo417 0 + 20 m/s ±0.01 m/s
2.1 Uncertainty Analysis
For each experiment, there is some level of uncertainty in the measurements. The
measurement system’s uncertainties in the experiment are indicated in Table 2. To
evaluate the results’ accuracy. The following calculation using Hadipour et al. [6].
calculate the measurement uncertainties of the ef−ciency of the PV module using
the following equation:

−

Ω

Ω

Ω

Ω

V
V
I
I
E
E
A
A
22
22
c
c
(3)
The calculations showed the uncertainty recorded of the ef−ciency of the PV mod-
ule during the experiment is 1.41%.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Weather Conditions
The ambient temperature of the test days (August 29 to September 1, 2022) has
been indicated in Fig. 3a. The peak ambient temperature at noon time was 43°C at
13:12, 45.1°C at 13:39, 42.8°C at 14.16, and 41.3 °C at 13.02. While the average
was 41 °C, 41.4 °C, 40.1 °C, and 40.2°C for 4 days, respectively. Figure 3b showed
the solar radiation over the test days with the highest irradiance was 874 W/m
2
at
solar noon around 12:00 P.M. on Day 2, while the lowest amount was 565 W/m
2
at
15:00 P.M. on the rst day. The hourly variation of humidity is illustrated in Fig. 4a.
It is observed that a low humidity in summer-time promotes the adoption of water
evaporation for the cooling of PV panels. According to the result of humidity, Days
1 and 2 were the lower days. Figure 4b showed variation of wind velocity during in
the four test days.
Enhancing the Performance of Photovoltaic Panels by Evaporative Cooling in Hot…

18
Fig. 3 (a) Ambient temperature during the four test days, (b) Horizontal radiation during the four
test days
Fig. 4 (a) Humidity ratio during the four test days, (b) wind velocity during the four test days
3.2 Temperature of the PV Module
To evaluate the result of the two PV modules over the same period of time from 9:00
A.M. to 15:00 P.M. from August 29 to September 1, each module’s back surface had
four K-type thermocouples placed in different places (cooled and uncooled PV
modules). The data was collected at intervals of 1-minute in order to investigate the
impact of the evaporative cooling system on the temperature of the PV module and
is depicted in Figs. 5 and 6. The temperatures as curves TU1, TU2, and TU3, TU4,
are for the uncooled modules, while the TC1, TC2, and TC3, TC4 curves signify the
temperature of the cooled modules. At the beginning of the experiments, the cooled
PV panels’ temperature drops rapidly due to the use of water, while the tempera-
tures of the uncooled module continue rising. According to the results, the uncooled
panel’s temperature peaked from 12:00 P.M. to 1:30 P.M. for all days’ tests and this
could be explained by high radiation and low wind velocity below 0.5 m/s during
the four test days depicted in Fig. 4a, b. The highest reported temperature of the
uncooled module was 74.2 °C at 12:14 P.M. This was downgraded to 52.3 °C. It has
been noted that the average temperature of the uncooled module over the days was
W. M. Alharbi et al.

19
Fig. 5 (a) Temperatures of the cooled and uncooled PV module (August 29, 2022) (b)
Temperatures of the cooled and uncooled PV module (August 30, 2022)
Fig. 6 (a) Temperatures of the cooled and uncooled PV module (August 31, 2022) (b)
Temperatures of the cooled and uncooled PV module (September 1, 2022)
62.3 °C against 44 °C for cooled PV module. It results in an approximately 29.3%
drop in operating temperature with the suggested cooling system.
Impact of Cooling on Electrical Characteristics In order to assess the inuence
of introducing the cooling system on solar-panel-generated electricity, I–V data was
collected at intervals of 15 minutes throughout the duration of the test by comparing
the measured outcomes. Figure 7a showed the difference between the uncooled and
cooled PV modules. It can be observed in the curve of uncooled modules that V
oc
decreases linearly by rising the cell temperature and the V
oc of cooled modules con-
tinues rising affected by the cooling system. The daily average of V
oc improvement
was almost 5.5% because of the evaporative cooling system’s utilization. The output
power and electrical efciency of the module will both be greatly improved by this
increase in voltage. The two PV modules’ output power comparison is provided in
Fig. 7b. The average power generation of the cooled module was improved by about
10.8%. Figure 8a illustrates the I–V characteristic curves for the experiment.
Figure 8b showed the effects of using the evaporative cooling system on the PV
Enhancing the Performance of Photovoltaic Panels by Evaporative Cooling in Hot…

20
Fig. 7 (a) Variations in the tested PV modules of Isc and Voc, (b) Comparison of the power output
for the two modules
Fig. 8 (a) I–V characteristic curves, (b) differences in the electrical efciency of the tested
PV modules
module?s efciency and improved in efciency. According to the experiment?s test
results the average electrical efciency of the cooled module was 15.4% against
13.8% for an uncooled module which achieved a 12.7% increase in the efciency of
a cooling module.
Water consumption The water consumption was quantied during the experiment
time approximately 0.30 L/h.
4 Conclusion
In this chapter, a passive cooling system is used to enhance the performance of PV
modules based on the water evaporation process using a burlap material of capillary
action. The study was carried out under real climate conditions. Each weather
W. M. Alharbi et al.

21
parameter was taken into consideration in order to evaluate the effect based on the
obtained outcome, and the following conclusions are drawn:
• Utilizing PVC pipe was longitudinally cut and hot melt glue could contribute to
increase the water follow rate and avoid evaporating water from the PVC pipe
where the minimal water consumption was just about 0.30 L/h.
• According to the result, the average V
oc improvement was about 5.5% because of
the used evaporative cooling system.
• The average power output for the overall experimental period was improved by
about 10.8%.
• According to the experiment results, the average electrical efciency of the
cooled module was 15.4% against 13.8% for an uncooled module where the
cooling module achieved a 12.7% increase in efciency.
References
1. Naja, H., Woodbury, K.A.: Optimization of a cooling system based on Peltier effect for pho-
tovoltaic cells. Sol. Energy. 91, 152–160 (2013)
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682–693 (2018)
3. Royo, P., et al.: Hybrid diagnosis to characterise the energy and environmental enhancement of
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water cooling for hot climatic conditions. Energy. 59, 445–453 (2013)
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system for photovoltaic panels: experimental study and cost analysis. Renew. Energy. 164,
867–875 (2021)
7. Mazón-Hernández, R., et al.: Improving the electrical parameters of a photovoltaic panel by
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9. Hussam, W.K., Khlefat, A.M., Sheard, G.J.: Energy saving and performance analysis of air-
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tures. Energy Convers. Manag. 71, 43–50 (2013)
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14. Agyekum, E.B., et al.: Effect of dual surface cooling of solar photovoltaic panel on the ef-
ciency of the module: experimental investigation. Heliyon. 7(9), e07920 (2021)
Enhancing the Performance of Photovoltaic Panels by Evaporative Cooling in Hot…

23© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
L. Chen (ed.), Advances in Clean Energy Systems and Technologies, Green Energy
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49787-2_3
In−uence ofχAbsorber Layer Thickness
and Band Gap Tuning on the Optical
and Electrical Properties
of Semi-transparent Flexible Perovskite
Solar Cells
Muhammad Noman , Adnan Daud Khan , and Shayan Tariq Jan
1 Introduction
With the advancement of technology, the demand for smart applications has also
rapidly increased. One such application which is catching the attention of people are
the semi-transparent windows used in building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) tech-
nologies [1]. The smart windows not only allow a portion of the visible light to pass
through for illuminating the room, but also harness the photons of the remaining
light spectrum to produce electricity [2]. Thus, it provides dual functions. Obtaining
high power conversion ef−ciency (PCE) with transparency simultaneously is one of
the biggest challenges faced by this technology. This is due to the trade-off between
ef−ciency and transparency in absorbing the sunlight spectrum [3].
Multiple materials have been tested as the photovoltaic (PV) material in these
windows with different success rates. Some of the most promising results have been
obtained with perovskite solar cells (PSC) because of its high absorption coef−cient
(5.7 × 10
4
cm
−1
at 600 nm), good PCE (more than 20%), tunable band gap (1.3–2.2
eV), and fast carrier mobility (1–10 cm
2
V
−1
s
−1
) [1, 2, 4, 5]. These outstanding char-
acteristics make them an excellent contender to be considered for BIPV.
Two of the most feasible methods used to increase the transparency of the PV
cell with acceptable PCE are (i) reducing the thickness of the PSC and (ii) tuning
the band gap of the perovskite material [3, 6]. Both of these methods decrease the
absorption of the light spectrum in the PSC, thus increasing the transparency. But
the drawback is that lesser photons are absorbed, leading to lower PCE [4].
M. Noman (*) · A. D. Khan · S. T. Jan
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy,
University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan
e-mail: [email protected]

24
Therefore, it is very important to achieve a trade-off balance between efciency and
transparency.
Yaun et al. carried out a study on MAPbI
3-xBr
x perovskite material in which band
gap tuning was achieved by changing the ratio of I and B concentration [3]. The
band gap was tuned between 1.5 and 1.8 eV. The results showed that as the band gap
increased the material absorption reduced which in turn reduced the efciency of
the cell. Similarly, Mehran et al. in their work achieved higher optical transmittivity
in the perovskite material by reducing the thickness from 700 nm to 300 nm but the
efciency of the cell also dropped to 4% [6]. Jan et al. in their work presented the
relation of different materials’ band gap with their optical transmittivity [7]. The
study showed that materials with low band gap had low transmittivity with high
absorption while materials having large band gap gave high transmittivity with
reduced absorption.
In this study, the PSC structure FTO/TiO
2/MAPbI
3/PTAA/Au PSC is selected
and modelled in SCAPS-1D software. A systematic methodology is designed to
study the effect of band gap tuning and layer thickness on the absorption, transpar-
ency, quantum efciency, energy band alignment, Jsc, Voc, and efciency of the
PSC [8].
2 Device Modelling
Figure 1 shows the architecture of the PSC [9]. It has 5 main layers [10]. In this
work the FTO glass is used as the cathode and gold (Au) as the anode. For the n-type
electron transport layer (ETL) titanium dioxide (TiO
2) is selected, while for the
p-type hole transport layer (HTL) Poly[bis(4-phenyl)(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)amine
(PTAA) is selected. Methyl ammonium lead halide (CH
3NH
3PbI
3) is selected as the
perovskite absorber material. The combination of all the layers makes the perovskite
structure of FTO/TiO
2/MAPbI
3/PTAA/Au which is numerically modelled.
The PSC structure is modelled layer by layer using SCAPS. Intensive literature
review of multiple studies was carried out after which the design parameters of each
Fig. 1 PSC Layer Structure
M. Noman et al.

25
Table 1 Design parameters for PSC [11–16]
Parameters TiO
2 CH
3NH
3PbI
3 PTAA
Thickness (nm) 100 400 100
Bandgap (eV) 3.2 1.55 2.9
Electron Af−nity (eV) 4 3.9 2.3
Dielectric Permittivity 10 6.5 9
CB Effective Density of State (cm
−3
) 2 × 10
18
2.2 × 10
18
1 × 10
21
VB Effective Density of State (cm
−3
) 1.8 × 10
19
1 × 10
18
1 × 10
21
Electron Thermal Velocity (cm/s)1 × 10
7
1 × 10
7
1 × 10
7
Hole Thermal Velocity (cm/s) 1 × 10
7
1 × 10
7
1 × 10
7
Electron Mobility (cm
2
/Vs) 20 2 1
Hole Mobility (cm
2
/Vs) 10 2 40
Donor Density ND (cm
−3
) 1 × 10
20
– –
Acceptor Density NA (cm
−3
) – 1 × 10
18
1 × 10
20
material were identi−ed and selected [11–16]. Table 1 presents the design parame-
ters selected for the different materials. Standard test conditions were used to con-
duct all the simulations.
Defect densities (Nt) are introduced in the bulk of each layer and interface defects
between them to obtain more realistic results close to the experimental ones. In this
study Nt of 1 × 10
14
cm
-3
is modelled in the bulk of each layer including the
perovskite and both charge transport layers (CTLs) while interface defect of 1 × 10
11

cm
-3
is selected for both interfaces between the absorber and CTL.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Band Gap Tuning
To analyze the effect of band gap tuning on the optical and electrical properties of
the PSC, the band gap was tuned from 1.45 eV to 1.95 eV while keeping the thick-
ness constant at 400χnm. The absorption, quantum ef−ciency, IV characteristics, −ll
factor (F.F), PCE, and energy band alignment were analyzed in detail.
Absorption and Quantum Efciency Figure 2 shows the simulation results of
absorption and quantum ef−ciency as a function of band gap. The results show that
as the band gap of the PSC is increased and the absorption is reduced from 180 ×
10
3
/cm to 140 × 10
3
/cm. This is because increasing the band gap energy increases
the distance between the conduction and valance band of the perovskite material
[3]. The increasing gap allows the light of higher wave lengths, which are low on
energy, to pass through the cell without being absorbed [4]. Therefore, both the
quantum ef−ciency and absorption wavelengths are affected. The quantum ef−-
ciency (at 400 nm) sees a decrease from 85% to 70% while the absorption wave-
length is decreased from 870 nm to 650 nm.
Inuence of Absorber Layer Thickness and Band Gap Tuning on the Optical?

26
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
200 300 400 500
Wa
600 700 800 900
Absorption/cm 1.45 eV
1.55 eV
1.65 eV
1.75 eV
1.85 eV
1.95 eV
300 400 500 600
Wa
700 800 900
1.45 eV
1.55 eV
1.65 eV
1.75 eV
1.85 eV
1.95 eV
100
80
60
40
20
0
Q.E %
Fig. 2 Absorption and quantum efciency of PSC with different band gaps
–0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Voltage (V)
1.45 eV
1.55 eV
1.65 eV
1.75 eV
1.85 eV
1.95 eV
25
20
15
10
5
0
J (mA/cm
2
)
Fig. 3 IV curve of PSC with different band gaps
IV Characteristics The IV characteristic of all the PSC band gaps are shown in
Fig. 3. Table 2 presents the electrical performance of the different band gaps.
From the results it can be seen that increasing the band gap increases the Voc of
the cell from 1.17 v to 1.43 v. This is because increasing the Eg increases the mini-
mum energy required for the electron in the valance band to make a successful jump
to the conduction band, thus increasing the electric potential of the cell [17].
M. Noman et al.

27
Table 2 Electrical output of PSC with different band gaps
B.G 1.45 eV1.55 eV1.65 eV1.75 eV1.85 eV1.95 eV
Voc (v) 1.17 1.26 1.35 1.42 1.43 1.43
Jsc (mA/cm
2
)21.29 16.11 13.77 11.74 9.98 8.47
F.F (%) 85.67 85.14 85.32 84.98 84.69 84.58
PCE (%) 21.49 17.34 15.95 14.25 12.16 10.31
3
Ec
Fn
Fp
Fv
HTL ETL Perovskite
B.G 1.45 eV
2
1
0
Ec (eV)
–1
–2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Thickness (um)
0.4 0.5 0.6
3
Ec
Fn
Fp
Fv
HTL ETL Perovskite
B.G 1.45 eV
2
1
0
Ec (eV)
–1
–2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Thickness (um)
0.4 0.5 0.6
3
Ec
Fn
Fp
Fv
B.G 1.65 eV
2
1
0
Ec (eV)
–1
–2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Thickness (um)
0.4 0.5 0.6
3
Ec
Fn
Fp
Fv
B.G 1.75 eV
2
1
0
Ec (eV)
–1
–2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Thickness (um)
0.4 0.5 0.6
3 Ec
Fn
Fp
Fv
B.G 1.85 eV
2
1
0
Ec (eV)
–1
–2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Thickness (um)
0.4 0.5 0.6
3
Ec
Fn
Fp
Fv
B.G 1.95 eV
2
1
0
Ec (eV)
–1
–2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Thickness (um)
0.4 0.5 0.6
Fig. 4 Energy band diagram of PSC with different band gaps
Changing the band gap of the perovskite effects the valance band offset (VBO)
between the absorber and CTL (Eq. 1). The bigger the VBO, the larger the spikes
are produced at the interfaces of the structure as can be seen in Fig. 4 [18]. This
produces a built-in potential (Vbi) at the interfaces. This in turn increases the Voc
(Eq. 2):

VB
OE
g
CT
LP
er
..

(1)

Vo
nKT
q
J
Jl
ln

(2)
Inuence of Absorber Layer Thickness and Band Gap Tuning on the Optical?

28
Here, “χ? is the electron af−nity, ?K? is Boltzmann constant, ?T? is solar cell
operating temperature, “J” is the reverse saturation current, and “J
l” is light-
generated current.
The Jsc sees a signi−cant reduction from 21.29 mA/cm
2
to 8.47 mA/cm
2
with
increasing the band gap because less of the light spectrum is absorbed, which leads
to less photons being absorbed and producing less charged particles [17]. The Jsc
also reduces because of the larger spikes made at the interface due to large VBO
[18]. The large spikes produced, impacts the ow of charge particles by making
hurdles. The signi−cant reduction of the Jsc reduces the PCE of the PSC from
21.49% to 10.31%.
3.2 Thickness Tuning
To analyze the thickness tuning effect on the optical and electrical characteristics of
the PSC, the perovskite thickness was changed from 100 to 400nm for the PSC
structures of different band gaps. The Jsc, PCE, and transparency of the PSC were
analyzed in detail.
Effect on Short Circuit Current (Jsc) Figure 5 demonstrates the Jsc as a function
of thickness for the PSC of different Eg. For each Eg as the thickness of the
perovskite is increased, the Jsc produced also rises. This is because as the material
thickens, the absorbing of light also increases [19]. This in turn increases the num-
ber of photons absorbed and more charge carriers are produced [20]. The increased
Jsc increases the performance and PCE of the PSC [21].
0.10 0.150.20 0.25 0.300.35 0.40
Thickness (nm)
1.55 eV
1.65 eV
1.75 eV
1.85 eV
14
16
12
10
8
6
4
JSC (mA/cm
2
)
Fig. 5. Jsc of PSC with different band gaps
M. Noman et al.

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“No Ball,” if the bowler bowls outside the return crease.
The return, or crease, is not limited; because it is against a
batsman’s interest to run wide of his wicket; and a little latitude is
requisite to prevent dangerous collision with the wicket-keeper.
VI. The wickets. Secretaries should provide a rule, or frame,
consisting of two wooden measures, six feet eight inches long, and
four feet apart, and parallel. Then, with a chain of twenty-two yards,
the relative positions of the two wickets may be accurately
determined.
IX. The bowler. “One foot on the ground.” No man can deliver a
ball with the foot not touching the ground in the full swing of
bowling. So, if the foot is over the crease, there is no doubt of its
being on the ground.
X. The ball must be bowled: “not thrown or jerked:” here there is
not a word about “touching the side with the arm.” It is left to the
umpire to decide what is a jerk. We once heard an umpire asked,
how could you make that out to be a jerk?
“I say it is a jerk because it is a jerk,” was the sensible reply. “I
know a jerk when I see one, and I have a right to believe my eyes,
though I cannot define wherein a jerk consists.”
In a jerk there is a certain mechanical precision and curl of the
ball wholly unlike fair bowling.
A throw may be made in two ways; one way with an arm nearly
straight from first to last: this throw with straight arm requires the
hand to be raised as high as the head, and brought down in a whirl
or circle, the contrary foot being used as the pivot on which the
body moves in the delivery. But the more common throw, under
pretence of bowling, results from the hand being first bent on the
fore-arm, and then power of delivery being gained by the sudden
lash out and straightening of the elbow. It is a mistake to say that
the action of the wrist makes a throw.

“In delivery” means some action so called: if the mere opening of
the hand is delivery of the ball, then the only question is the height
of the hand the moment it opens. But if, as we think, “delivery”
comprehends the last action of the arm that gives such opening of
the hand effect, then in no part of that action may the hand be
above the shoulder.
Further, in case of doubt as to fair bowling, the umpire is to decide
against the bowler; so the hand must be clearly not above the
shoulder, and the ball as clearly not thrown, nor jerked.
Now, as to high delivery as a source of danger, we never yet
witnessed that kind of high bowling that admitted of a dangerous
increase of speed in an angry moment. The only bowling ever
deemed dangerous, has been clearly below the shoulder, and
savouring more of a jerk, or of an underhand sling, or throw, than of
the round-armed or high delivery. Such bowlers were Mr.
Osbaldestone, Browne of Brighton, Mr. Kirwan, Mr. Fellowes, and Mr.
Marcon, neither of whom, except on smooth ground, should we wish
to encounter.
But, we have often been asked, do the law and the practice
coincide? Is it not a fact that few round-armed bowlers are clearly
below the shoulder? Undoubtedly this is the fact. The better the
bowler, as we have already explained, the more horizontal and the
fairer his delivery. Cobbett and Hillyer have eminently exemplified
this principle; but amongst amateurs and all but the most practised
bowlers, allowing, of course, for some exceptions, the law is
habitually infringed. In a country match a strict umpire would often
cry “no ball” to the bowlers on both sides, cramp their action,
produce wide balls and loose bowling, and eventually, not to spoil
the day’s sport, the two parties would come to a compromise. And
do such things ever happen? Not often. Because the umpires
exercise a degree of discretion, and the law in the country is often a
dead letter. Practically, the 10th law enables a fair umpire to prevent
an undisguised and dangerous throw; but, at the same time, it
enables an unfair umpire to put aside some promising player who is

as fair as his neighbours, but has not the same clique to support
him.
What, then, would we suggest? The difficulty is in the nature of
the case. To leave all to the umpire’s discretion would, as to fair
bowling, increase those evils of partiality, and, instead of an
uncertain standard, we should have no standard at all. With fair
umpires the law does as well as many other laws as it is; with unfair
umpires no form of words would mend the matter. I can never forget
the remark of the late Mr. Ward:—“Cricketers are a very peaceably
disposed set of men. We play for the love of play; the fairer the play
the better we like it. Otherwise, so indefinite is the nature of round-
arm bowling, that I never yet saw a match about which the
discontented might not find a pretext for a wrangle.” I am happy to
add, in the year 1850, the M.C.C. passed a resolution to enforce the
law of fair delivery. The violation of this law had, we know, become
almost conventional; this convention the M.C.C. have now ignored in
the strongest terms; they have cautioned their umpires, promised to
support them in an independent judgment, and daily encourage
them in the performance of their unpleasant duty. This is beginning
at the right end. To expect a judge to do that which he believes will
be the signal for his own dismissal is too much.
The absurdity of having a law and breaking it, is obvious; so let
me insist on a newer argument, namely, that “to indulge a bowler in
an unfair delivery is mistaken kindness, for the fairest horizontal
delivery, like Cobbett’s and Redgate’s, tends most to that spin, twist,
quick rise, shooting and cutting, and that variety after the pitch in
which effective bowling consists.” A throw is very easy to play—as it
comes down, so it bounds up: the batsman feels little credit due,
and the spectator feels as little interest. The ball leaves the hand at
once without any rotatory motion, and one ball of the same pitch
and pace is like another. Very different is that life and vitality in the
ball as it spins away from the skimming and low delivery of a hand
like Cobbett’s. The angle of reflection is not to be calculated by the
angle of incidence one in ten times, with such spinning balls. That
rotatory motion which makes a bullet glance instead of penetrating—

that causes the slowly-moving top to fly off with increased speed
when rubbing against the wall—that determines the angle from the
cushion, and either the “following” or the “draw back” of a billiard
ball—that same rotation round its own axis, or the same spin, which
a cricket ball receives in proportion as the hand is horizontal and the
bowling lawful, determines the variety of every ball of a similar pace
and pitch, at least when the ground is true.
Whether precision and accuracy are as easily attained with a low
as with a high delivery, is another question; neither should I be
surprised nor sorry if fair delivery necessitated a wider wicket. A
higher wicket would favour rather rough ground than scientific
bowling; but a wider wicket would do justice to that spin and twist,
which often is the means of missing the wicket which with better
luck might have been levelled. Amateurs play cricket for recreation—
as a pleasure, not a business—and experience shows that any
alteration which would encourage the practice of bowling would
greatly improve cricket. In country matches, bowlers stipulate for
four balls or six; why not make matches to play with a wicket of
eight inches, or even twelve? I had rather see a ball go anywhere
than into the long-stop’s hands, or into the batsman’s face. So, give
us fair bowling and a wider wicket, and let amateurs have the
gratification of seeing the bowlers, on whom the science of the
game and the honour of victory chiefly depends, no longer “given”
men to play the game for them, but the fair representatives of their
own club or their own county.
XI. “He may require the striker at the wicket from which he is
bowling, to stand on that side of it which he may direct.”
Query. Can a bowler give guard for one side of the wicket and
bowl the other? No law (though law XXXVI. may apply) plainly
forbids it; still, no gentleman would ever play with such a bowler
another time.
XII. “If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker’s head.” As to
wide balls, some think there should be a mark, making the same ball
wide to a man of six feet and to a man of five. With good umpires,

the law is better as it is. Still, any parties can agree on a mark for
wide balls, if they please, before they begin the game.
“Bowl it so wide.” These words say nothing about the ball pitching
more or less straight and turning off afterwards: the distance of the
ball when it passes the batsman is the point at issue.
XVI. Or if the “ball be held before it touch the ground.” Query; is it
Out, if a ball is caught rolling back off the tent? If the ball striking
the tent is, by agreement, so many runs, then the ball is dead and a
man cannot therefore be out. Otherwise, I should reason that the
tent, being on the ground, is as part of the ground. By the spirit of
the law it is not out, by the letter out. But, to avoid the question, the
better plan would be not to catch the ball, and disdain to win a
match except by good play.
XVIII. “Or, if in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket.”—
“In striking,” not in running a notch, however awkwardly.
XIX. “Or, if under pretence of running, or otherwise.”
“Or otherwise;” as, for instance, by calling out, purposely to baulk
the catcher.
XX. “Or, if the ball be struck, and he wilfully strike it again.”
“Wilfully strike it again.” This obviously means, when a man blocks
a ball, and afterwards hits it away to make runs. A man may hit a
ball out of his wicket, or block it hard. The umpire is sole judge of
the striker’s intention, whether to score or to guard.
This law was, in one memorable instance, applied to the case of T.
Warsop, a fine Nottingham player, who, in a match at Sheffield in
1822, as he was running a notch, hit the ball to prevent it coming
home to the wicket-keeper’s hands. Clarke, who was then playing,
thinks the player was properly given out. Certainly he deserved to be
out but old laws do not always fit new offences, however flagrant.
XXI. “With ball in hand.” The same hand.
“Bat (in hand);” that is, not thrown.

XXIII. “If the striker touch.” This applies to the Nottingham case
better than Law XX.; but neither of these laws contemplated the
exact offence. A ball once ran up a man’s bat, and spun into the
pocket of his jacket; and as he “touched” the ball to get it out of his
pocket, he was given out. The reply of Mr. Bell on the subject was,
the player was out for touching the ball—he might have shaken it
out of his pocket. This we mention for the curiosity of the
occurrence.
XXIV. Or, if with any part of his person, &c.
A man has been properly given out by stopping a ball with his arm
below the elbow. Also a short man, who stooped to let the ball pass
over his head, and was hit in the face, was once given out, as before
wicket.
“From it;” that is, the ball must pitch in a line, not from the hand,
but from wicket to wicket.
Much has been said on the Leg-before-Wicket law.
Clarke and others say that a round-arm bowler can rarely hit the
wicket at all with a ball not over-pitched, unless it pitch out of the
line of the wickets. If this is true, a ball that has been pitched
straight “would not have hit it;” and a ball that “would have hit it,”
could not have been “pitched straight;” and therefore, it is argued
the condition “in a straight line from it (the wicket)” should be
altered to “in a straight line from the bowler’s hand.”
And what do we say?
Bring the question to an issue thus: stretch a thin white string
from the leg-stump of the striker’s wicket to the off-stump of the
bowler’s wicket; and let any round-armed bowler (who does not
bowl “over the wicket”) try whether good length balls, which do not
pitch outside of the said string, will hit the wicket regularly, that is,
of their common tendency and not as “a break.”
My firm belief is, that this experiment (with a bowler and a string)
will convince any one that the two conditions of being out leg-

before-wicket (“straight pitch,” and “would have hit”) cannot, except
by accident, be fulfilled by an ordinary round-armed bowler; and if
so, the law of leg-before-wicket should require that the ball pitch
straight not from the bowler’s wicket, but straight from the bowler’s
hand.
Objection. “This would make the umpire’s task too difficult: you
would thus make him guess what was straight from the hand, but he
can actually see what is straight from the wicket.”
Answer. This difficulty is an imaginary one. An umpire must be
blind indeed, not to discern when the ball keeps its natural line from
the hand to the wicket, and when it pitches out of that line, and
then abruptly turns into it. Besides, as the law now stands, the
umpire has the same difficulty and the same discretion, for how can
he decide the condition, “would have hit,” without making allowance
for the wide arm, and the “working” of the ball, and bringing the
said objectionable guessing into requisition? The judgment now
proposed for the umpire, is no difficulty at all, but the judgment he
has already to exercise is a great difficulty indeed. How often is a
batsman convinced, that the ball that hit him before wicket was
making so abrupt a turn, that it must have missed the wicket, and,
but for that abrupt turn, would never have hit him at all. I do not
believe that of the men given out “leg before wicket,” one in three
are deservedly out. But, often do we see a wicket saved by the leg
and pads, when both the skill of the bowler and the blunder of the
batsman deserved falling stumps.
With these observations, I must leave my friends to the free
exercise of their heads and hands, feet and faculties, patience and
perseverance, holding myself up to them as an example in one
respect only, that I am not too old to learn, and will thankfully
receive any contribution, whether from pen or pencil, that is
calculated to enrich or to illustrate a work, which, I am but too
happy to acknowledge, the community of cricketers have adopted as
their own.

London :
A. and G. A. Spottiswoode ,
New-street-Square.

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