Assembly Language for X86 Processors 8th Edition Kip R. Irvine

Assembly Language for X86 Processors 8th Edition Kip R. Irvine
Assembly Language for X86 Processors 8th Edition Kip R. Irvine
Assembly Language for X86 Processors 8th Edition Kip R. Irvine

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5. Assembly Language for X86 Processors 8th Edition Kip
R. Irvine Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Kip R. Irvine
ISBN(s): 9780135381694, 013538169X
Edition: 8
File Details: PDF, 12.21 MB
Year: 2019
Language: english

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IA-32, Pentium, i486, Intel64, Celeron, and Intel 386 are trademarks of
Intel Corporation. Athlon, Phenom, and Opteron are trademarks of
Advanced Micro Devices. TASM and Turbo Debugger are trademarks of
Borland International. Microsoft Assembler (MASM), Windows Vista,
Windows 7, Windows NT, Windows Me, Windows 95, Windows 98,
Windows 2000, Windows XP, MS-Windows, PowerPoint, Win32,
DEBUG, WinDbg, MS-DOS, Visual Studio, Visual C++, and CodeView are
registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. Autocad is a trademark
of Autodesk. Java is a trademark of Sun Microsystems. PartitionMagic is a
trademark of Symantec. All other trademarks or product names are the
property of their respective owners.

8. Copyright © 2020, 2015, 2011, 2007, 2003 by Pearson Inc. 221 River
Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the
United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and
permissions should be obtained from the publisher prior to any
prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use materials from this
work, please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ .
Previously published as Assembly Language for Intel-Based Computers.
The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in
preparing this book. These efforts include the development, research, and
testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The
author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or
implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation contained
in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for
incidental or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of,
the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs.
Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers make no representations about
the suitability of the information contained in the documents and related
graphics published as part of the services for any purpose. All such
documents and related graphics are provided “as is” without warranty of
any kind. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers hereby disclaim all
warranties and conditions with regard to this information, including all
warranties and conditions of merchantability, whether express, implied or
statutory, fitness for a particular purpose, title and non-infringement. In
no event shall microsoft and/or its respective suppliers be liable for any
special, indirect or consequential damages or any damages whatsoever
resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether in an action of
contract, negligence or other tortious action, arising out of or in

9. connection with the use or performance of information available from the
services. The documents and related graphics contained herein could
include technical inaccuracies or typographical errors. changes are
periodically added to the information herein. Microsoft and/or its
respective suppliers may make improvements and/or changes in the
product(s) and/or the program(s) described herein at any time. Partial
screen shots may be viewed in full within the software version specified.
Microsoft® and Windows® are registered trademarks of the microsoft
corporation in the usa and other countries. screen shots and icons
reprinted with permission from the microsoft corporation. This book is
not sponsored or endorsed by or affiliated with the microsoft corporation.
1 19
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-538165-6
ISBN-10: 0-13-538165-7

10. Preface
Assembly Language for x86 Processors, Eighth Edition, teaches assembly
language programming and architecture for x86 and Intel64 processors. It
is an appropriate text for the following types of college courses:
Assembly Language Programming
Fundamentals of Computer Systems
Fundamentals of Computer Architecture
Students use Intel or AMD processors and program with Microsoft
Macro Assembler (MASM) , running on recent versions of Microsoft
Windows. Although this book was originally designed as a programming
textbook for college students, it serves as an effective supplement to
computer architecture courses. As a testament to its popularity, previous
editions have been translated into numerous languages.
Emphasis of Topics
This edition includes topics that lead naturally into subsequent courses in
computer architecture, operating systems, and compiler writing:
Virtual machine concept
Instruction set architecture
Elementary Boolean operations
Instruction execution cycle
Memory access and handshaking
Interrupts and polling
Hardware-based I/O
Floating-point binary representation

11. Other topics relate specially to x86 and Intel64 architecture:
Protected memory and paging
Memory segmentation in real-address mode
16-Bit interrupt handling
MS-DOS and BIOS system calls (interrupts)
Floating-point unit architecture and programming
Instruction encoding
Certain examples presented in the book lend themselves to courses that
occur later in a computer science curriculum:
Searching and sorting algorithms
High-level language structures
Finite-state machines
Code optimization examples
What’s New in the Eighth Edition
This edition represents this book’s transition into the world of interactive
electronic textbooks. We’re very excited about this innovative concept,
because for the first time readers will be able to experiment and interact
with review questions, code animations, tutorial videos, and multiple-
input exercises.
All section reviews in the chapters have been rewritten as interactive
questions, giving the reader immediate feedback on their answers.
New questions were added, others removed, and many revised.
Code animations allow the reader to step through program code and
view both variable values and comments about the code. Readers no
longer have to visually jump back and forth between program code
and text explanations on the next page.

12. Links to timely tutorial videos have been inserted in the text, so
readers can receive tutoring on topics as they encounter them in the
text. Previously, readers would need to purchase a separate
subscription to gain access to the entire set of videos, presented as a
list. In this edition, videos are free.
Multiple-input exercises allow readers to browse a program listing
and insert variable values into boxes next to the code. They receive
immediate colorized feedback, giving them the opportunity to
experiment until all input values are correct.
Hypertexted definitions of key terms are placed throughout the text,
connected to an online glossary.
In short, we have taken the successful content of this book (refined
through many editions) and brought it into the interactive electronic
textbook world.
This book is still focused on its primary goal, to teach students how to
write and debug programs at the machine level. It will never replace a
complete book on computer architecture, but it does give students the
first-hand experience of writing software in an environment that teaches
them how a computer works. Our premise is that students retain
knowledge better when theory is combined with experience. In an
engineering course, students construct prototypes; in a computer
architecture course, students should write machine-level programs. In
both cases, they have a memorable experience that gives them confidence
to work in any OS/machine-oriented environment.
Protected mode programming is entirely the focus of chapters 1 through
13. As such, students can create 32-bit and 64-bit programs that run
under the most recent versions of Microsoft Windows. The remaining
three legacy chapters cover 16-bit programming. These chapters cover
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13. BIOS programming, MS-DOS services, keyboard and mouse input, dist
storage fundamentals, video programming, and graphics.
Subroutine Libraries
We supply three versions of the subroutine library that students use for
basic input/output, simulations, timing, and other useful tasks. The
Irvine32 and Irvine64 libraries run in protected mode. The 16-bit version
(Irvine16.lib) runs in real-address mode and is used only by Chapter 14
through Chapter 16. Full source code for the libraries is supplied on the
companion website. The link libraries are available only for convenience,
not to prevent students from learning how to program input–output
themselves. Students are encouraged to create their own libraries.
Included Software and Examples
All the example programs were tested with Microsoft Macro Assembler,
running in a recent version of Microsoft Visual Studio. In addition, batch
files are supplied that permit students to assemble and run applications
from the Windows command prompt. Information Updates and
corrections to this book may be found at the Companion website,
including additional programming projects for instructors to assign at the
ends of chapters.
Overall Goals
The following goals of this book are designed to broaden the student’s
interest and knowledge in topics related to assembly language:
Intel and AMD processor architecture and programming
Real-address mode and protected mode programming
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14. Assembly language directives, macros, operators, and program
structure
Programming methodology, showing how to use assembly language
to create system-level software tools and application programs
Computer hardware manipulation
Interaction between assembly language programs, the operating
system, and other application programs
One of our goals is to help students approach programming problems
with a machine-level mind set. It is important to think of the CPU as an
interactive tool, and to learn to monitor its operation as directly as
possible. A debugger is a programmer’s best friend, not only for catching
errors, but as an educational tool that teaches about the CPU and
operating system. We encourage students to look beneath the surface of
high-level languages and to realize that most programming languages are
designed to be portable and, therefore, independent of their host
machines. In addition to the short examples, this book contains hundreds
of ready-to-run programs that demonstrate instructions or ideas as they
are presented in the text. Reference materials, such as guides to MS-DOS
interrupts and instruction mnemonics, are available at the end of the
book.
Required Background
The reader should already be able to program confidently in at least one
high-level programming language such as Python, Java, C, or C++. One
chapter covers C++ interfacing, so it is very helpful to have a compiler on
hand. I have used this book in the classroom with majors in both
computer science and management information systems, and it has been
used elsewhere in engineering courses.
Features

15. Complete Program Listings
The author’s website contains supplemental learning materials, study
guides, and all the source code from the book’s examples. Two link
libraries (32-bit and 64-bit) are supplied with the book, containing more
than 40 procedures that simplify user input–output, numeric processing,
disk and file handling, and string handling. In the beginning stages of the
course, students can use this library to enhance their programs. Later,
they can create their own procedures and add them to the library.
Programming Logic
Two chapters emphasize Boolean logic and bit-level manipulation. A
conscious attempt is made to relate high-level programming logic to the
low-level details of the machine. This approach helps students to create
more efficient implementations and to better understand how compilers
generate object code.
Hardware and Operating System Concepts
The first two chapters introduce basic hardware and data representation
concepts, including binary numbers, CPU architecture, status flags, and
memory mapping. A survey of the computer’s hardware and a historical
perspective of the Intel processor family helps students to better
understand their target computer system.
Structured Programming Approach
Beginning with Chapter 5, procedures and functional decomposition are
emphasized. Students are given more complex programming exercises,
requiring them to focus on design before starting to write code.


16. Java Bytecodes and the Java Virtual
Machine
In Chapters 8 and 9, the author explains the basic operation of Java
bytecodes with short illustrative examples. Numerous short examples are
shown in disassembled bytecode format, followed by detailed step-by-
step explanations.
Creating Link Libraries
Students are free to add their own procedures to the book’s link library
and create new libraries. They learn to use a toolbox approach to
programming and to write code that is useful in more than one program.
Macros and Structures
A chapter is devoted to creating structures, unions, and macros, which
are essential in assembly language and systems programming.
Conditional macros with advanced operators serve to make the macros
more professional.
Interfacing to High-Level Languages
A chapter is devoted to interfacing assembly language to C and C++. This
is an important job skill for students who are likely to find jobs
programming in high-level languages. They can learn to optimize their
code and see examples of how C++ compilers optimize code.
Instructional Aids
All the program listings are available on the Web. Instructors are
provided a test bank, answers to review questions, solutions to
programming exercises, and a Microsoft PowerPoint slide presentation
for each chapter. More details can be found on Page xxvi.
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17. VideoNotes
VideoNotes are Pearson’s visual tool designed to teach students key
programming concepts and techniques. These short step-by-step videos
demonstrate basic assembly language concepts. VideoNotes allow for
self-paced instruction with easy navigation including the ability to select,
play, rewind, fast-forward, and stop within each VideoNote exercise.
Details below.

18. Chapter Descriptions
Chapters 1 to 8 contain core concepts of assembly language and
should be covered in sequence. After that, you have a fair amount of
freedom. The following chapter dependency graph shows how later
chapters depend on knowledge gained from other chapters.
1. Basic Concepts: Applications of assembly language, basic
concepts, machine language, and data representation.
2. x86 Processor Architecture: Basic microcomputer design,
instruction execution cycle, x86 processor architecture, Intel64
architecture, x86 memory management, components of a
microcomputer, and the input–output system.
3. Assembly Language Fundamentals: Introduction to assembly
language, linking and debugging, and defining constants and
variables.
4. Data Transfers, Addressing, and Arithmetic: Simple data
transfer and arithmetic instructions, assemble-link-execute cycle,
operators, directives, expressions, JMP and LOOP instructions,
and indirect addressing.
5. Procedures: Linking to an external library, description of the
book’s link library, stack operations, defining and using
procedures, flowcharts, and top-down structured design.
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19. 6. Conditional Processing: Boolean and comparison instructions,
conditional jumps and loops, high-level logic structures, and
finite-state machines.
7. Integer Arithmetic: Shift and rotate instructions with useful
applications, multiplication and division, extended addition and
subtraction, and ASCII and packed decimal arithmetic.
8. Advanced Procedures: Stack parameters, local variables,
advanced PROC and INVOKE directives, and recursion.
9. Strings and Arrays: String primitives, manipulating arrays of
characters and integers, two-dimensional arrays, sorting, and
searching.
10. Structures and Macros: Structures, macros, conditional assembly
directives, and defining repeat blocks.
11. MS-Windows Programming: Protected mode memory
management concepts, using the Microsoft-Windows API to
display text and colors, and dynamic memory allocation.
12. Floating-Point Processing and Instruction Encoding: Floating-
point binary representation and floating-point arithmetic.
Learning to program the 32-bit floating-point unit. Understanding
the encoding of 32-bit machine instructions.
13. High-Level Language Interface: Parameter passing conventions,
inline assembly code, and linking assembly language modules to
C and C++ programs.
14. 16-Bit MS-DOS Programming: Memory organization, interrupts,
function calls, and standard MS-DOS file I/O services.
15. Disk Fundamentals: Disk storage systems, sectors, clusters,
directories, file allocation tables, handling MS-DOS error codes,
and drive and directory manipulation.
16. BIOS-Level Programming: Keyboard input, video text, graphics,
and mouse programming.
Appendix A: MASM Reference
Appendix B: The x86 Instruction Set
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20. Appendix C: BIOS and MS-DOS Interrupts
Appendix D: Answers to Review Questions (Chapters 14 –
16)
Instructor and Student Resources
Instructor Resource Materials
The following protected instructor material is available on pearson.com
For username and password information, please contact your Pearson
Representative.
Lecture PowerPoint Slides
Instructor Solutions Manual
Student Resource Materials
The following useful materials are located at www.asmirvine.com:
Getting Started, a comprehensive step-by-step tutorial that helps
students customize Visual Studio for assembly language
programming.
Corrections to errors found in the book.
Supplementary articles on assembly language programming topics.
Required support files for assembling and linking your programs,
complete source code for all example programs in the book, and
complete source code for the author’s supplementary library.
Assembly Language Workbook, an interactive workbook covering
number conversions, addressing modes, register usage, debug
programming, and floating-point binary numbers.
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21. Debugging Tools: Tutorials on using the Microsoft Visual Studio
debugger.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks are due to Tracy Johnson, Portfolio Manager for Computer
Science at Pearson Education, who has provided friendly, helpful
guidance for many years. Vanitha Puela of SPi Global did an excellent job
on the book production, along with Amanda Brands as the Content
Producer at Pearson.
Previous Editions
I offer my special thanks to the following individuals who were most
helpful during the development of earlier editions of this book:
William Barrett, San Jose State University
Scott Blackledge
James Brink, Pacific Lutheran University
Gerald Cahill, Antelope Valley College
John Taylor

22. About the Author
Kip Irvine has written five computer programming textbooks, for Intel
Assembly Language, C++. Visual Basic (beginning and advanced), and
COBOL. His book Assembly Language for Intel-Based Computers has been
translated into six languages. His first college degrees (B.M., M.M., and
doctorate) were in Music Composition, at University of Hawaii and
University of Miami. He began programming computers for music
synthesis around 1982 and taught programming at Miami-Dade
Community College for 17 years. He earned an M.S. degree in Computer
Science from the University of Miami, and taught computer programming
in the School of Computing and Information Sciences at Florida
International University for 18 years.

23. Contents
Preface
1 Basic Concepts
1.1 Welcome to Assembly Language
1.1.1 Questions You Might Ask
1.1.2 Assembly Language Applications
1.1.3 Section Review
1.2 Virtual Machine Concept
1.2.1 Section Review
1.3 Data Representation
1.3.1 Binary Integers
1.3.2 Binary Addition
1.3.3 Integer Storage Sizes
1.3.4 Hexadecimal Integers
1.3.5 Hexadecimal Addition
1.3.6 Signed Binary Integers
1.3.7 Binary Subtraction
1.3.8 Character Storage
1.3.9 Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) Numbers
1.3.10 Section Review
1.4 Boolean Expressions
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24. 1.4.1 Truth Tables for Boolean Functions
1.4.2 Section Review
1.5 Chapter Summary
1.6 Key Terms
1.7 Review Questions and Exercises
1.7.1 Short Answer
1.7.2 Algorithm Workbench
2 x86 Processor Architecture
2.1 General Concepts
2.1.1 Basic Microcomputer Design
2.1.2 Instruction Execution Cycle
2.1.3 Reading from Memory
2.1.4 Loading and Executing a Program
2.1.5 Section Review
2.2 32-Bit x86 Processors
2.2.1 Modes of Operation
2.2.2 Basic Execution Environment
2.2.3 x86 Memory Management
2.2.4 Section Review
2.3 64-Bit x86-64 Processors
2.3.1 64-Bit Operation Modes
2.3.2 Basic 64-Bit Execution Environment
2.3.3 Section Review
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25. 2.4 Components of a Typical x86 Computer
2.4.1 Motherboard
2.4.2 Memory
2.4.3 Section Review
2.5 Input-Output System
2.5.1 Levels of I/O Access
2.5.2 Section Review
2.6 Chapter Summary
2.7 Key Terms
2.8 Review Questions
3 Assembly Language Fundamentals
3.1 Basic Language Elements
3.1.1 First Assembly Language Program
3.1.2 Integer Literals
3.1.3 Constant Integer Expressions
3.1.4 Real Number Literals
3.1.5 Character Literals
3.1.6 String Literals
3.1.7 Reserved Words
3.1.8 Identifiers
3.1.9 Directives
3.1.10 Instructions
3.1.11 Section Review
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26. Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents

27. N
o
. 347
Of the several different species of this genus growing in our
garden at this present writing (eleven in number) two only are of a
red or purple colour, the one here figured, and another with a larger

28. flower, which we purpose soon to publish under the name of
purpurea.
The present species, Mr. Aiton informs us, was introduced in 1783
by Mons. Thouin, from Peru.
It has been considered as a greenhouse plant, and a perennial;
we find it to be more hardy than greenhouse plants in general, and
scarcely entitled to the distinction of a perennial.
It may be increased by cuttings and seeds, the latter of which are
plentifully produced. It rarely exceeds a foot in height; its rose-
coloured flowers expand during the whole of the day, and are
produced during most of the Summer months.
To guard against accidental severity of weather, sow its seeds in
the Spring with tender annuals; when the plants have acquired a
proper age and the season is favourable, plant them out singly in the
open border.

30. [348]
Calceolaria Fothergillii . Fothergill 's Slipper-Wort.
Class and Order.
Diandria Monogynia .
Generic Character.
Corolla ringens inflata. Capsula 2-locularis, 2 valvis. Calyx 4-partitus æqualis.
Specific Character and Synonyms.
CALCEOLARIA Fothergillii foliis spathulatis integerrimis, pedunculis
scapiformibus unifloris. Ait. Kew. v. 1. p. 30. tab. 1. Linn. Syst. Nat.
ed. 13. Gmel. p. 39.

31. N
o
. 348
To this species of Calceolaria the trivial name of Fothergillii has
been given in honour of Dr. John Fothergill , who introduced it in

32. 1777 with several other rare plants from Falkland-Islands, where it is
a native.
In the Hortus Kewensis of Mr. Aiton it was first figured, and
minutely described.
This plant of great singularity and beauty particularly merits a
place in the collections of the curious; its principal flowering season
is in May, but it will often blossom much later in the Summer.
It is not to be had in perfection, nor even preserved, without
great attention, joined to a peculiar treatment; several times it has
been nearly lost from this country. Mr. Aiton makes it a biennial
greenhouse plant; it, no doubt, is one of those plants which are
liable to be killed in very severe weather, and therefore it is
necessary to keep a pot of it at least, during the Winter, either in the
greenhouse or a well-secured frame; but the plant will be found to
succeed best in the open ground, provided it be planted in bog-
earth, in a situation that is moist and moderately shady; with us it
has proved perfectly perennial.
With care it can be propagated by layers and cuttings, but with
most certainty in the former mode; possibly it may be raised from
seeds, they ripen here, but are as fine as dust.

34. [349]
Solanum Laciniatum. Cut-Leav'd Nightshade.
Class and Order.
Pentandria Monogynia .
Generic Character.
Corolla rotata. Antheræ subcoalitæ, apice poro gemino dehiscentes. Bacca 2-
locularis.
Specific Character and Synonyms.
SOLANUM laciniatum caule fruticoso inermi glaberrimo, foliis pinnatifidis:
laciniis lanceolatis acutis, paniculis axillaribus binis ternisve. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 1. p. 247.

35. N
o
. 349
Mr. Aiton in his Hort. Kew. mentions this plant as being a native of
New-Zealand, on the authority of Sir Joseph Banks, and that it was
introduced in 1772; he regards it as a stove plant; it has been since

36. found to be more hardy than he imagined, and not to require more
heat than the greenhouse affords; in the Summer it will stand
abroad, and even ripen its fruit in the open air.
It is a plant of some beauty, but is more remarkable for having its
antheræ separating widely from each other, and thereby losing the
character of a Solanum, so far as it depends on that circumstance.
The berries when ripe are of the size of a small plum, and of a
yellowish green hue; their pulp is sweet, in some small degree
resembling that of a fig, whether it be so innocent we do not take on
us to assert.
It flowers during most of the Summer, and is easily increased by
cuttings or seeds.

38. [350]
Erica Ventricosa. Porcelain Heath.
Class and Order.
Octandria Monogynia .
Generic Character.
Calyx 4-phyllus. Corolla 4-fida. Filamenta receptaculo inserta. Antheræ bifidæ.
Caps. 4-locularis.
Specific Character and Synonyms.
ERICA ventricosa mutica, foliis quaternis trigonis ciliatis, floribus ventricosis
glabris. Thunb. Prod. Cap. p. 71.

39. N
o
. 350
Of the many new Heaths which have been introduced within
these few years, none have excited greater admiration than the
present one; its blossoms, though they cannot boast the grandeur or

40. richness of colour so strikingly displayed in the cerinthoides, and
some others, please more on a near inspection, they have indeed a
delicacy and beauty which are indescribable; we have given to it the
English name of Porcelain Heath, as the flowers have somewhat the
appearance of porcelain, or enamel.
This species has been introduced from the Cape, since the
publication of the Hortus Kewensis; we saw it in blossom many years
since, in the Royal Garden at Kew; several varieties of it have been
raised from Cape seeds by Mr. Loddiges , Nurseryman, at Hackney,
differing in the hairiness of their leaves, size and colour of their
blossoms; but the best variety we have seen is the one here
represented.
In point of form the blossoms resemble those of the ampullacea,
but they are not so large, and have no viscidity; the stigma is
enclosed within the mouth of the flower, and the peduncles are
usually naked; in some very luxuriant specimens we have observed a
scale or two on them.
It is with Heaths, in some respects, as it is with fruit trees: one
season they will produce blossoms most abundantly, they seem
indeed to overblow themselves, the next few appear; in different
years the blossoms of the same heath will vary also considerably in
size. The ventricosa is a free blower, and will in general produce
flowers in abundance, for two or three months, from June to
September.
Those who possess the knack of striking heaths, raise it by
cuttings without much difficulty.

42. [351]
Saxifraga Mutata. Saffron -Colour'd Saxifrage .
Class and Order.
Decandria Digynia.
Generic Character.
Calyx 5-partitus. Corolla 5-petala. Caps. 2-rostris 1-locularis polysperma.
Specific Character and Synonyms.
SAXIFRAGA mutata foliis radicalibus aggregatis lingulatis cartilagineo-serratis,
caule racemoso folioso, calyce villoso et viscido. Linn. Syst. Vegetab.
ed. 14. Murr. p. 411. Jacq. Ic. Pl. rar. Fasc. 9.

43. N
o
. 351
Linnæus has arranged several distinct species of Saxifrage under
the Saxyfraga Cotyledon, but very properly separates this; though in
the general form of its foliage it is as nearly related to it as most of

44. the others; from four of them it is indeed perfectly distinct, instead
of the sawed cartilaginous edge, it has only fine soft hairs, more
especially towards the base; towards the extremity there is some
appearance of little teeth, but widely differing from those of the
others. The whole plant is covered with viscid hairs; the stalk about
a foot high, is much branched; but the great peculiarity of this plant
consists in its flowers, the petals being long, narrow, and pointed,
and of a saffron colour, of a deeper tint when they first open, and
gradually changing to a pale yellow; the beauty of the flowers is
heightened by a glandular substance in the centre of each, which
when the flower expands is of a bright purple colour.
This rare species of Saxifrage is a native of the Alps of Switzerland
and Italy; we raised it with difficulty from seeds sent us by Mr. Daval,
of Orbe, in Switzerland; it was three years before the plants
flowered; those now in bloom in my garden, June 15, bid fair to
produce seeds in abundance; the plant may also be produced from
offsets, in the same way as the Saxifraga Cotyledon, vulgarly called
Pyramidal Sedum, and requires a similar treatment; though an
Alpine plant, it must be sheltered from much wet and severe frosts.
Baron Haller describes it with spots on the petals; those certainly
did not exist on our plants.

46. [352]
Oenothera Purpurea . Purple Oenothera.
Class and Order.
Octandria Monogynia .
Generic Character.
Cal. 4-fidus. Petala 4. Caps. cylindrica infera. Sem. nuda.
Specific Character and Synonyms.
OENOTHERA purpurea foliis ovato-lanceolatis glaucescentibus integerrimis,
capsulis sessilibus, stigmate atro-purpureo.

47. N
o
. 352
The species of Oenothera here figured is the one we mentioned in
treating of the rosea, a very ornamental species, introduced to the
Royal Garden at Kew, from the western coast of North-America, in

48. 1791.
[4]
We have given to it the name of purpurea, it being the only
one in our gardens with purple flowers.
It is distinguished by three principal characters, the glaucous
appearance of its foliage, the purple hue of its blossoms, and the
dark colour of its stigma.
It flowers during the months of July and August, and ripens its
seeds in September; is an annual of ready growth, and worthy of
being more generally introduced to the flower-garden; its seeds
should be sown in the spring, with other tender annuals, and the
seedlings when of a proper age planted out singly in the open
border, where they will acquire the height of two feet, and produce
abundance of blossoms which, like those of the rosea, open during
the day as well as in the evening.

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