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BAR 583 2013

DRIVER

ARCHITECTURE, REGIONAL IDENTITY AND POWER
Architecture, Regional Identity
and Power in the Iron Age
Landscapes of Mid Wales
The Hillforts of North Ceredigion
Toby Driver
BAR British Series 583
2013
B
A
R

Architecture, Regional Identity
and Power in the Iron Age
Landscapes of Mid Wales
The Hillforts of North Ceredigion
Toby Driver
BAR British Series 583
2013

BAR
P U B L I S H I N G
ISBN 9781407311234 paperback
ISBN 9781407322636 e-format
DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407311234
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Frontispiece:A hidden masterpiece of the mid Wales Iron Age: Castell Grogwynion, Trawsgoed. Aerial view from the
north shows the uncompromising line of the northern terrace (running left to right on the near side of the fort), which
defines the ‘landward’ side of this inland promontory fort. The very regular terrace, defined by an upper and lower
rampart, incorporates and straddles a steep outcrop on the north-west (here, right-hand) side, climbing nearly 6.5m yet
retaining its direction and symmetry. This study argues that the northern terrace at Castell Grogwynion is one of a series
of ‘façade schemes’ implemented at disparate regional hillforts, regardless - and often despite - of severe local terrain.
‘Branding’ the hillfort with the façade of a regional architectural tradition proclaimed allegiance to, and membership of,
a wider cultural group, sharing power and developing regional identity (Crown Copyright RCAHMW, AP_2007_4881).
Cover: Pen y Bannau hillfort, Ystrad Fflur: the formidable north-eastern façade, view looking south-west (compare with
figure 6.39. T. Driver 2012).
i

Architecture, Regional Identity and Power
in the Iron Age Landscapes of Mid Wales:
The Hillforts of North Ceredigion
PREFACE
The origins of this volume lie in research undertaken for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University
of Wales, Lampeter, in 2005 (Driver 2005). The doctoral research tackled a regional group of hillforts in mid
Wales which, apart from one or two better-known examples, had never really featured in any national
discussion about the Iron Age in Wales or the west of Britain. Being little known outside the county, and
virtually unexcavated, the challenge posed was how to approach, research and interpret an undated group of
hillforts. I decided to take on the challenge, preferring to see the hillforts not as ‘problems’ but as carefully
built, long-lived structures, which had a good deal to teach us about the ways their builders thought about
enclosure, defence, display, architecture and landscape prior to and during the Roman conquest of Wales. The
resulting fieldwork and conclusions broke much new ground in the interpretation of later prehistoric
communities in this part of western Britain.
It became clear during the study that the Iron Age hillforts and defended settlements cannot be plucked from
their wider landscape and studied in isolation. One hillfort needs to be studied against its local neighbours, and
its regional neighbours; local and regional trends in hillfort design need to be set against the wider regions of
Iron Age Wales, which were intensely interdependent. So the research grew into the complex and multi-
faceted piece of work contained within these covers. I am pleased to say that the study has been considerably
reworked and updated since its initial completion as a thesis.
Since completing the PhD one major paper about its findings has been published (Driver 2008) and another
will form part of a future volume on Iron Age settlement in Wales (Driver, in preparation). A recent
collaborative paper provided an opportunity to develop these ideas further in a new region, south
Pembrokeshire (Barker and Driver 2011), and it is encouraging to see the north Ceredigion hillforts informing
wider debate in the British Iron Age (Lock 2011, 361). Within mid Wales, excavations on regional defended
enclosures in south Ceredigion (Murphy and Mytum 2012), at Darren hillfort within the study area
(Timberlake and Driver 2006; Timberlake 2007), as well as the discovery of a Romano-British villa at
Abermagwr (Davies and Driver 2012), have all had a bearing on the interpretation and dating of settlements in
the region since the original research was completed. In 2011 a new collaborative PhD project began between
the Royal Commission and the Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences (IGES), Aberystwyth University, to
analyse ore residues and evidence for possible metal working at three of the north Ceredigion hillforts (Driver
and Haylock 2012), and related monuments.
Full acknowledgements follow below, but it remains to add that without the guidance and insight of my
supervisor, Professor Andrew Fleming, the support of successive Secretaries and Commissioners of the Royal
Commission, and the original encouragement to commence the PhD from my wife Becky, this volume would
never have appeared.
Toby Driver, Bontgoch, Aberystwyth, March 2013
ii

Hillforts of north Ceredigion
Summary
This is a study of the Iron Age hillforts of north Ceredigion (Cardiganshire), mid Wales. Over one hundred
diverse and unusual hillforts and defended enclosures are known in this topographically distinctive landscape,
framed between the west coast of Cardigan Bay and the eastern high ground of the Cambrian Mountains. This
new research sheds light on their architecture, chronology and the dynamic use of the regional terrain in later
prehistory, reaching conclusions that have resonance for the wider study of British hillforts.
The core of the study is a detailed analysis of the architecture of the later prehistoric hillforts of mid Wales,
focusing on north Ceredigion. The architectural subtleties and non-standard methods of construction
employed during the Iron Age in this region have long defied conventional classification. Because of this, the
hillforts have largely been ignored in Welsh and British studies apart from one or two key sites. To advance
an understanding, generalisation is avoided in favour of a more in-depth analysis of the individual hillforts.
This shows them to have been sophisticated three dimensional spaces, built within a set of regional
architectural traditions far more complex than has previously been acknowledged.
The hillforts have been analysed in the field in three dimensions, to identify their architectural components
and potential shared façade schemes. New interpretations regarding the role and extents of architectural
complexity and monumentality in hillfort façades, where construction work was driven beyond that required
for practical enclosure and defence, are described. These show the transmission of wider architectural
traditions and the existence of cohesive regional communities who shared particular approaches to hillfort
architecture. This perspective differs from some previous studies, which suggest that rampart construction was
a sober and functional defensive response to changes in attack strategy.
This study challenges the existing model of ‘west Wales’ (the old county of Dyfed) as a coherent landscape
unit for the study of Iron Age settlement. It also challenges the model that coastal trade along Cardigan Bay
was the predominant means of contact with the wider prehistoric world. Instead, a model for overland
‘cultural contact’ across the high ground of Plynlimon and central Wales, linking mid Wales with other
regions of the Severn and Wye valleys and western Britain, is proposed. The Cambrian Mountains were not
barriers to communication, but were crossed by numerous valleys and passes fostering vibrant trade and
contact between inland communities in the Iron Age, and throughout prehistory. This contact is fossilised in
the spread of distinctive shared ideas of hillfort design and construction, traceable throughout central Wales
and beyond.
Supporting research includes a reassessment of the history of investigation, later prehistoric chronology and
economic landscape of the region. A detailed record of the field archaeology of the hillforts is presented
following a six year programme of field visits and survey. The use of quartz walling in hillfort defences is
discussed and gateway typologies described. Through this study of a comparatively poorly-understood region
of mid Wales, new methods of hillfort investigation have been developed. These will allow a better
understanding of how cultural traditions shaped regional hillfort architecture in other parts of Britain where
traditional methods of investigation have proved ineffective.
iii

Bryngaerau gogledd Ceredigion
Crynodeb
Astudiaeth yw hon o fryngaerau Oes yr Haearn yng ngogledd Ceredigion (Sir Aberteifi), canolbarth Cymru.
Gwyddom am fwy na chant o fryngaerau a llociau amddiffynnol amrywiol ac anarferol yn y dirwedd neilltuol
hon, rhwng arfordir Bae Ceredigion yn y gorllewin a thir uchel Uwchdiroedd Cymru yn y dwyrain. Mae’r
ymchwil newydd hwn yn taflu goleuni ar eu pensaernïaeth a’u cronoleg ac ar y defnydd dynamig a gâi ei
wneud o’r tir yn y rhanbarth hwn yn ystod y cyfnod cynhanesyddol diweddarach, a deuir i gasgliadau sy’n
berthnasol i’r astudiaeth ehangach o fryngaerau Prydain.
Prif bwyslais yr astudiaeth yw dadansoddiad manwl o bensaernïaeth bryngaerau cynhanesyddol diweddarach
canolbarth Cymru, gan ganolbwyntio ar ogledd Ceredigion. Bu’r nodweddion pensaernïol amrywiol a’r
dulliau adeiladu ansafonol a ddefnyddiwyd yn ystod Oes yr Haearn yn y rhanbarth hwn yn rhwystr ers tro byd
i ddosbarthu confensiynol. Oherwydd hyn, mae’r bryngaerau wedi cael eu hanwybyddu i raddau helaeth
mewn astudiaethau Cymreig a Phrydeinig heblaw am un neu ddau o safleoedd allweddol. I hybu
dealltwriaeth, mae’r astudiaeth yn osgoi cyffredinoli ac yn darparu dadansoddiad manylach o’r bryngaerau
unigol. Dengys hyn eu bod hwy’n lleoedd tri dimensiwn soffistigedig, wedi’u hadeiladu ar sail traddodiadau
pensaernïol rhanbarthol a oedd yn llawer mwy cymhleth nag a gydnabuwyd ynghynt.
Cafodd y bryngaerau eu dadansoddi yn y maes, a hynny mewn tri dimensiwn, er mwyn adnabod eu
nodweddion pensaernïol a’u cynlluniau ffasâd cyffredin posibl. Cynigir dehongliadau o ffasadau bryngaer, o
ran eu rôl, eu dosbarthiad, eu cymhlethdod pensaernïol a’u maint, a thynnir sylw at waith adeiladu a oedd yn
fwy na’r hyn yr oedd ei angen at bwrpas amgáu ac amddiffyn yn unig. Dengys y rhain fod traddodiadau
pensaernïol ehangach yn cael eu trosglwyddo a bod cymunedau rhanbarthol cydlynol yn bodoli a oedd yn
rhannu syniadau penodol ynghylch pensaernïaeth bryngaerau. Mae’r safbwynt hwn yn wahanol i rai
astudiaethau blaenorol sy’n awgrymu bod adeiladu rhagfuriau yn ymateb amddiffynnol doeth ac ymarferol i
newidiadau mewn strategaethau ymosod.
Mae’r astudiaeth hon yn herio’r model presennol o ‘orllewin Cymru’ (hen sir Dyfed) fel uned ddaearyddol
gydlynol ar gyfer astudio anheddu yn Oes yr Haearn. Mae hefyd yn herio’r model sy’n honni mai masnach
arfordirol ar hyd Bae Ceredigion oedd y prif ddull o gysylltu â’r byd cynhanesyddol ehangach. Yn lle hynny,
cynigir model ar gyfer ‘cysylltiadau diwylliannol’ ar draws uwchdiroedd Pumlumon a chanolbarth Cymru, a
oedd yn cysylltu’r canolbarth â rhanbarthau eraill yn nyffrynnoedd Hafren a Gwy a gorllewin Prydain. Nid
oedd Uwchdiroedd Cymru yn llesteirio cyfathrebu, yn hytrach, roedd y dyffrynnoedd a bylchau niferus a oedd
yn eu croesi yn hwyluso masnach a chysylltiadau bywiog rhwng cymunedau mewndirol yn ystod Oes yr
Haearn, a thrwy gydol y cyfnod cynhanesyddol. Mae’r cysylltiadau hyn i’w gweld yn glir yn lledaeniad
syniadau cyffredin ynghylch cynllunio ac adeiladu bryngaerau, y gellir eu holrhain ar hyd a lled canolbarth
Cymru a thu hwnt.
Mae ymchwil ategol yn cynnwys ailasesiad o ymchwiliadau blaenorol i’r rhanbarth, cronoleg y cyfnod
cynhanesyddol diweddarach ac economi’r rhanbarth. Cyflwynir cofnod manwl o archaeoleg maes y
bryngaerau yn dilyn rhaglen chwe blynedd o ymweliadau maes ac arolygon. Trafodir y defnydd o waliau
cwarts yn amddiffynfeydd y bryngaerau a disgrifir y gwahanol fathau o byrth. Mae dulliau newydd o
ymchwilio i fryngaerau wedi cael eu datblygu yn ystod yr astudiaeth hon o ran o ganolbarth Cymru y mae ein
dealltwriaeth ohoni’n gymharol wan. Bydd y dulliau hyn yn gwella ein dealltwriaeth o ddylanwad
traddodiadau diwylliannol ar bensaernïaeth bryngaerau mewn rhannau eraill o Brydain lle y bu dulliau
ymchwilio traddodiadol yn aneffeithiol.
iv

Figure i. Main (south-west) gateway bastion at Castell Grogwynion, with entrance passage to right and figure for scale,
November 2011 (T. Driver; Crown Copyright RCAHMW).
Figure ii. Rising from the bog, the fortified outcrop of Pen Dinas, Elerch, with its bastioned gateway visible at right, and
earthworks of a second gateway, subsequently blocked, at far left (T. Driver).
v

CONTENTS
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................... ii
Summary (English) ....................................................................................................................................... iii
Crynodeb (Summary - Welsh) .................................................................................................................... iv
Contents............................................. ............................................................................................................ vi
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................................ xi
CHAPTER 1. Introduction: Celts, research frameworks and the
development of hillfort studies in Britain
1.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 A NEW IRON AGE: REBELLION AND REINVENTION..................................................................... 1
1.3 DEVELOPING IRON AGE STUDIES IN BRITAIN.............................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Moving towards a national agenda............................................................................................ 3
1.4 SUB-RECTANGULAR? POLYGONAL? OVAL? UNIVALLATE?
OUTMODED APPROACHES TO IRON AGE SETTLEM ENT STUDIES................................................. 4
1.5 INTERPRETING IRON AGE COMMUNITIES: SOME CHANGING MODELS................................. 5
1.6 A FRESH START FOR MID-WALES .......................................................................................... 8
1.7 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS: ‘THE HILLFORT AS ARTEFACT’..................................................... 8
CHAPTER 2. The landscape background and history of research and enquiry
2.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
2.1.1 A note on chronology…………………… …………………………………………………… 11
2.2 LANDSCAPE, CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURE................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 The boundaries of the study area............................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Geology..................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 Topography............................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.4 The major rivers and their characteristics................................................................................. 14
2.2.5 Climate ..................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.6 Agricultural potential................................................................................................................ 16
2.2.6.1 Soils........................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.6.2 Palaeo-environmental evidence................................................................................. 17
2.2.6.3 Bronze Age evidence................................................................................................. 17
2.2.6.4 Iron Age evidence...................................................................................................... 18
2.2.6.5 Historic and present-day agricultural regimes......................................................... 19
2.3 ASSESSING THE SETTLEMENT PATTERN: ANTIQUARIAN AND
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH.............................................................................................................. 19
2.3.1 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 19
2.3.2 Early regional surveys of the Cardiganshire prehistoric earthworks ………………………. 20
2.3.3 Developments from the Second World War to the present day............................................... 20
2.3.4 Assessing the settlement pattern: recovering lost or destroyed sites using
aerial photography.............................................................................................................................. 22
2.3.4.1 The contribution of cropmark evidence to the settlement pattern ............................ 22
2.3.4.2 Levels of evidence recorded from the air……………………………………………….. 24
2.3.4.3 The contribution of cropmarks to an understanding of the Iron Age
settlement pattern.................................................................................................................. 25
2.4 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................. 27
vi

CHAPTER 3. Settlements in the landscape: Chronology, topography and the Iron Age communities
3.1 ESTABLISHING CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR CEREDIGION................................... 29
3.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 29
3.1.2 Early forts in Wales and the borders: Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age transition:
c.800-550 cal BC............................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.3 Potential hillforts of the later Bronze/Early Iron Ages in north Ceredigion............................. 33
3.1.3.1 Early forts in north Ceredigion: Rampart morphology and chronology ................ 33
3.1.4 The middle to later Iron Age in Ceredigion, c.400 cal BC – AD 70 ................................... 35
3.1.4.1 Settlement expansion................................................................................................ 35
3.1.4.2 Later Rampart morphology ..................................................................................... 36
3.1.4.3 Enlarged and developed hillforts ............................................................................. 37
3.1.4.4 Settled landscapes of ‘small enclosures’ in north Ceredigion.................................38
3.1.5 Evidence from the Roman conquest......................................................................................... 39
3.1.5.1 Scapula’s campaigns AD 47-51 ............................................................................. 39
3.1.5.2 The population of Ceredigion at the time of Frontinus’ campaigns........................40
3.2 THE SETTLEMENT PATTERN.............................................................................................................. 40
3.2.1 Introduction: considering settlement patterns........................................................................... 40
3.2.2 Iron Age Wales and the borderlands: a regional overview....................................................... 41
3.2.2.1 The Roman record of the Welsh tribes...................................................................... 41
3.2.2.2 Regional variations in Welsh Iron Age settlement archaeology: an overview......... 42
3.2.3 Iron Age settlement in north Ceredigion: a review of the evidence......................................... 43
3.2.3.1 The agricultural economy......................................................................................... 43
3.2.3.1.1 Livestock and field systems....................................................................... 44
3.2.3.1.2 Transhumance ........................................................................................... 44
3.2.3.1.3 Redistribution and hillfort interiors........................................................... 45
3.2.3.1.4 Cattle and Iron Age status......................................................................... 45
3.2.4 Settlement patterns in north Ceredigion: the west coast ........................................................... 46
3.2.5 Settlement patterns in north Ceredigion: the lowlands.............................................................. 47
3.2.5.1 Lowland settlement: the Trawsgoed basin and Ystwyth valley environs.................. 49
3.2.5.2 The Llanfihangel y Creuddyn lowland basin............................................................. 50
3.2.5.3 The lowland basins north of the Rheidol ................................................................. 51
3.2.5.3.1 The Melindwr basin................................................................................... 51
3.2.5.3.2 The Leri basin small enclosure group..................................................... 52
3.2.5.4 The Cwm Gwyddyl group.......................................................................................... 52
3.2.6 Settlement patterns in north Ceredigion: plateau areas............................................................. 53
3.2.7 Evidence for stock management and corralling in the Bow Street basin,
and comparisons in other parts of the study area .............................................................................. 53
3.2.7.1 Ancillary enclosures at north Ceredigion hillforts potentially representing
pastoral enclosures................................................................................................................ 57
3.3 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER 4. Movement, trade and cultural contact: Iron Age links across central Wales
4.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 59
4.2 SHIFTING OUR PERCEPTIONS FROM SEA TO OVERLAND....................................................... . 59
4.3 REASSESSING THE VERACITY OF THE ‘DYFED MODEL’ FOR LATER
PREHISTORIC STUDIES IN WEST WALES............................................................................................... 60
4.4 NORTH CEREDIGION: REQUIRED OVERLAND TRADE CONTACTS IN THE WELSH
BORDERLANDS AND CHESHIRE PLAIN................................................................................................ 62
4.4.1 Traded salt ............................................................................................................................... 62
4.4.2 The ceramic trade from the Malvern Hills ............................................................................. 64
vii

4.5 STRATEGIES FOR EAST-WEST MOVEMENT ACROSS THE
CAMBRIAN MOUNTAIN RANGE ............................................................................................................. 65
4.5.1 Rivers and valleys for overland movement .............................................................................. 65
4.5.2 Lines of communication across the Plynlimon massif.............................................................. 66
4.6 MOVEMENT BETWEEN THE WYE/ELAN VALLEYS AND THE
YSTWYTH/TEIFI VALLEYS........................................................................................................................ 67
4.7 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER 5. Bridges, bastions and bravado: A new field archaeology of the north Ceredigion hillfort
gateways
5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 69
5.2 GATEWAYS AND ENTRANCE WORKS .......................................................................................... 69
5.2.1 Gateways with passages and crossing bridges.......................................................................... 70
5.2.2 Freestanding bastions and elaborate gateway elements ........................................................... 74
5.2.2.1 Castell Grogwynion: an example of a rediscovered complex gateway.................... 74
5.2.2.2 Pen Dinas, Elerch...................................................................................................... 76
5.2.2.3 Cnwc y Bugail............................................................................................................ 77
5.2.2.4 Notes on other elaborate gateway elements.............................................................. 77
5.2.3 Annexes and public areas ....................................................................................................... 77
5.2.3.1 Space for corralling and livestock management ...................................................78
5.2.3.2 Public space for gatherings and control of human access ....................................... 80
5.3 STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY AT SMALLER HILLFORTS............................................................ 81
5.4 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................. 82
CHAPTER 6. Impressing the neighbours: Structure, display and the spread of regional architectural
traditions
6.1 INTRODUCTION: RETHINKING THE ROLE AND PURPOSE OF HILLFORT DEFENCES.......... 83
6.1.2 New approaches to complexity.................................................................................................. 84
6.2 ARCHITECTURAL COMPLEXITY IN FAÇ ADE CONSTRUCTION................................................ 84
6.2.1 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 84
6.2.2 Structured internal building techniques and façade display..................................................... 85
6.2.3 Revetment walling as a method for display ............................................................................. 87
6.2.3.1 Stone walling and the uses of revetment for display................................................. 87
6.2.3.2 Quartz walling ....................................................................................................... 88
6.2.4 Hillfort appearance and physical alteration ............................................................................. 91
6.2.4.1 Levelling against the horizon.................................................................................... 91
6.2.4.2 Topographic incorporation....................................................................................... 91
6.2.4.3 Conspicuous construction and false multivallation.................................................. 92
6.3. FAÇADE SCHEMES IN HILLFORT CONSTRU CTION .................................................................... 94
6.3.1 The Pen Dinas façade scheme at the south fort, Pen Dinas, Aberystwyth............................... 94
6.3.2 The Pen Dinas façade scheme at Gaer Fawr, Lledrod ............................................................. 96
6.3.3 Parallels: the Pen Dinas façade scheme in north Ceredigion.................................................... 98
6.3.4 Parallels outside the region....................................................................................................... 100
6.3.5 Case study: elements of the Pen Dinas façade scheme employed at
Castell Grogwynion............................................................................................................................ 101
6.3.5.1. Castell Grogwynion ................................................................................................. 102
6.3.6 Divergence: the Darren façade scheme .............................................................................. 102
6.3.7 The Cors Caron façade scheme ........................................................................................... 103
6.3.8 ‘Hybrid’ designs and the intermingling of architectural traditions ...................................... 105
6.3.9 Hillforts which cannot be readily grouped and concentric hillforts ....................................... 106
6.4 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................................. 107
viii

CHAPTER 7 . Hillforts and human movement: Approaching, entering, experiencing and passing the
hillforts in the landscape
7.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 109
7.2 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE LANDSCAPE SETTINGS OF
NORTH CEREDIGION HILLFORTS............................................................................................................ 109
7.3 PRIME LOCATIONS: OWNERSHIP AND COMMAND OF PROMINENT LOCATIONS
IN THE IRON AGE LANDSCAPE............................................................................................................... 110
7.3.1 Definition.................................................................................................................................. 110
7.3.2 Pen Dinas, Aberystwyth. A hillfort in a prime location............................................................ 111
7.4 HILLFORT FAÇADES AND THEIR RELATION TO TRACKWAYS, PASSES AND
OVERLAND ROUTES .................................................................................................................................. 113
7.4.1 Hillfort façades at ‘Ponterwyd Junction’................................................................................... 113
7.4.2 Hillfort façades bordering Cors Caron...................................................................................... 115
7.4.3 Castell Rhyfel and its relationship to overland mountain passes.............................................. 116
7.5 APPROACHING SIX KEY HILLFORTS: MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE
IN THE LANDSCAPE .............. .................................................................................................................. 118
7.5.1 Approaching six key hillforts .................................................................................................. 118
7.5.2 Movement from lowland to upland: Caer Lletty Llwyd and Pen Dinas, Elerch...................... 118
7.5.2.1 Summary................................................................................................................... 118
7.5.2.2 The two hillforts ....................................................................................................... 118
7.5.3 The long approach to Darren.................................................................................................... 120
7.5.3.1 Summary................................................................................................................... 120
7.5.3.2 The approaches ....................................................................................................... 120
7.5.4 Castell Flemish: facing out from Cors Caron.......................................................................... 122
7.5.4.1 Summary................................................................................................................... 122
7.5.4.2 The defences.............................................................................................................. 122
7.5.5 Incorporating topography: the approach to Castell Grogwynion ................................... 123
7.5.5.1 Summary................................................................................................................... 123
7.5.5.2 Description of the western outcrop........................................................................... 124
7.5.5.3 The monumental role of the western outcrop............................................................ 124
7.5.6 Cnwc y Bugail, Trawsgoed: a small fort with a major gateway annexe.................................... 126
7.5.6.1 Summary.................................................................................................................... 126
7.5.6.2 Monumentality at the hillfort..................................................................................... 126
7.5.6.3 The dynamics of the entrance approach.................................................................... 127
7.6 SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 128
CHAPTER 8. Discussion and conclusions: Towards a new Iron Age for mid and west Wales
8.1 DEVELOPING A NARRATIVE FOR LATER PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT
IN NORTH CEREDIGION............................................................................................................................. 129
8.2 RECOGNISING MONUMENTAL IRON AGE ARCHITECTURE IN NORTH CEREDIGION.... 129
8.2.1 The two principal regional façade schemes in north Ceredigion ....................................... 130
8.2.2 Topography and its influence on hillfort architecture........................................................... 131
8.2.3 Looking wider: tracing north Ceredigion architectural traditions in central
and eastern Wales............................................................................................................................... 133
8.3 ARCHITECTURAL SYMBOLISM: AN OVERV IEW........................................................................... 133
8.3.1 Hillfort architecture: defensive/utilitarian versus symbolic/non-utilitarian ....................... 133
8.3.2 Iron Age architectural symbolism .................................................................................. 136
8.3.3 Two halves don’t make a whole: Duality in later prehistoric architecture ........................ 137
8.3.4 Timber and rock: regional capability and engineering effort .............................................. 138
8.3.5 Front/rear symbolism in the hillforts of mid Wales ................................................................. 138
8.4 ‘CULTIVATING MEN AS WELL AS LAND’: HOW THE LANDSCAPE WAS ORGANISED...... 139
8.4.1 Territorial division in Iron Age landscapes: some primary issues ....................................... 139
ix

8.4.1.1 ‘Contemporary landscapes’ of later prehistoric settlement................................. 140
8.4.2 Land ‘ownership’ patterns and topography in the Iron Age .................................................... 141
8.4.3 Proximity and isolation: the settlement pattern north of the river Rheidol .......................... 142
8.4.3.1 Hillforts commanding ridges and valleys ................................................................. 142
8.4.3.2 Resourcing the ‘chiefly feast’................................................................................... 143
8.4.3.3 Ridges and routeways ........................................................................................... 144
8.4.4 Regional territorial divisions and cultural hillfort groups .................................................... 145
8.4.4.1 Pen Dinas and the regional landscape ................................................................. 145
8.4.4.2 Landscape division amongst potentially contemporary hillfort groups
identified on the grounds of shared architecture ................................................................. 146
8.4.4.2.1 Articulating the Pen Dinas Façade scheme......................................................... 146
8.4.4.2.2 Articulating the Cors Caron façade scheme........................................................ 146
8.5 PROBABLE MODES OF SOCIAL ORGANISATION IN IRON AGE NORTH CEREDIGION......... 148
8.5.1 The architectural legacy............................................................................................................ 148
8.5.2 Evidence for social stratification............................................................................................... 150
8.5.3 Finding the ‘petty chiefs’: systems of regional power and control ....................................... 151
8.6 CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................................... 152
8.6.1 Ways forward: unlocking the hillfort heritage of mid Wales .................................................... 155
Sites to Visit.................................................................................................................................................... 157
Appendix 1. A list of hillforts and later prehistoric defended enclosures in north Ceredigion .............158
Bibliography................................................................................................................................................... 163
Index................................................................................................................................................................ 175
x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was originally completed as a p
art-time PhD with the University of Wales, Lampeter, and was supervised by
Professor Andrew Fleming who p
rovided unwavering support and guidance, and no doubt lost many hours in the diligent
reading of earlier drafts. The stu
dy wou ld not have been possible without financial support and assistance from Peter
White and Dr Peter Wakelin, successive Secretaries of the Royal Commission,
and the Commissioners of the Royal
Commission, to wh
om the author is indebted. I am also grateful for the support and feedback provided to me in 2006 by
my external examin
ers for the PhD, Professor Colin Haselgrove and Professor Miran da Aldhouse-Green. I am grateful to
Angharad Williams, Scott Lloyd an
d members of the Royal Commission’s Publications Committee for approving
this British Archaeological Report as a collaborative volume with BAR. Patricia Moore proof-read the current
volume and compiled the excellent index, whilst staff at BAR assisted
throughout with the publication process.
A numb
er of Royal Commission staff helped during the original research including David Browne, Dr Step hen
Brigg
s, Fleur James, Patricia Moore, Penny Icke, Cheryl Griffiths, Fran cis Foster and Susan Evans. I am indebted to
Sco
tt Lloyd for bringing sixteenth century references to Ceredigion hillforts to my attention (page 20). Thanks are due
to Dr Jeffrey Davies for co
mments on the original text relating to the Roman occupation; to Ken Murphy and
Harold Mytum fo
r information on Castell Henllys and the south Ceredigion defended enclosure excavations, and the
Very Reveren
d J Wyn Evans, Bishop of St Davids, for information on undergraduate work carried out on the n orth
Ceredigion hillforts in 1967. Thanks are also due to
Simon Timberlake who excavated at Darren hillfort in 2005, and
to the Historic Env
ironment Records of Dyfed, Clwyd-Powys and Glamorgan-Gwent. Michael Freeman, formerly
at the Ceredig
ion Museum, p rovided much assistance over the years, while Richard and Angela Knisely-Marpole of
RKM Archaeolog
ical Surveying assisted with the geophysical survey of the Ru el Uchaf enclosure an d the 2002
topographic su
rvey of Castell Grogwynion. Over the course of many years o f field work in north Ceredigion, the
author has encountered only interest and openness from land
owners and farmers; particular thanks are due to
Ceredig Thomas and Wendy Crockett at Peng
rogwynion following numerous visits to th eir hillfort. I am pleased
to be entering a new phase of study of the Ceredigion hillforts with other colleagues and have en
joyed many good
discussions in the field with Professor John
Grattan, Louise Barker, Keith Haylock and Dr Oliver Davis.
It remain
s to dedicate the work to my family, Becky, Aric and Charlie, from whom the orig inal impetus to begin
the research came, and who have all given
so much along the way to enable me to complete the work .
Full copyright statement for Ordnance
Survey mapping for those figures which use, or are based upon,
Ordnance Survey map data:
Crown Copyright: Royal Co
mmission on the An cient and Historical Monuments of Wales, 2012.
Reproduced by permission o
f Ordnance Survey on behalf of HMSO. © Crown copyright and database right 2 012. All
rights reserved. Ordnance Survey Licence number: 100017916
Editorial note
Although this volume is published collaboratively with the Royal Commission
, the majority of the GIS maps, diagrams
and illustratio
ns have been produced by the author. They are not meant to be representative of the graphic quality of
official Royal Commission illustratio
ns, but hopefully serve their purpose.
Finding out more
Further details of th
e sites mentioned in this publication can be found online at COFLEIN (www.coflein.gov.uk), the
Royal Commission’s o
nline database for the National Monuments Record of Wales.
THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON THE ANCIENT AND HISTORICAL MONUMENTS OF WALES
Crown Building, Plas Crug, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, SY23 1NJ
Telephone:
01970 621200 e-mail: [email protected] website: www.rcah mw.gov.uk
x
i

1: Introduction
1
1
Introduction:
Celts, research frameworks and the development of hillfort studies in Britain
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In studies of British hillforts there has been a tendency to
discuss and classify three-dimensional entities in two-
dimensional terms; in two senses – in terms of the hillforts
themselves, where morphological and classificatory
schemes have been too dependent on plans; and in terms
of their place in the landscape, which have been too
dependent on maps, and, in the later twentieth century, on
locational or ‘New’ geography. Such a perspective,
heavily dependent on statistics and Thiessen polygons, has
too often sought to generalise or standardise approaches to
the study of hillforts and their landscape settings without
due cognisance being paid to local and regional subtleties
of design and construction, and considerable variation
through time in the relationships of monuments to the
landscape. Such generalised approaches have arguably
bolstered core narratives for ‘Celtic’ Iron Age social
structures, particularly in western Britain, which have
long been dominant but have more recently been
challenged by alternative models. The narratives of
Cunliffe, and others, have seen the creation of a south-
western zone (Figure 4.3), classifying south-western
England, and much of Wales, as a single cultural region;
within Wales this has persisted as the ‘Dyfed Model’
whereby monuments within a single historic county in
west Wales are deemed to have been culturally linked
(Figure 4.2).
A fresh approach is proposed, examining an area of mid
Wales with enormous research potential. North
Ceredigion (Figure 2.1), formerly north Cardiganshire, is
a region that benefits not only from numerous site
discoveries made over the last fifteen years, many
involving the author, which have effectively doubled the
known number of defended settlements from the
publication of the last comprehensive list in the
Cardiganshire County History (Hogg and Davies 1994),
but also from a strongly demarcated topography bounded
by coast, estuary and mountain and dissected by deep
arterial valleys and areas of higher ground.
The research in this volume attempts to develop new
methodologies which work in three dimensions; both to
examine critically the hillforts and defended enclosures as
complex, three-dimensional architectural spaces, but also
to place these static monuments in a dynamic landscape
context. As a regional group, the investigation of these
hillforts and defended enclosures has considerable
potential to inform us on a complex set of issues regarding
the promulgation and sharing of regional (and wider)
design concepts in hillfort architecture, aspects of gateway
and façade orientation, the relationships between hillfort
‘neighbours’, the existence and nature of inter-regional
trade and human contact, and potential patterns of land
‘ownership’ and evidence for cultural identities and social
complexity within the study area. All these diverse themes
have helped to influence and shape the finished form, or
changing forms, of the hillfort architecture; thus a
complex narrative for later prehistoric settlement in north
Ceredigion, and its wider contact regions, can be
developed.
1.2 A NEW IRON AGE: REBELLION AND
REINVENTION
The present structure of, and debate within, British Iron
Age studies owes a great deal to changes in direction
initiated during the later 1980s. In 1989, Hill’s paper Re-
thinking the Iron Age signalled a major shift away from
much contemporary opinion and sought to address the
strange, complex and ‘other’ aspects of Iron Age society.
Hill was plain in his opening statement (ibid., 16); ‘The
Iron Age is boring, particularly when compared to earlier
periods of prehistory, which seem stimulating and
exciting’. At the root of Hill’s complaint was
dissatisfaction with the prevailing trends which considered
the Iron Age from a purely functionalist and materialist
perspective. He also complained that aligning the Iron
Age with the problematic perspective of ‘Celtic’ life and
all it entailed, at once introduced familiar roles and images

The Hillforts of North Ceredigion
Figure 1.1 Faces from the past. When Professor Daryll Forde (holding hat) and local workmen began excavations at Pen
Dinas, Aberystwyth, in 1933, J. Graham William’s notable 1867 study of the regional hillforts was over 60 years old.
Some eight decades later Forde’s excavations, published in 1963 (Forde et al. 1963), remain the most sustained hillfort
excavations in the county. Whilst a bold and well-executed campaign in its day, this view at the isthmus gate during the
1934 excavations shows the very traditional nature of the excavations and the problems inherent in interpreting some of
the contextual and structural conclusions today (Crown Copyright RCAHMW, DI2010_1293).
which robbed later prehistoric Britain of any
unfamiliarity.
Hill proposed a reinvention or realignment of Iron Age
studies to develop ‘A Different Iron Age’ (ibid, 19)
founded in a deeper appreciation of the complexities of
ethnography and an enhanced theoretical approach to the
material culture. Thus the Iron Age would become not
‘same’ but ‘other’, and Hill cited research that used
ethnographic evidence to interpret space and rubbish
deposition, altering an assumption that domestic evidence
is ordinary. The concerns Hill expressed were not new.
Champion (1987) had already raised doubts about the
direction of Iron Age studies and the problems with Celtic
analogies ultimately rooted in nineteenth-century thinking.
Into the 1990s, settlement studies were realigned in favour
of a more critical, cognitive approach to the study of Iron
Age society. Gwilt and Haselgrove (1997, 1) described the
new approach to Iron Age studies as being one which
sought to discard the stricture of previous work and
replace it with a more fluid approach. This new approach
to Iron Age society proposed that clear lines, once drawn
between the religious/ritual and practical/domestic
spheres, were effectively removed to the extent that the
dichotomy was increasingly hard to
differentiate (ibid, 2). The authors of the influential
Research Agenda for the British Iron Age (Haselgroveet
al. 2001) considered this realignment as ‘…a revolution in
the 1990s in how we understand the nature of daily life in
the period’ (ibid., C1). However, a cautionary note was
offered in that ‘…it is important to recognise that not
everything on an Iron Age site is explicable as ‘ritual’.
The identification of such aspects always needs to be
argued through in detail’ (ibid.).
1.3 DEVELOPING IRON AGE STUDIES IN
BRITAIN
The twentieth century had seen Iron Age research
effectively commence for some areas of Britain, and
develop from a pastime to a science in others. ‘Modern’
Iron Age research owes its impetus to the publication of
Hawkes’ influential 1931 paper ‘Hillforts’, together with a
developing profile for major excavations, including
Mortimer Wheeler’s campaigns at Maiden Castle. In
Wales, work had already begun towards adopting a more
scientific approach; Willoughby Gardner’s address to the
Cambrians (Gardner 1926) demonstrated extensive
progress in assimilation of evidence and the development
of an understanding. Several authors (amongst them
2

1: Introduction
Cunliffe 1991; Collis 1994; 1996; Gwilt and Haselgrove
1997) recognise at least three main phases in the
development of Iron Age research. Hawkes’ classificatory
scheme for the British Iron Age into A, B and C, was
hugely influential (1931). It described a sequence of
invasion, assimilation and ‘immigrant cultures’ (ibid., 64),
and the ensuing excavation campaigns on hillfort defences
and gateways sought to establish chronologies and gain
evidence for invasion events and regional cultural
sequences.
Even by the end of the 1950s, problems were emerging
with the models presented by Hawkes (Frere 1960). The
inevitable increase in finds and field data since Hawkes’
original paper began to suggest the existence of regional
differences and subdivisions of the Iron Age, far more
complex than the tripartite scheme originally proposed.
These developments led him to publish a revised version
in 1959, but already major revisions and new models were
being proposed, principally by Hodson (e.g. 1960; 1964).
These papers both challenged the restrictive nature of
Hawkes’ classificatory scheme and questioned the role of
invasions and immigration in the development of British
Iron Age communities, particularly the amount of
continental material actually represented in Britain
(Megaw and Simpson 1992).
The decades after these developments became dominated
by the processual approach, characterised by site-focused,
often problem-orientated fieldwork and the integration of
scientific methods in sampling and dating. This new
processual approach to the Iron Age was symbolised by
Hill and Jesson’s (1971) volume (and see Harding, ed.,
1976), in which landscape research based on locational
geography was exemplified by the use of Thiessen
polygons by Hogg (1971b) to postulate hillfort territories
south of the Thames (ibid., Figs 28-30), and by Cunliffe
(1971) for hillfort territories on Salisbury Plain,
emphasising the economic and social power of the ‘central
place’ and its role in redistribution in the Iron Age
landscape. Despite subsequent developments and
refinements to the study of territory and landscape,
Thiessen polygons and comparable devices for measuring
area (or territory) continue to be prevalent (Burrow 1981,
Fig. 5; Collens 1988; Olding 2000, Fig. 47). More
recently, Dodgshon (1998b, 3) noted “… relatively few
would now defend a view of human geography that
seemingly dehumanized landscape by reducing it to a
patterning of equilibrated systems…’.
During the 1970s, general excavation strategy shifted
from the gateways and defences (often explored in order
to establish local/regional chronologies) to the interiors, to
answer socio-economic questions posed by the models of
the 1960s. Here the focus shifted to local processes, the
foundation of the hillfort and its function (e.g. Collis
1994, 131; Guilbert 1981). From these changes emerged
more detailed discussion of the way societies may have
inhabited and used the later prehistoric British landscape,
initially in the form of Celtic clientship models developed
by Cunliffe for Danebury (1984a & b).
A constant presence through this critical period of change
has been Cunliffe’s formidable four editions of Iron Age
Communities in Britain (1974; 1978; 1991; 2005).
Cunliffe’s basic approach to the data has not greatly
altered. He has remained concerned with the sites, with
the material culture and what it can tell us, and to provide
an overview of aspects of economy, farming, industry and
social systems for Britain; all this without being diverted
by excessive detail for any given region.
1.3.1 Moving towards a national agenda
During late 1990s and into the new millennium, many
papers and volumes dealing with the British Iron Age
have appeared illustrating the new vibrancy which has
come to encompass the discipline (e.g.: Hill and
Cumberpatch 1995; Champion and Collis 1996; Gwilt and
Haselgrove, eds., 1997; Bevan, ed., 1999; Haselgrove et
al. 2001; Haselgrove and Moore, eds., 2007). This
plethora of papers, synthetic volumes, conference
proceedings and reports can be seen as a significant
attempt to synthesise and understand the accumulated
field data through the increased application of theory,
coupled with a renewed emphasis on local and regional
events and mechanisms. In the words of the subtitle of the
Northern Exposure volume (Bevan, ed., 1999), this is
‘interpretative devolution’; a fracturing of nationwide
synthesis to bring regional diversity and unorthodox
interpretation to the fore.
In reviewing the history of Iron Age research during the
twentieth century, Collis (1994) identified areas for future
study, including social structure, the need for paradigms,
regional studies and a continuing respect for our
unparalleled settlement archaeology. These formed some
of the priority themes for research identified in subsequent
publications, although the topic of settlement archaeology
has only found prominence more recently.
TheResearch Agenda (Haselgrove et al., 2001) set out
five themes for research: (1) chronological frameworks
(2) settlement patterns (3) material culture (4) regionality
and (5) socio-economic changes. Theoretical approaches
to material culture predominate, as in preceding
publications (e.g. Gwilt and Haselgrove, eds., 1997). In
Section C ‘Settlements, Landscapes and People’
discussion about settlements and landscapes runs to just
over six pages. In Section D, ‘Material Culture’ runs to
nearly eleven pages, with detailed sections on particular
strategies, for example, ‘studying artefacts in context’ and
‘priorities for particular resources’. Closer inspection
reveals that four of the six paragraphs relating to
settlement actually concern themselves with strategies for
recovering and interrogating material culture and samples
from settlements. It is a truism that to understand a
settlement one must understand the finds and
environmental data recovered from it, but at the same time
3

The Hillforts of North Ceredigion
the ramparts, houses, gateways and other structural
elements cannot simply be seen as ‘containers’ of more
interesting patterns of material deposition.
A significant omission from the Research Agenda
(Haselgrove et al., 2001) was a strong Welsh component.
Major publications, including the 1998 BAR report on
Llawhaden (Williams and Mytum 1998), which was a
milestone for Wales, were omitted. There were further
omissions in Table 3 (Haselgrove et al., 2001), where the
‘Existing knowledge of the Iron Age in different parts of
Britain’ was quantified, with Cardiganshire and South
Powys ranked as ‘Black Holes’ where ‘…archaeological
understanding of the Iron Age has barely begun… [there
are] few known Iron Age sites, with little or no coherent
history of investigation…’ (and see Gwilt 2003, 112-3).
The more modern county inventories for these regions
(e.g. Davies and Hogg 1994; Hogg and Davies 1994;
RCAHMW 1986), whilst not at the cutting-edge of Iron
Age research, nonetheless stand as solid regional
syntheses, which deserved recognition and inclusion, if
only to counter the assertion that nothing of any worth had
been achieved in these ‘Black Holes’.
It is encouraging that in the recent substantial two-volume
overview of the Iron Age in Britain (Haselgrove and Pope
(eds.), 2007; Haselgrove and Moore (eds.), 2007),
attention is drawn to the inclusion of regional studies
beyond the ‘...’hotspots’ of southern England’ (ibid., 5).
Papers on the Welsh Marches and South Wales feature in
the second volume on the Later Iron Age; yet the editors
note that ‘...lacunae remain’, including ‘...some highland
areas of Wales...’ (ibid.). In 2003 Gwilt (2003, 107)
offered a strong voice for Wales by noting:
‘Unfortunately, the Iron Age archaeology of Wales
currently occupies a marginal position within a wider
consciousness of the British Iron Age, despite the richness
and diversity of hillfort and settlement evidence here
visible…’. Within a British context, this new study of the
mid Wales Iron Age seems long overdue.
It may be that because settlements, particularly hillforts,
have dominated much of the modern study of the Iron Age
in the British Isles (e.g. Hill and Jesson, eds., 1971; Hogg
1975 & 1979; Harding, ed., 1976; Cunliffe 1974, 1984a &
b, 1991; Bowden and McOmish 1987 & 1989; Avery
1993b), many may feel it is time to look to other, more
pressing, agenda. However, later papers (e.g. Mytum
1996; Hamilton and Manley 1997 & 2001; Armit 1997;
Fitzpatrick 1997; Oswald 1997; Taylor 1997; Willis 1999;
Chadwick 1999; Giles and Parker Pearson 1999; Wigley
2007; Frodsham et al. 2007; Brown 2009) clearly
demonstrate that the potential for new settlement studies is
by no means exhausted and, if sufficiently advanced from
the often traditional hillfort-dominated studies of the
1970s and 1980s, offer equal potential for new theoretical
insight and landscape analysis (Gwilt 2003, 106-9).
1.4 SUB-RECTANGULAR? POLYGONAL? OVAL?
UNIVALLATE? OUTMODED APPROACHES
TO IRON AGE SETTLEMENT STUDIES
The persistence of outmoded typologies for hillforts and
settlements has its origins in the traditional classificatory
systems, which informed the majority of post-war,
processual studies which sought to interpret the
complexity of settled landscapes (see Haselgrove 1999,
265). Whilst post-war schemes were justified in tackling a
considerable body of unsorted data in a ‘scientific’,
processual fashion, there is less justification for these
outmoded approaches persisting today. Such approaches
include the basic categorisation of particular elements of
the hillfort or enclosure, including its size, (usually
expressed in hectares), the number of ditches present, or
the degrees of ‘vallation’ from uni- to bi- and multi-
vallate, and the generalised morphology (pear-shaped,
rectangular etc.). In addition, a further set of very general
topographic models is commonly used to classify hillforts
and seem to appear in almost every general study (e.g.
Davies and Lynch 2000, 148); these usually include the
terms ‘contour’ and ‘promontory’ forts. Whilst there may
at times be some practical merit in the application of these
terms, they are often used in lieu of any better approach
(Bowden and McOmish 1989; Davies and Lynch 2000,
146-7).
Despite obvious problems with a simplified approach to
the complex issue of settlements, enclosure size formed
the basis of a study of ‘Space and Society’ in north-east
England by Ferrell (1997). Rank size analysis was used to
tackle the ‘extensive, but dull, domestic settlement record’
of the area (ibid., 228) where ‘Settlements are rank
ordered from largest to smallest with the largest settlement
being ranked number one.’ Jackson’s (1999) study of the
size distribution of hillforts in the Welsh Marches built on
earlier work by Hogg (1972). Whilst some shortcomings
of the research approach were aired by Jackson (1999,
200), the difficulties in using size alone to draw
conclusions about social organisation were obvious.
Distribution maps for this landscape remain chiefly maps
of ‘archaeological discovery’, rather than complete maps
of original settlement, because of the inherent biases of
soils and geology and the effect this has on the formation
of cropmarks, which can reveal ‘lost’ archaeological sites
from the air (see section 2.3.4 below and Figure 2.29).
Jackson’s study concluded, for example, that society in
Zone 2, Powys and West Shropshire, (where aerial
discoveries of small enclosures have been significant),
was segmented, with the focus on individual households
(ibid., 212); whilst society in the Clwydian Zone 3 (where
aerial access and unresponsive soils have hindered
cropmark discoveries), was by contrast characterised by
little social stratification, with individuals drawing
together into large communal hillforts. This topic was
robustly tackled more recently by Wigley (2007, 176), in
a new survey of the same region.
4

1: Introduction
It is questionable whether such approaches could ever be
effectively applied in north Ceredigion. Enclosure size in
itself cannot be used as a reliable indicator of strength or
‘power’. It is true that the larger hillforts are generally
those in commanding summit positions, with complex
defences (see discussion of ‘prime locations’, discussed in
Chapter 7), but not all forts were free to expand
exponentially on their chosen sites. Rather, some large
forts appear to have been constricted by their situation. In
these instances, taking command of exceptionally
prominent hills and outcrops may have been the central,
important social statement.
In these instances it is the complexity of the defences
which signal power, political competence to harness
communal labour, and the incorporation of cultural
traditions (see discussion in Chapters 6, 7 and 8). Collis’s
(original, now superseded) model for hillfort defences in
Hampshire (Collis 1977, Fig. 1, cited in Collis 1996, 89),
where ‘…big hillforts have big ramparts, small hillforts
have small ramparts’, would not be a good starting point
for architectural analysis in north Ceredigion. Figure 2.3
below, which depicts all hillforts in the study area by their
enclosed size, is included solely for completeness, and
perhaps also to satisfy the continuing expectation for such
maps to be associated with studies of Iron Age settlement
patterns.
1.5 INTERPRETING IRON AGE COMMUNITIES:
SOME CHANGING MODELS
Undoubtedly the prominence of Iron Age settlements in
the British landscape has contributed to their dominance
of the study of the British Iron Age since serious scientific
excavations and discussion began in the 1920s and 1930s.
There have been many changes in approach, drawing on
culture-history, process, the application of statistics and
models from New Geography and more recently the
development of ‘post-processual’ and cognitive
approaches. These changes in the approach to settlement
studies have been discussed above. At present, there are a
number of models of Iron Age settlement and society. The
main recent (post 1970s) approaches are briefly discussed
and compared in this section.
The principal social model for Iron Age Britain to emerge
during the 1970s and early 1980s was that of Celtic
clientship, developed to interpret settlement patterns in the
landscapes of southern England where powerful ‘central
places’, the residences of the elite, would support a strictly
hierarchical society of noblemen, retainers and workers in
the landscape around. Although there are earlier
references to these ideas (e.g. Cunliffe 1971; Hogg 1971b)
the principal development of this narrative is found in
Volume 2 of Cunliffe’s report on the Danebury
excavations (Cunliffe 1984b). Here, Irish and Welsh
models and sources were cited to support a ‘Celtic’ view
of how society operated at Danebury.
During his final reports, Cunliffe (1984a & b) developed a
model that interpreted Danebury as a central and long-
standing redistributive centre during the early and middle
Iron Age, showing no evidence for a break in occupation
for 450 years, between c.550 and c.100 BC (Cunliffe
1984b, 559). Cunliffe provided evidence to demonstrate
that ‘… the status of the fort became enhanced as its
productive capacity increased.’ (ibid.). Cunliffe presented
a model for Iron Age society based on texts which
described early Irish society in the first millennium AD
and that of Wales from a later, historical, period. In
summary, the basic unit of the tribe, or the land the tribe
inhabited, was ruled by a king who was linked by rules of
allegiance to both higher and lower kings. He was
supported by noble warriors and skilled men, of high
status. Below these sat the ordinary freeman or farmers
who paid a tithe of their produce to the king (paraphrased
from Cunliffe 1984b, 560-1). The system of clientship
(célsine in Irish documentation) provided the laws for
production and exchange within which these status
differences in society were articulated. Cunliffe noted that
the Welsh model differed slightly, perhaps illustrating the
degree of variation found across ‘Celtic social structure’
(and he went on to develop distinct socio-economic zones
for Iron Age Britain in 1991, described below).
Nevertheless, models for two possible tripartite social
structures based on the king, the nobles and the freeman
farmers were presented for Danebury. Danebury, and
other ‘paramount’ hillforts, were postulated by Cunliffe
(ibid., 560-62) as the settlements of tribal kings and their
entourages, with their nobles either residing in the main
hillfort or in surrounding small ‘vassal’ hillforts, and the
king’s residence serving as a high status centre for the
collection of taxation or tribute and its subsequent
distribution or exchange.
These themes were further developed in the 1984 volume
Aspects of the Iron Age in Central Southern Britain
(Cunliffe and Miles, eds.). Here, Hingley (1984) explored
at length the complex theoretical possibilities for
reconstructing ‘Celtic’ society in the Upper Thames
Valley (400-0BC), partly based in Marxist social theory
and ethnographic examples, but with a strong emphasis on
the literary evidence. Both classical accounts and sources
from early historic Ireland were cited to support a view of
society which had a degree of social ranking. Hingley
(ibid., 75-6) proposed that chieftains/kings with fairly
restricted powers operated within centralised Celtic
societies which, in the absence of a strong
political/administrative elite class, may have relied on
kinship to structure access to territory.
Williams (1988), and then Williams and Mytum (1998),
used these models of Celtic society and status divisions as
the theoretical basis for interpreting the Llawhaden
sequence in Pembrokeshire, west Wales. A social
narrative was developed to interpret the different small
hillforts which were excavated within a restricted area.
Enclosed farmsteads, with their massive, monumental
defences and reduced internal areas were deemed to
5

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHORT-TITLE
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D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS
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SHORT-TITLE CATALOG

OF

Publications and Importations

OF

SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING
BOOKS
This list includes the technical publications of the following English
publishers:
SCOTT, GREENWOOD & CO.
CONSTABLE & COMPANY, Ltd.
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON
TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO.
ELECTRICIAN PRINTING & PUBLISHING CO.
for whom D. Van Nostrand Company are the sole American agents.

August, 1910
Short-Title Catalog
OF THE
Publications and Importations
OF
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS, N. Y.
Price marked with an asterisk (*) are NET.
All bindings are in cloth unless otherwise noted.
A B C Code. (See Clausen-Thue.)

Abbott, A. V. The Electrical
Transmission of Energy.
8vo, *$5 00

Adam, P. Practical Bookbinding.
Trans. by T. E. Maw.
12mo, *2 50

Adams, J. W. Sewers and Drains
for Populous Districts.
8vo, 2 50

Addyman, F. T. Practical X-Ray
Work.
8vo, *4 00

A1 Code. (See Clausen-Thue.)

Aikman, C. M. Manures and the
Principles of Manuring.
8vo, 2 50

Alexander, J. H. Elementary
Electrical Engineering.
12mo, 2 00

—— Model Balloons and Flying
Machines.
12mo,

—— Universal Dictionary of
Weights and Measures.
8vo, 3 50

Allen, H. Modern Power Gas
Producer Practice and
Applications.
12mo, *2 50

—— Gas and Oil Engines. 8vo, *4 50

Anderson, F. A. Boiler Feed Water. 8vo, *2 50

Anderson, Capt. G. L. Handbook
for the Use of Electricians.
8vo, 3 00

Anderson, J. W. Prospector’s
Handbook.
12mo, 1 50

Andés, L. Vegetable Fats and Oils. 8vo, *4 00

—— Animal Fats and Oils. Trans.
by C. Salter.
8vo, *4 00

—— Drying Oils, Boiled Oil, and
Solid and Liquid Driers.
8vo, *5 00

—— Iron Corrosion, Anti-fouling
and Anti-corrosive Paints. Trans.
by C. Salter.
8vo, *4 00

—— Oil Colors, and Printers’ Ink.
Trans. by A. Morris and H.
Robson.
8vo, *2 50

—— Treatment of Paper for
Special Purposes. Trans. by C.
Salter.
12mo, *2 50

Annual Reports on the Progress of
Chemistry.

Vol. I. (1904). 8vo, *2 00
Vol. II. (1905). 8vo, *2 00
Vol. III. (1906). 8vo, *2 00
Vol. IV. (1907). 8vo, *2 00
Vol. V. (1908). 8vo, *2 00
Vol. VI. (1909). 8vo, *2 00

Arnold, E. Armature Windings of
Direct-Current Dynamos. Trans.
by F. B. DeGress.
8vo, *2 00

Ashe, S. W., and Keiley, J. D.
Electric Railways. Theoretically
and Practically Treated. Vol. I.
Rolling Stock.
12mo, *2 50

Ashe, S. W. Electric Railways. Vol.
II. Engineering Preliminaries
and Direct Current Sub-
Stations.
12mo, *2 50

—— Electricity: Experimentally
and Practically Applied.
12mo, *2 00

Atkinson, A. A. Electrical and
Magnetic Calculations.
8vo, *1 50

Atkinson, P. The Elements of
Electric Lighting.
12mo, 1 50

—— The Elements of Dynamic
Electricity and Magnetism.
12mo, 2 00

—— Power Transmitted by
Electricity.
12mo, 2 00

Auchincloss, W. S. Link and Valve
Motions Simplified.
8vo, *1 50

Ayrton, H. The Electric Arc. 8vo, *5 00

Bacon, F. W. Treatise on the
Richards Steam-Engine
Indicator.
12mo, 1 00

Bailes, G. M. Modern Mining
Practice. Five Volumes.
8vo, each, 3 50

Bailey, R. D. The Brewers’ Analyst. 8vo, *5 00

Baker, A. L. Quaternions. 8vo (In
Preparation.)

Baker, M. N. Potable Water.
(Science Series.).
16mo, 0 50

Baker, T. T. Telegraphic
Transmission of Photographs.
12mo, *1 25

Bale, G. R. Modern Iron Foundry
Practice. Two Volumes.
12mo.
Vol. I. Foundry Equipment,
Materials Used.
*2 50
Vol. II. Machine Moulding and
Moulding Machines.
*1 50

Bale, M. P. Pumps and Pumping. 12mo, 1 50

Ball, R. S. Popular Guide to the
Heavens.
8vo, *4 50

—— Natural Sources of Power.
(Westminster Series.).
8vo, *2 00

Ball, W. V. Law Affecting
Engineers.
8vo, *3 50

Barba, J. Use of Steel for
Constructive Purposes.
12mo, 1 00

Barker, A. H. Graphic Methods of
Engine Design.
12mo, *1 50

Barker, A. Textiles and Their
Manufacture. (Westminster
Series.).
8vo, 2 00

Barnard, F. A. P. Report on
Machinery and Processes of the
Industrial Arts and Apparatus of
the Exact Sciences at the Paris
Universal Exposition, 1867.
8vo, 5 00

Barnard, J. H. The Naval
Militiaman’s Guide.
16mo, leather 1 25

Barrus, G. H. Boiler Tests. 8vo, *3 00

—— Engine Tests. 8vo, *4 00

The above two purchased
together.
*6 00

Barwise, S. The Purification of
Sewage.
12mo, 3 50

Baterden, J. R. Timber.
(Westminster Series.).
8vo, *2 00

Beadle, C. Chapters on
Papermaking. Five Volumes.
12mo, each, *2 00

Beaumont, R. Color in Woven
Design.
8vo, 7 50

—— Finishing of Textile Fabrics. 8vo, *4 00

Beaumont, W. W. The Steam-
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8vo, 2 50

Bedell, F., and Pierce, C. A. Direct
and Alternating Current Testing.
8vo, *2 00

Beech, F. Dyeing of Cotton
Fabrics.
8vo, *3 00

—— Dyeing of Woolen Fabrics. 8vo, *3 50

Beckwith, A. Pottery. 8vo, paper, 0 60

Begtrup, J. The Slide Valve. 8vo, *2 00

Bennett, H. G. The Manufacture
of Leather.
8vo, *4 50

Bernthsen, A. A Text-book of
Organic Chemistry. Trans. by G.
12mo, *2 50

M’Gowan.

Berry, W. J. Differential Equations
of the First Species.
12mo (In
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Bersch, J. Manufacture of Mineral
and Lake Pigments. Trans. by A.
C. Wright.
8vo, *5 00

Bertin, L. E. Marine Boilers. Trans.
by L. S. Robertson.
8vo, 5 00

Beveridge, J. Papermaker’s Pocket
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12mo, *4 00

Binns, C. F. Ceramic Technology. 8vo, *5 00

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Birchmore, W. H. How to Use a
Gas Analysis.
12mo, *1 25

Blaine, R. G. The Calculus and Its
Applications.
12mo, *1 50

Blake, W. H. Brewers’ Vade
Mecum.
8vo, *4 00

Blake, W. P. Report upon the
Precious Metals.
8vo, 2 00

Bligh, W. G. The Practical Design
of Irrigation Works.
8vo, *6 00

Blyth, A. W. Foods: Their
Composition and Analysis.
8vo, 7 50

—— Poisons: Their Effects and
Detection.
8vo, 7 50

Böckmann, F. Celluloid. 12mo, *2 50

Bodmer, G. R. Hydraulic Motors
and Turbines.
12mo, 5 00

Boileau, J. T. Traverse Tables. 8vo, 5 00

Bonney, G. E. The Electro-platers’
Handbook.
12mo, 1 20

Booth, W. H. Water Softening and
Treatment.
8vo, *2 50

—— Superheaters and
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8vo, *1 50

Bottcher, A. Cranes: Their
Construction, Mechanical
Equipment and Working. Trans.
by A. Tolhausen.
4to, *10 00

Bottler, M. Modern Bleaching
Agents. Trans. by C. Salter.
12mo, *2 50

Bottone, S. R. Magnetos for
Automobilists.
12mo, *1 00

Bourry, E. Treatise on Ceramic
Industries. Trans. by W. P. Rix.
8vo, (In
Press.)

Bow, R. H. A Treatise on Bracing. 8vo, 1 50

Bowie, A. J., Jr. A Practical
Treatise on Hydraulic Mining.
8vo, 5 00

Bowker, W. R. Dynamo, Motor and
Switchboard Circuits.
8vo, *2 50

Bowles, O. Tables of Common
Rocks. (Science Series.).
16mo, 0 50

Bowser, E. A. Elementary Treatise
on Analytic Geometry.
12mo, 1 75

—— Elementary Treatise on the
Differential and Integral
Calculus.
12mo, 2 25

—— Elementary Treatise on
Analytic Mechanics.
12mo, 3 00

—— Elementary Treatise on
Hydro-mechanics.
12mo, 2 50

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Bridges.
12mo, *2 25

Boycott, G. W. M. Compressed Air
Work and Diving.
8vo, *4 00

Bragg, E. M. Marine Engine
Design.
12mo (In
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Brassey’s Naval Annual for 1910. 8vo, *6 00

Brewer, R. W. A. The Motor Car. 12mo, *2 00

Bright, C. The Life Story of Sir
Charles Tilson Bright.
8vo, *4 50

British Standard Sections.
Complete list of this series (45
parts) sent on application.
8×15 *1 00

Brown, H. Irrigation. 8vo, *5 00

Brown, Wm. N. The Art of
Enamelling on Metal.
12mo, *1 00

—— Handbook on Japanning and
Enamelling.
12mo, *1 50

—— House Decorating and
Painting.
12mo, *1 50

—— History of Decorative Art. 12mo, *1 25

—— Dipping, Burnishing,
Lacquering and Bronzing Brass
Ware.
12mo, *1 00

—— Workshop Wrinkles. 8vo, *1 00

Bruce, E. M. Pure Food Tests. 12mo, *1 25

Bruhns, Dr. New Manual of
Logarithms.
8vo, half
morocco,
2 50

Brunner, R. Manufacture of
Lubricants, Shoe Polishes and
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Salter.
8vo, *3 00

Bulman, H. F., and Redmayne, R.
S. A. Colliery Working and
Management.
8vo, 6 00

Burgh, N. P. Modern Marine
Engineering.
4to, half
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10 00

Burt, W. A. Key to the Solar
Compass.
16mo, leather, 2 50

Burton, F. G. Engineering
Estimates and Cost Accounts.
12mo, *1 50

Buskett, E. W. Fire Assaying. 12mo, *1 25

Cain, W. Brief Course in the
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12mo, *1 75

—— Theory of Steel-concrete
Arches and of Vaulted
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16mo, 0 50

Campin, F. The Construction of
Iron Roofs.
8vo, 2 00

Carpenter, R. C., and Diederichs,
H. Internal Combustion
Engines.
8vo, *5 00

Carter, E. T. Motive Power and
Gearing for Electrical Machinery.
8vo, *5 00

Carter, H. A. Ramie (Rhea), China
Grass.
12mo, *2 00

Carter, H. R. Modern Flax, Hemp,
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8vo, *3 00

Cathcart, W. L. Machine Design.
Part I. Fastenings.
8vo, *3 00

Cathcart, W. L., and Chaffee, J. I.
Course of Graphic Statics.
8vo (In Press.)

Caven, R. M., and Lander, G. D.
Systematic Inorganic Chemistry.
12mo, *2 00

Chambers’ Mathematical Tables. 8vo, 1 75

Charnock, G. F. Workshop
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8vo (In Press.)

Charpentier, P. Timber. 8vo, *6 00

Chatley, H. Principles and Designs
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16mo, 0 50

—— How to Use Water Power. 12mo, *1 00

Child, C. T. The How and Why of
Electricity.
12mo, 1 00

Christie, W. W. Boiler-waters,
Scale, Corrosion, Foaming.
8vo, *3 00

—— Chimney Design and Theory. 8vo, *3 00

—— Furnace Draft. (Science
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16mo, 0 50

Church’s Laboratory Guide.
Rewritten by Edward Kinch.
8vo, *2 50

Clapperton, G. Practical
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8vo, 2 50

Clark, C. H. Marine Gas Engines. (In Press.)

Clark, D. K. Rules, Tables and
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8vo, 5 00

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12mo, 1 50

—— The Mechanical Engineer’s
Pocketbook.
16mo, 2 00

—— Tramways: Their
Construction and Working.
8vo, 7 50

Clark. J. M. New System of Laying
Out Railway Turnouts.
12 mo, 1 00

Clausen-Thue, W. A B C
Telegraphic Code. Fourth
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12mo, *5 00

Fifth Edition. 8vo, *7 00

—— The A1 Telegraphic Code. 8vo, *7 50

Cleemann, T. M. The Railroad
Engineer’s Practice.
12mo, *1 50

Clevenger, S. R. Treatise on the
Method of Government
Surveying.
16mo,
morocco
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Clouth, F. Rubber, Gutta-Percha,
and Balata.
8vo, *5 00

Coffin, J. H. C. Navigation and
Nautical Astronomy.
12mo, *3 50

Cole, R. S. Treatise on
Photographic Optics.
12mo, 2 50

Coles-Finch, W. Water, Its Origin
and Use.
8vo, *5 00

Collins, J. E. Useful Alloys and
Memoranda for Goldsmiths,
Jewelers.
16mo, 0 50

Constantine, E. Marine Engineers,
Their Qualifications and Duties.
8vo, *2 00

Cooper, W. R. Primary Batteries. 8vo, *4 00

—— “The Electrician” Primers. 8vo, *5 00

Copperthwaite, W. C. Tunnel
Shields.
4to, *9 00

Corey, H. T. Water Supply
Engineering.
8vo (In Press.)

Cornwall, H. B. Manual of Blow-
pipe Analysis.
8vo, *2 50

Cowell, W. B. Pure Air, Ozone, and
Water.
12mo, *2 00

Crocker, F. B. Electric Lighting.
Two Volumes.
8vo.
Vol. I. The Generating Plant. 3 00
Vol. II. Distributing Systems and
Lamps.
3 00

Crocker, F. B., and Arendt, M.
Electric Motors.
8vo, *2 50

Crocker, F. B., and Wheeler, S. S.
The Management of Electrical
Machinery.
12mo, *1 00

Cross, C. F., Bevan, E. J., and
Sindall, R. W. Wood Pulp and
Its Applications. (Westminster
Series.).
8vo (In Press.)

Crosskey, L. R. Elementary
Perspective.
8vo, 1 00

Crosskey, L. R., and Thaw, J.
Advanced Perspective.
8vo, 1 50

Davenport, C. The Book.
(Westminster Series.).
8vo, *2 00

Davies, E. H. Machinery for
Metalliferous Mines.
8vo, 8 00

Davies, D. C. Metalliferous
Minerals and Mining.
8vo, 5 00

Davies, F. H. Electric Power and
Traction.
8vo, *2 00

Dawson, P. Electric Traction on
Railways.
8vo, *9 00

Day, C. The Indicator and Its
Diagrams.
12mo, *2 00

Deerr, N. Sugar and the Sugar
Cane.
8vo, *3 00

Deite, C. Manual of Soapmaking.
Trans. by S. T. King.
4to, *5 00

De la Coux, H. The Industrial Uses
of Water. Trans. by A. Morris.
8vo, *4 50

Del Mar, W. A. Electric Power
Conductors.
8vo, *2 00

Denny, G. A. Deep-level Mines of
the Rand.
4to, *10 00

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Derr, W. L. Block Signal Operation.Oblong 12mo, *1 50

Desaint, A. Three Hundred
Shades and How to Mix Them.
8vo, *10 00

Dibdin, W. J. Public Lighting by
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8vo, *8 00

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Water.
8vo, 6 50

Dieterich, K. Analysis of Resins,
Balsams, and Gum Resins.
8vo, *3 00

Dinger, Lieut. H. C. Care and
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12mo, *2 00

Dixon, D. B. Machinist’s and
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1 25

Doble, W. A. Power Plant
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Dodd, G. Dictionary of
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Machinery, and the Industrial
Arts.
12mo, 1 50

Dorr, B. F. The Surveyor’s Guide
and Pocket Table-book.
16mo,
morocco,
2 00

Down, P. B. Handy Copper Wire
Table.
16mo, *1 00

Draper, C. H. Elementary Text-
book of Light, Heat and Sound.
12mo, 1 00

—— Heat and the Principles of
Thermo-dynamics.
12mo, 1 50

Duckwall, E. W. Canning and
Preserving of Food Products.
8vo, *5 00

Dumesny, P., and Noyer, J. Wood
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Extracts.
8vo, *4 50

Duncan, W. G., and Penman, D.
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Collieries.
8vo, *4 00

Duthie, A. L. Decorative Glass
Processes. (Westminster
Series.).
8vo, *2 00

Dyson, S. S. Practical Testing of
Raw Materials.
8vo, *5 00

Eccles, R. G., and Duckwall, E. W.
Food Preservatives.
8vo, 1 00
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8vo, 1 50

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Concentrated Loads.
8vo, 1 50

Edgcumbe, K. Industrial Electrical
Measuring Instruments.
8vo, *2 50

Eissler, M. The Metallurgy of Gold. 8vo, 7 50

—— The Hydrometallurgy of
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8vo, *4 50

—— The Metallurgy of Silver. 8vo, 4 00

—— The Metallurgy of
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8vo, 5 00

—— Cyanide Process for the
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8vo, 3 00

—— A Handbook on Modern
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8vo, 5 00

Ekin, T. C. Water Pipe and Sewage
Discharge Diagrams.
folio, *3 00

Eliot, C. W., and Storer, F. H.
Compendious Manual of
Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
12mo, *1 25

Elliot, Major G. H. European Light-
house Systems.
8vo, 5 00

Ennis, Wm. D. Linseed Oil and
Other Seed Oils.
8vo, *4 00

—— Applied Thermodynamics. 8vo (In Press.)

Erfurt, J. Dyeing of Paper Pulp.
Trans. by J. Hubner.
8vo, *7 50

Erskine-Murray, J. A Handbook of
Wireless Telegraphy.
8vo, *3 50

Evans, C. A. Macadamized Roads. (In Press.)

Ewing, A. J. Magnetic Induction in
Iron.
8vo, *4 00

Fairie, J. Notes on Lead Ores. 12mo, *1 00

—— Notes on Pottery Clays. 12mo, *1 50

Fairweather, W. C. Foreign and
Colonial Patent Laws.
8vo, *3 00

Fanning, J. T. Hydraulic and
Water-supply Engineering.
8vo, *5 00

Fauth, P. The Moon in Modern
Astronomy. Trans. by J.
McCabe.
8vo, *2 00

Fay, I. W. The Coal-tar Colors.8vo (In Press.)

Fernbach, R. L. Glue and Gelatine. 8vo, *3 00

Fischer, E. The Preparation of
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R. V. Stanford.
12mo, *1 25

Fish, J. C. L. Lettering of Working
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Fisher, H. K. C., and Darby, W. C.
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8vo, *3 50

Fiske, Lieut. B. A. Electricity in
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8vo, 2 50

Fleischmann, W. The Book of the
Dairy. Trans. by C. M. Aikman.
8vo, 4 00

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current Transformer. Two
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8vo.
Vol. I. The Induction of Electric
Currents.
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Vol. II. The Utilization of Induced
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—— Centenary of the Electrical
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—— Electric Lamps and Electric
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—— Electrical Laboratory Notes
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4to, *5 00

—— A Handbook for the Electrical
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Two Volumes.
8vo, each, *5 00

Fluery, H. The Calculus Without
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(In Press.)

Foley, N. British and American
Customary and Metric
Measures.
folio, *3 00

Foster, H. A. Electrical Engineers’
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Drawing.
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8vo, *2 50

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Architecture Regional Identity And Power In The Iron Age Landscapes Of Mid Wales The Hillforts Of North Ceredigion Toby Driver

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