Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 1st Edition D. P. Kothari

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 1st Edition D. P. Kothari
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 1st Edition D. P. Kothari
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 1st Edition D. P. Kothari

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5. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 1st Edition
D. P. Kothari Digital Instant Download
Author(s): D. P. Kothari, I. J. Nagrath
ISBN(s): 9781259006579, 1259006573
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 16.88 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english

6. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

7. About the Authors
D P Kothari is presently Director–Research, MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad.
He obtained a BE (Electrical) in 1967, ME (Power Systems) in 1969 and PhD in 1975
from the Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS Pilani), Rajasthan. From 1969
to 1977, he was involved in teaching and development of several courses at BITS Pilani.
Dr Kothari has also served as Director General–Raisoni Group of Institutions, Nagpur;
Emeritus Director General, Vindhya Institute of Technology and Science (VITS),
Indore; and Vice Chancellor–Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore. He has also
served as Director In-charge and Deputy Director (Administration) as well as Head
Centre for Energy Studies at Indian Institute of Technology Delhi; and as Principal–
Visvesvaryaya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur. He was Visiting Professor at
the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Australia, during 1982–83
and 1989 for two years. He was also NSF Fellow at Purdue University, US, in 1992.
Dr Kothari, who is a recipient of the Most Active Researcher Award , has published 780 research papers in
various national as well as international journals, conferences, guided 40 PhD scholars and 65 MTech students,
and authored 32 books in Power Systems and other allied areas. He has delivered several keynote addresses and
invitee lectures at both national and international conferences on Electric Energy Systems. He has also widely
popularised science and technology through 42 video lectures on YouTube with a maximum of 30,000 hits!
Dr Kothari is a Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (FNAE), Fellow of Indian National
Academy of Sciences [FNASc], Fellow of Institution of Engineers (FIE) and Hon. Fellow, ISTE, and Fellow
IEEE.
His many awards include the National Khosla award for Lifetime Achievements in Engineering (2005) from
IIT Roorkee. The University Grants Commission (UGC), Government of India, has bestowed the UGC National
Swami Pranavananda Saraswati Award (2005) on Education for his outstanding scholarly contributions.
He is also a recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award (2009) by the World Management Congress, New
Delhi, for his contribution to the areas of educational planning and administration. His fi elds of specialization
are Optimal Hydro-thermal Scheduling, Unit Commitment, Maintenance Scheduling, Energy Conservation (loss
minimization and voltage control), and Power Quality and Energy Systems Planning and Modelling.
I J Nagrath is Adjunct Professor, BITS Pilani, from where he retired in July 1999 as
Professor of Electrical Engineering and Deputy Director. He is now actively engaged in
writing books related to his long teaching and research experience.
Prof Nagrath obtained his BE with Honours in Electrical Engineering from Birla
Engineering College in 1951, and MS from the University of Wisconsin, USA, in 1956.
He has co-authored several successful books, which include Electric Machines , 4/e,
Modern Power System Analysis, Power System Engineering, 2/e , System Modeling and
Analysis and Electrical Machines , 2/e (Schaum’s Outline Series) and has authored Basic
Electrical Engineering, 3/e (all published by MHEI). He has also co-authored Control
System Engineering and authored Electronics: Analog and Digital . He has also published
several research papers in prestigious national and international journals and continues to be active in studies and
writing.

8. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
D P Kothari
Director–Research, MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad
Former Director General, JB Group of Institutions, Hyderabad
Former Director General, Raisoni Group of Institutions, Nagpur
Emeritus Director General, Vindhya Institute of Technology and Science (VITS), Indore
Former Vice Chancellor, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore
Former Director In-Charge, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi
Former Principal, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur
I J Nagrath
Adjunct Professor and Former Deputy Director
Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences
Pilani, Rajasthan
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Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
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10. Contents
Preface xv
1. Elementary Concepts and Defi nitions 1.1–1.32
Goals & Objectives 1.1
1.1 Introduction 1.2
1.2 Work, Energy and Power 1.3
1.3 Basic Manifestations of Electricity 1.4
1.4 Electric Energy and Power 1.9
1.5 Superposition and Homogeneity 1.11
1.6 Ideal Circuit Elements 1.11
1.7 SI Units—International Standard of Units 1.29
Summary 1.30
Exercises 1.30
2. Fundamental Laws of Electric Circuits, Resistive Circuits 2.1–2.44
Goals & Objectives 2.1
2.1 Introduction 2.2
2.2 Fundamental Laws of Electric Circuits 2.2
2.3 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistances 2.5
2.4 Star ( Y )-Delta ( D ) Conversion 2.7
2.5 Source Representation and Conversion 2.9
2.6 Nodal Analysis 2.11
2.7 Mesh Analysis 2.18
2.8 Dependent Sources 2.22
2.9 Network Theorems—Superposition Theorem 2.25
2.10 Thevenin and Norton Theorems 2.26
2.11 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 2.31
Summary 2.35
Exercises 2.36

11. v i Contents
3. Steady-State Analysis for Sinusoidal Excitation 3.1–3.66
Goals & Objectives 3.1
3.1 Introduction 3.2
3.2 Sinusoidal Function 3.2
3.3 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis 3.7
3.4 Power in Sinusoidal Steady State 3.18
3.5 Nodal and Mesh Methods of Analysis 3.23
3.6 Network Theorems 3.26
3.7 Resonance 3.42
Summary 3.57
Exercises 3.58
4. Three-Phase Circuits 4.1–4.23
Goals & Objectives 4.1
4.1 Introduction 4.2
4.2 Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 4.2
4.3 Star (Y) Connection 4.4
4.4 Delta ( D ) Connection 4.7
4.5 Three-Phase Power 4.10
4.6 Three-Phase Circuit Analysis 4.11
4.7 Star-Delta Conversion 4.12
4.8 Three-Phase Power Measurement 4.14
Summary 4.20
Exercises 4.21
5. Magnetic Circuits 5.1–5.31
Goals & Objectives 5.1
5.1 Introduction 5.2
5.2 Ampere’s Law—Magnetic Quantities 5.2
5.3 Magnetic Circuits 5.5
5.4 Magnetic Materials and B-H Relationship (Magnetisation Characteristic) 5.10
5.5 Electromagnetic Induction and Force 5.13
5.6 Inductance: Self and Mutual 5.15
5.7 Energy Stored in Magnetic Systems (Linear) 5.18
5.8 The ac Operation of Magnetic Circuits 5.21
5.9 Hysteresis and Eddy-Current Losses 5.23
Summary 5.26
Exercises 5.28
6. Transformers 6.1–6.42
Goals & Objectives 6.1
6.1 Introduction 6.2
6.2 Ideal Transformer (IT) 6.5
6.3 Accounting for Finite Permeability and Core Loss 6.10
6.4 Circuit Model of Transformer 6.11
6.5 Per-Unit System 6.17

12. Contents v ii
6.6 Determination of Parameters of Circuit Model of Transformer 6.21
6.7 Voltage Regulation 6.27
6.8 Nameplate Rating 6.29
6.9 Effi ciency 6.32
6.10 Three-Phase Transformers 6.34
Summary 6.37
Exercises 6.40
7. dc Machines 7.1–7.48
Goals & Objectives 7.1
7.1 Introduction 7.2
7.2 Constructional and Operational Features 7.2
7.3 Armature Windings and Commutation 7.4
7.4 emf and Torque 7.8
7.5 Circuit Model 7.11
7.6 Armature Reaction 7.13
7.7 Commutation 7.15
7.8 Methods of Excitation and Magnetisation Characteristics 7.16
7.9 Characteristics of dc Motors and Speed Control 7.19
7.10 dc Motor Starting 7.33
7.11 Effi ciency of dc Motors 7.34
7.12 Characteristics of dc Generators 7.36
7.13 dc Motor Applications 7.39
Summary 7.42
Exercises 7.45
8. Synchronous Machine—Generator (Alternator) and Motor 8.1–8.46
Goals & Objectives 8.1
8.1 Introduction 8.2
8.2 Elementary Synchronous Machine 8.3
8.3 Three-Phase Generator (Alternator) 8.5
8.4 Generated emf of ac Windings 8.6
8.5 Rotating Magnetic Field 8.10
8.6 Torque in Round Rotor Machine 8.12
8.7 Circuit Model (Equivalent Circuit) 8.15
8.8 Operating Characteristics 8.22
Summary 8.37
Exercises 8.41
9. Induction Motor 9.1–9.35
Goals & Objectives 9.1
9.1 Introduction 9.2
9.2 Construction 9.2
9.3 Circuit Model (Equivalent Circuit) 9.6
9.4 Torque-Slip Characteristic 9.11
9.5 Determination of Circuit Model Parameters 9.15

13. v iii Contents
9.6 Starting 9.19
9.7 High-Effi ciency Induction Motors 9.24
Summary 9.29
Exercises 9.32
10. Fractional kW Motors 10.1–10.11
Goals & Objectives 10.1
10.1 Introduction 10.2
10.2 Single-Phase Induction Motors 10.2
10.3 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors 10.8
10.4 AC Series Motor—Universal Motor 10.8
Summary 10.10
Exercises 10.10
11. Measuring Instruments 11.1–11.32
Goals & Objectives 11.1
11.1 Introduction 11.2
11.2 Electrical and Electronic Instruments 11.2
11.3 Classifi cation of Instruments 11.4
11.4 Types of Indicating Instruments 11.6
11.5 Multimeter or VOM 11.18
11.6 Oscilloscope 11.20
11.7 Frequency Measurement 11.21
11.8 Phase Measurement 11.22
11.9 Digital Instruments 11.23
Summary 11.30
Exercises 11.31
12. Power Systems 12.1–12.28
Goals & Objectives 12.1
12.1 Introduction 12.2
12.2 Energy Conversion 12.4
12.3 Electric Supply Systems 12.5
12.4 Electrical Elements 12.7
12.5 Concept of Power Transmission 12.7
12.6 System Voltage and Transmission Effi ciency 12.9
12.7 Comparison of Conductor Costs of Transmission Systems 12.11
12.8 Power-Factor Improvement 12.13
12.9 The One-Line (Single-Line) Diagram 12.16
12.10 Transmission Line Performance 12.16
12.11 Transmission and Distribution Systems 12.17
12.12 High Voltage dc (HVDC) Transmission 12.21
12.13 Cables 12.24
12.14 Types of Cables 12.24
Summary 12.26
Exercises 12.27

14. Contents ix
13. Semiconductors 13.1–13.10
Goals & Objectives 13.1
13.1 Conduction in Solids 13.2
13.2 Doped Semiconductors 13.6
Summary 13.9
Exercises 13.9
14. Diodes and Applications 14.1–14.31
Goals & Objectives 14.1
14.1 Introduction 14.2
14.2 PN -Junction Diode 14.2
14.3 Zener Diode 14.9
14.4 Rectifi cation 14.11
14.5 Wave Shaping 14.19
14.6 Special-Purpose Diodes 14.23
Summary 14.28
Exercises 14.28
15. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and Other Devices 15.1–15.30
Goals & Objectives 15.1
15.1 Introduction 15.2
15.2 BJT Construction and Operation 15.2
15.3 BJT Confi gurations and Characteristics 15.6
15.4 Silicon-Controlled Rectifi er (SCR) 15.10
15.5 Unijunction Transistor (UJT) 15.16
15.6 DC Biasing 15.17
Summary 15.27
Exercises 15.27
16. Field Effect Transistors (FETs) 16.1–16.26
Goals & Objectives 16.1
16.1 Introduction 16.2
16.2 JFETs 16.2
16.3 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) 16.8
16.4 FET Circuit Confi gurations 16.15
16.5 CMOS Circuits 16.16
16.6 FET Biasing 16.17
Summary 16.23
Exercises 16.23
17. Small-Signal Model of Transistors and Amplifi ers 17.1–17.37
Goals & Objectives 17.1
17.1 Introduction 17.2
17.2 BJT Small-Signal Model 17.3
17.3 Hybrid Equivalent of BJT—Small-Signal Model 17.5
17.4 CE BJT Amplifi er 17.16
17.5 Effect of Source and Load Resistance 17.21

15. x Contents
17.6 Frequency Response 17.22
17.7 Low-Frequency Response 17.23
17.8 High-Frequency Response 17.25
Summary 17.29
Exercises 17.30
18. Op-Amp 18.1–18.24
Goals & Objectives 18.1
18.1 Introduction 18.2
18.2 Basic Op-Amp Circuits 18.5
18.3 Schmitt Trigger 18.16
18.4 Constant-Gain Multiplier 18.18
18.5 Basic Logarithmic Amplifi er 18.18
Summary 18.20
Exercises 18.20
19. Feedback Amplifi ers and Oscillators 19.1–19.10
Goals & Objectives 19.1
19.1 Introduction 19.2
19.2 Types of Feedback 19.2
19.3 Gain Stability with Feedback 19.4
19.4 Other Oscillator Circuits 19.8
Summary 19.8
Exercises 19.8
20. Regulated Power Supplies 20.1–20.10
Goals & Objectives 20.1
20.1 Introduction 20.2
20.2 Series Voltage Regulator 20.2
20.3 Shunt Voltage Regulator 20.3
20.4 Monolithic Linear Regulators 20.6
Summary 20.8
Exercises 20.8
21. Digital Logic 21.1–21.22
Goals & Objectives 21.1
21.1 Introduction 21.2
21.2 Switching and Logic Levels 21.3
21.3 Digital Waveform 21.4
21.4 Characterisation of Digital ICs 21.4
21.5 Logic Gates 21.5
Summary 21.19
Exercises 21.19
22. Digital Electronics 22.1–22.34
Goals & Objectives 22.1
22.1 Introduction 22.2

16. Contents xi
22.2 Number Systems 22.2
22.3 Boolean Algebra Theorems 22.12
22.4 Digital Circuits 22.15
22.5 Introduction to Sequential Circuits 22.22
22.6 Flip-Flops 22.24
22.7 General Model of a Sequential Circuit 22.30
Summary 22.30
Exercises 22.30
23. Boolean Algebra and Combinational Circuits 23.1–23.22
Goals & Objectives 23.1
23.1 Introduction 23.2
23.2 Binary Number System 23.2
23.3 Octal Number System 23.8
23.4 Hexadecimal Number System 23.9
23.5 Codes 23.12
23.6 Boolean Relations 23.14
23.7 Algebraic Simplifi cation 23.15
23.8 NAND and NOR Implementation 23.17
Summary 23.21
Exercises 23.22
24. Flip-Flops 24.1–24.15
Goals & Objectives 24.1
24.1 Introduction 24.2
24.2 IEEE Logic Symbols 24.2
24.3 NAND Gate Latch/NOR Gate Latch 24.2
24.4 RS Flip-Flop 24.4
24.5 Gated Flip-Flops 24.4
24.6 Preset and Clear 24.5
24.7 Clocked D Flip-Flop 24.6
24.8 Edge Triggering 24.6
24.9 Edge-Triggered RS Flip-Flop 24.8
24.10 Positive-Edge-Triggered JK Flip-Flops 24.8
24.11 JK Master-Slave Flip-Flop 24.9
24.12 JK Clocked Conversions 24.10
Summary 24.11
Exercises 24.12
25. Registers and Counters 25.1–25.14
Goals & Objectives 25.1
25.1 Introduction 25.2
25.2 Shift Registers 25.2
25.3 Register Type 25.3
25.4 Commercially Available TTL MSI/LSI Registers 25.4
25.5 Counters 25.5

17. xii Contents
25.6 Asynchronous Counters 25.5
25.7 Synchronous Counter 25.7
Summary 25.13
Exercises 25.13
26. Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters 26.1–26.14
Goals & Objectives 26.1
26.1 Introduction 26.2
26.2 Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) 26.2
26.3 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) 26.6
26.4 Successive Approximation Converter 26.7
26.5 Commercially Available Converters 26.8
26.6 Accuracy and Resolution 26.10
Summary 26.13
Exercises 26.13
27. Transducers 27.1–27.13
Goals & Objectives 27.1
27.1 Introduction 27.2
27.2 Mechanical Transducers 27.2
27.3 Passive Electrical Transducers 27.5
27.4 Active Electrical Transducers 27.9
Summary 27.12
Exercises 27.12
28. Basics of Computers 28.1–28.22
Goals & Objectives 28.1
28.1 Introduction 28.2
28.2 Generation of Computers 28.2
28.3 Classifi cation of Computers 28.3
28.4 The Computer System 28.4
28.5 Computer Hardware 28.5
28.6 Computer Software 28.8
28.7 Data Communication and Computer Network 28.12
28.8 Convergence of Computing and Communication 28.18
28.9 Emerging Technologies in Computing 28.19
28.10 Next-Generation Computing Paradigms 28.20
Summary 28.21
Exercises 28.21
29. Clock and Timing Circuits 29.1–29.8
Goals & Objectives 29.1
29.1 Introduction 29.2
29.2 The IC-555 Timer 29.2
29.3 Astable Operation 29.3

18. Contents xiii
29.4 Monostable Operation 29.4
Summary 29.7
Exercises 29.7
30. Communication Engineering 30.1–30.32
Goals & Objectives 30.1
30.1 Introduction 30.2
30.2 Elements of Communication Systems 30.2
30.3 Modulation 30.2
30.4 Transmitter 30.12
30.5 Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Circuit 30.15
30.6 Digital Communication 30.15
30.7 Multiplexing 30.17
30.8 Pulse Demodulation 30.17
30.9 The Telephone Systems 30.19
30.10 Data Transmission 30.20
30.11 Digital Modulation 30.21
30.12 Multiplexing and Multi-Access 30.21
30.13 Transmission Lines 30.21
30.14 Radio Waves 30.22
30.15 Antennas 30.22
30.16 Television 30.23
30.17 Satellite Communication 30.24
30.18 Principle of Operations of Mobile Phone 30.25
30.19 FAX 30.26
30.20 ISDN 30.26
30.21 Microwave Communication 30.28
30.22 Optical Fibre Communication 30.28
Summary 30.30
Exercises 30.30
Appendix A A.1–A.10
Appendix B A.11–A.12
Bibliography B.1–B.4
Index I.1–I.10

20. Preface
The excellent response to the three editions of our book Basic Electrical Engineering has motivated us
to bring out a book on Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering that offers a panaromic purview of
this popular fi rst-year engineering course. The main aim was to provide the complete material on basic
topics in electrical and electronics engineering in one volume to students and teachers of all branches of
engineering.
Aim of this Book
The objective of this book, like our other books, is to give an exhaustive exposition of the fundamental
concepts, techniques and devices in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. In attempting to do so, we have
covered the basic concepts in Electric Circuit Theory, Electrical Machines, Electronics, Communication
Engineering and Computers in a single volume.
Target Audience
The book attends to the basic course in EEE of almost all Indian technical universities and some foreign
universities as well. It is particularly well suited for undergraduate students of all engineering disciplines.
Diploma students of EEE and ECE will fi nd it useful too. The specialty of the book is that it covers very
basic as well as advanced topics in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. The book can be used for a single
course (basic Electrical /Electronics) at the basic level for all branches of engineering.
Salient Features
The highlights of this book are its rich pool of pedagogical features, large number of solved problems in
all the 30 chapters, along with numerous review questions, additional solved problems and multiple-choice
questions. A brief look at the highlights follows:
Emphasis on delivering the preliminaries of electrical and electronics engineering �
Span of coverage ensures introduction to all important subject areas in the fi eld �
Highly pedagogical exposition of subject area: �
∑ Over 775 illustrations
∑ 290 Solved Examples
∑ 466 Review Questions
∑ 290 Numerical Problems
∑ About 300 Multiple-Choice Questions and other Objective-Type Questions

21. xv i Preface
Chapter Organisation
The book, spanning over 30 chapters and 2 appendices, has been structured to provide in-depth information
of all the concepts with appropriate pedagogy. Chapters 1 to 5 are on Electric Circuit Theory; chapters 6 to
10 cover Transformers and Electrical Machines. Chapter 11 is on Measuring Instruments and Electric and
Electronic Instrumentation. Chapter 12 provides in-depth understanding of Power Systems. Chapter 28
deals with the Basics of Computers. Chapter 30 tells the story of Communication Engineering. The rest of
the chapters explain the basic concepts of various topics in Electronics Engineering. Some useful appendices
have been provided for easy reference.
Online Learning Center
The book is accompanied by an online learning center, available at http://www.mhhe.com/kothari/beee that
offers valuable resources for instructors and students.
For instructors �
∑ Solution Manual
∑ Chapterwise PowerPoint slides with diagrams and notes for effective presentation
For students �
∑ Chapter on ‘Control System (Chapter 31)’
∑ Links to reference material
∑ Chapter outlines for quick revision during the examinations
Acknowledgements
While writing the text, we have had the benefi t of valuable advice and suggestions from many teachers,
students and other readers. All these individuals have infl uenced this book. We hope this support/response
would continue in future also.
We are grateful to the authorities of IIT, Delhi, BITS Pillani, VIT University, Vellore; VITS, Indore; RGI,
Nagpur; JBIET, Hyderabad and MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad, for providing all the facilities for
writing the book.
The publishers and authors would like to thank and also express their appreciation for all those reviewers
who took out time to review the book. Their names are given as follows.
Abhishek Basu
RCC Institute of Information Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal
Arun Bera
Neotia Institute of Technology, Management and Science (NITMAS), West Bengal
Keka Hazra
Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy Engineering College, Durgapur, West Bengal
Nilesh Patel
Laljibhai Chaturbhai Institute of Technology, Mehsana, Gujarat
Rajesh Thakker
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Sunil Nyati
Shrama Sadhana Bombay Trust’s College of Engineering and Technology, Jalgaon, Maharashtra
Vijay Chavda Nanjibhai
Government Engineering College, Modasa, Gujarat

22. Preface xv ii
Shriniwas Annasaheb Patil
Textile and Engineering Institute, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Ramani B
Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar (SSN) College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
R Shankar
Kongunadu College of Engineering and Technology, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu
P M Chandrashekharaiah
Shridevi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Tumkur, Karnataka
S Bharath Kumar
NBKR Institute of Science and Technology, Nellore, Karnataka
Padma Batra
Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
T L Singal
Chitkara University, Chandigarh, Punjab
Dinesh Chandra
Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeshwara (JSS) Academy of Technical Education, Noida, Uttar Pradesh
We also thank our publishers, McGraw-Hill Education (India) and our families who supported us during
this period and for providing all possible help so that this book could see the light of the day.
Special note from Dr Kothari
He wishes to place on record his gratitude to his colleagues at IIT, Delhi; VIT, Vellore; VITS, Indore; RGI,
Nagpur; JBIET, Hyderabad and MVSR Engineering College, Hyderabad, for help in preparing rough drafts
of certain portions of the manuscript and in working out the solutions of examples and unsolved problems
of certain chapters.
Feedback
We look forward to receiving suggestions and constructive criticism from teachers and students at the
publisher’s email id, mentioned below.
D P Kothari
I J Nagrath
Publisher’s Note
McGraw-Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent to
[email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.

24. Elementary Concepts
and Defi nitions
Goals & Objectives
Defi nition of electrical quantities and their units �
Understanding the relationship between charge, voltage, current and power �
Acquiring capability to work with sign convention—voltage and current �
The � dc and ac current and voltage; characteristics of sinusoidal waveform universally used for ac currents
and voltages
Resistor and Ohm’s laws, in relation to inductor and capacitor �
Acquiring ability to employ basic circuit laws—Kirchhoff’s Current Law [KCL] and Kirchhoff’s Voltage �
Law [KVL]
Ability to deal with independent and dependent sources �
1chapter

25. 1.2 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electric energy is convenient and effi cient for production of light, mechanical energy and is also used in
information processing. For the fi rst two uses, it can be transported economically and in a clean fashion
(as compared to transporting coal, for example) over long-distance lines to be available at the point of use.
Electric energy also can transport information over tremendous distances, with or without wires, equally
effi ciently and economically. There is almost no competitor to electric energy in these fi elds.
Electric energy does not occur naturally in usable form and must therefore be centrally generated and
instantly transported to myriad points of use spread geographically over vast areas, even beyond state
or national boundaries. It cannot be stored in large-enough quantities for any major use. Electric-energy
generation is generally done through three processes:
1. Generating from naturally occurring chemically bonded energy as in fossil fuels (like coal and oil).
2. From nuclear energy, which is converted to heat form by combustion or nuclear fi ssion. The
thermodynamic cycle converts it to mechanical form (rotational) which is then employed to run an
electric energy generator.
3. For limited use, electric energy is directly obtained from chemical energy, as in batteries, or solar
energy is converted to electric energy as in a solar cell. The trend in electric energy generators is
towards mega sizes, due to economy in large scales.
Information, usually visual or audio signals or coded messages, have to be processed and/or transported
by the intermediate form of electric energy. Speed of processing and the economy dictate that the electric
energy for these purposes must be in minutest possible quantities, in either continuous form or bit form
(modern trend). Hence, the trend is towards micro sizes. Range and variety of such use of electric energy is
varied and wide as in video and audio systems, control processors, computers, etc.
Fibre optics using light signals is beginning to offer stiff competition to electric energy for purposes of
information processing. The end-use energy form of such systems would, for a long time to come, continue
to be electric.
This being the fi rst chapter, it begins by introducing the fundamental laws of electricity and conservation
of energy. The concepts of electric charge, current, voltage and electric sources and power are clarifi ed
along with the sign convention. Idealised circuit elements such as resistance, capacitance and inductance are
dwelled upon along with basic laws that govern their terminal behaviour. The practical circuit elements such
as resistor, capacitor and inductor are introduced.
Interconnection of circuit elements leads to the concept of electric circuit. The two fundamental circuit
laws lay the foundation stone of the circuit theory to which the fi rst six chapters of this book are devoted. The
chapter ends on the principle of superposition, homogeneity and concept of linearity.
The importance of circuit theory can be judged from the fact that almost all electric and electronic
devices, transducers, transmission lines, energy and information processing systems, etc. are modelled in
the form of a circuit with sources for the purpose of their analysis and design. Circuit modelling cannot be
applied as such to very high-frequency devices (microwave equipment, etc.) where travelling-wave concept
is necessary for their modelling.
In view of the above account, the electric circuit theory is fundamental to all fi elds of electrical engineering.
An electric circuit on an analogic basis can model even some mechanical systems.

26. Other documents randomly have
different content

27. A Farewell to the World.
Now Farewell, World, in which is not my Treasure;
I have in thee enjoy’d but little Pleasure.
And now I leave thee for a Better Place,
Where lasting Pleasures are, before Christ’s face.
Farewell, ye Sons of Men, who do not savor
The things of God; who little prize his Favor.
Farewell, I say, with your Fool’s Paradise,
Until the King of Terrors you surprise,
And bring you trembling to Christ’s Judgment Seat,
To give Account of your Transgressions great.
Farewell, New England, which hast long enjoy’d
The Day of Grace, but hast most vainly toy’d
And trifled with the Gospel’s glorious Light;
Thou may’st expect a dark Egyptian Night.
Farewell, young Brood and rising Generation,
Wanton and proud, ripe for God’s Indignation,
Which neither you nor others can prevent,
Except in Truth you speedily repent.
Farewell, sweet Saints of God, Christ’s little Number,
Beware lest ye through sloth securely slumber;
Stand to your Spir’tual Arms and keep your Watch,
Let not your Enemy you napping catch;
Take up your Cross, prepare for Tribulation,
Through which doth lie the way unto salvation.
Love Jesus Christ with all sincerity;
Eschew Will-worship and Idolatry.

28. Farewell, again, until we all appear
Before our Lord, a Well-done there to hear.
Farewell, ye faithful Servants of the Lord,
Painful dispensers of his Holy Word,
From whose Communion and Society
I once was kept through long infirmity.
This of my Sorrows was an aggravation;
But Christ be thankéd, through whose Mediation
I have at length obtainéd Liberty
To dwell with Soul-delighting Company,
Where many of our Friends are gone before,
And you shall follow with a many more.
Meanwhile stand fast, the Truth of God maintain,
Suffer for Christ, and great shall be your Gain.
Farewell, my natural Friends and dear Relations,
Who have my Trials seen and great Temptations;
You have no cause to make for me great Moan;
My Death to you is little Loss or none.
But unto me it is no little Gain,
For Death at once frees me from all my Pain.
Make Christ your greatest Friend, who never dies;
All other Friends are fading Vanities.
Make him your Light, your Life, your End, your All;
Prepare for Death, be ready for his Call.
Farewell, vile Body, subject to decay.
Which art with lingering sickness worn away;
I have by thee much Pain and Smart endur’d;
Great Grief of Mind hast thou to me procur’d;
Great Grief of Mind by being Impotent,
And to Christ’s Work an awkward Instrument.
Thou shalt not henceforth be a clog to me.
Nor shall my Soul a Burthen be to thee.

29. Rest in thy Grave until the Resurrection,
Then shalt thou be revivéd in Perfection,
Endow’d with wonderful Agility,
Clothéd with Strength and Immortality;
With shining Brightness gloriously array’d,
Like to Christ’s glorious Body, glorious made.
Thus Christ shall thee again to me restore,
Ever to live with him and part no more.
Meanwhile my Soul shall enter into Peace,
Where Fears and Tears, where Sin and Smart shall cease.

30. A Character of the Reverend Author,
Mr. Michael Wigglesworth, in a
Funeral Sermon Preached at
Malden, June 24, 1705. By the
Reverend Dr. Cotton Mather.
He was Descended of Eminently Religious Parents, who were
Sufferers for that which was then The Cause of God and of New-
England. While he was yet a youth, he was marvellously concerned
that he might have an Heart filled with the Spirit of God. This
Concernment upon his mind appeared especially in his watchful
Endeavors to have Spiritual Sins chased out of his cleansed Heart.
Pride, the Sin of Young Men, yea, of all Men; Pride, the Sin which
few Men try or trouble themselves about; this Devout Youth was full
of Holy and Watchful Trouble about it: And he then wrote a very
Savoury Discourse, Entituled, Considerations against Pride, and
another, Entituled, Considerations against Delighting more in the
Creature than in God. This was to Mortify in himself the Sins rarely
minded by the most of men.
Having had a Pious and a Learned Education, the first Publick
Station wherein I find him, was that of a Fellow and a Tutor in
Harvard Colledge. With a rare Faithfulness did he adorn that Station!
He used all means imaginable to make his Pupils not only good
Scholars, but also good Christians, and instil into them those things
which might render them rich Blessings unto the Churches of God.
Unto his Watchful and Painful Essays to keep them close under their
Academical Exercises he added Serious Admonitions unto them
about their Interior State; and he Employed his Prayers and Tears to
God for them, and had such a flaming zeal to make them worthy

31. Men, that upon Reflection he was afraid Lest his cares for their
Good, and his affection to them, should so drink up his very Spirit,
as to steal away his Heart from God.
From Cambridge he made his remove to Malden, and was their
Faithful Pastor for about a Jubilee of years together.
It was not long after his coming to Maiden that a sickly Constitution
so prevailed upon him, as to confine him from his Publick Work for
some whole seven of Years. His Faithfulness continued when his
Ministry was thus interrupted. The Kindness of his Tender Flock unto
him was answered in his Kind Concern to have them served by other
Hands. He took a short voyage unto another Country for the
Recovery of his Health; which, though he recovered not, yet at his
Return I find him comforting himself with inserting of this Passage in
his Reserved Papers:
“Peradventure the Lord Removed me for a season that he might
set a better Watchman over his Flock, and a more painful
Laborer in his Vineyard. This was one thing that I aimed at in
Removing (to help the People’s Modesty in the case), and I
believe the Lord aimed at it, in Removing me for a season.”
His Faithfulness now appeared in his Edifying Discourses to those
that came near him; much bewailing the want of a Profitable and
Religious conversation in so many that profess Religion. And that yet
he might more Faithfully set himself to do Good, when he could not
Preach he Wrote several Composures, wherein he proposed the
edification of such Readers as are for plain Truths, dressed up in a
Plain Meeter. These Composures have had their Acceptance and
Advantage among that sort of Readers; and one of them, the Day of
Doom, which has been often Reprinted in both Englands, may find
our Children till the Day itself arrive.
It pleased God, when the distress of the Church in Malden did
extremely call for it, wondrously to restore his Faithful Servant. He

32. that had been for near Twenty Years almost Buried Alive, comes
abroad again, and for as many years more, must, in Publick
Usefulness, receive the Answer and Harvest of the Thousands of
Supplications with which the God of his Health had favoured him.
How Faithfully did he now Deliver the Whole Counsel of God!
How Faithfully did he Rebuke Sin, both in his Ministry and Discipline!
How Faithful was he to the Work of God in the Churches of New-
England, and grieved at every thing that he thought had any
Tendency to incommode that Glorious Work! But how Patient, how
Loving, how Charitable to such as in lesser Matters differed from
him!
How Faithful was he in the Education of his Family! A very Abraham
for his Commands unto them, to Keep the Way of the Lord! A very
David for his charge unto them to Know the God of their Father and
Serve Him!
His long Weakness and Illness made him an able Physician for the
Body as well the Soul.
As he was Faithful to the Death, so he was Lively to the Death.
It was a surprise to us to see a little, feeble Shadow of a Man,
beyond Seventy, Preaching usually twice or thrice in a week,
Visiting, Comforting the Afflicted, Encouraging the Private Meetings,
Catechising the Children of the Flock, and managing the Government
of the Church, and attending the Sick, not only as a Pastor, but as a
Physician too; and this not only in his own Town, but also in all those
of the Vicinity. Thus he did unto the Last; and he was but one
Lord’s-Day taken off before his Last. But in the Last Week of his Life,
how full of Resignation! How full of Satisfaction!
From his Exemplary Life I will single out one thing, his EARLY
RELIGION. Our Wigglesworth was a Godly child, and he held on

33. living to God and Christ until the Seventy-Fourth Year of his Age.
When he lay a Dying, some one spoke to him about his having
secured his Interest in the Favor of Heaven, and his Assurance of
that Interest. He Replyed, [Methoughts like my Polycarp,]
“I bless God I began that Work betimes, and ere I was Twenty
Years Old I had made thorow work of it. Ever since then I have
been pressing after the Power of Godliness, the Power of
Godliness! For more than Fifty Years together I have been
Laboring to uphold a Life of Communion with God; and I thank
the Lord I now find the Comfort of it!
Words that contain in them A History of a Life more Valuable than I
have seen a Volume in Folio.

34. Epitaph. (Believed to Have Been
Written by Rev. Cotton Mather.) The
Excellent Wigglesworth;
Remembered by Some Good
Tokens.
His Pen did once Meat from the Eater fetch;
And now he’s gone beyond the Eater’s reach.
His Body once so Thin, was next to None;
From hence he’s to Unbodied Spirits flown.
Once his rare skill did all Diseases heal;
And he does nothing now uneasy feel.
He to his Paradise is joyful come,
And waits with joy to see his Day of Doom.

35. Contents.
Memoir of the Author
Autobiography
To the Christian Reader
On the following Work
Prayer unto Christ
The Day of Doom
    Security of the World before Christ’s coming
    Suddenness and Terror of his appearing
    Resurrection — All brought to judgment
    The Sheep separated from the goats
    The several sorts of reprobates described
    The Saints justified — Election — Atonement
    They are placed on thrones
    The wicked brought to the Bar
    Secret sins brought to light
    Hypocrites plead for themselves
    Another sort of hypocrites
    Civil honest men’s pleas
    Pretended want of opportunity to repent
    Plea of examples of betters
    Godly men’s examples misleading
    Scripture, darkness, and difference of interpretation
    Fear of persecution
    Plea of God’s mercy and justice
    Vessels of mercy
    Mercy abused — Day of grace past
    Shutting out by God’s decree
    The Heathen’s plea
    Reprobate infants’ plea
    The wicked all convinced and silenced

36.     Hopeless and helpless estate of the ungodly
    Sentence of condemnation
    Sentence executed — The wicked cast into Hell
    Their unsufferable torments
    The saints rejoice thereat
    They ascend in triumph to Heaven
A Short discourse on Eternity
A Postscript unto the Reader
Vanity of Vanities
Death expected
A Farewell to the World
Funeral Sermon
Epitaph

37. 1. Luke 12:19.↩
2. Matt. 25:5.↩
3. Mat. 24:37, 38.↩
4. 1 Thes. 5:3.↩
5. Mat. 25:6.
2 Pet. 3:10.↩
6. Mat. 24:29, 30.↩
7. 2 Pet. 3:10.↩
8. Rev. 6:15↩
9. Mat. 24:30.↩
10. Rev. 6:15, 16.↩
11. Mat. 25:21.↩
12. Rev. 6:14.↩
13. Thes. 4:16.↩
14. John 5:28, 29↩
15. Luke 20:36.
1 Cor. 15:52.↩
16. Mat. 24:31↩

38. 17. 2 Cor. 5:10.
Matt. 25:32.↩
18. Mat. 5:10, 11.↩
19. Heb. 12:5, 6, 7.↩
20. Luke 7:41, 47.↩
21. John 21:15.
Mat. 19:14.
John 3:3.↩
22. Rev. 6:11.
Phil. 3:21.↩
23. Mat. 24:51.↩
24. Luke 11:24, 26.
Heb. 6:4, 5, 6.
Heb. 10:29.↩
25. Luke 12:47.
Prov. 1:24, 26.
Job 3:19↩
26. Gal. 3:10.
1 Cor. 6:9.
Rev. 21:8↩
27. Exod. 20:7, 8.
2 Thes. 1:6, 8, 9.↩
28. Heb. 13:4.
1 Cor. 6:10.↩

39. 29. Zach. 5:3, 4.
Gal. 5:19, 20, 21.↩
30. Rom. 2:13↩
31. Acts 4:12.↩
32. 1 Cor. 6:3.↩
33. Jude 6.↩
34. 2 Cor. 5:10.
Eccl. 3:17.
John 3:18↩
35. Job 17:6.
Eph. 1:4.↩
36. Rev. 1:5.↩
37. Eph. 2:1, 3.↩
38. Mat. 23:13, 15.
Rom. 9:20, 21.↩
39. Isa. 53:4, 5, 11.↩
40. Acts 1:3, 48.
Jam. 2:18.
Heb. 12:7.
Mat. 19:29.↩
41. 1 John 3:3.
Mat. 25:39, 40.↩
42. Isa. 53:11, 12.
Rom. 8:16, 17, 33, 34.

40. John 3:18.↩
43. Luke 22:29, 30.
Mat. 19:28.↩
44. Mat. 25:34.↩
45. Cor. 6:2.↩
46. Rom. 2:3, 6, 11.↩
47. Rev. 6:15, 16.
Isa. 30:33.↩
48. Eccl. 11:9, 12, 14.↩
49. Ps. 139:2, 4, 12.
Rom. 2:16↩
50. Eccl. 12:14.↩
51. Mat. 12:36.
Rom. 7:7↩
52. John 5:40, and 3:19.
Mat. 25:19, 27.↩
53. Rom. 2:4, 5.↩
54. Isa. 1:5.
Jer. 2:20↩
55. John 3:19, etc.
Prov. 8:36.
Luke 12:20, 21.↩

41. 56. Luke 13:34.
John 5:40, and 15:22.↩
57. Rom. 3:10, 12.↩
58. Rom. 6:23.↩
59. Mat. 7:21, 22, 23.↩
60. John 6:70.
1 Cor. 9:27.↩
61. Rom. 2:19, 21, 22, 23.↩
62. John 9:41.
Rev. 2:21, 22.↩
63. Luke 12:47.
Matt. 11:21, 22, 24.↩
64. Luke 13:20.↩
65. Luke 13:27.
Matt. 22:12.↩
66. 1 Cor. 11:27, 29.↩
67. Mat. 6:21, 24.
Rom. 1:25.↩
68. 1 Cor. 11:27, 29.↩
69. Acts 8:13.
Isa. 58:2, 3.
Heb. 6:4, 5.↩
70. 2 Pet. 2:20.↩

42. 71. John 2:24, 25.↩
72. John 6:64.
Psal. 50:16.
Mat. 15:26.↩
73. Rev. 3:17.
Mat. 13:20.↩
74. Mat. 6:2, 4, 24.
Jer. 8:5, 6, 7, 8.↩
75. Psal. 78:34, 35, 36, 37.↩
76. Zach. 7:5, 6.
Isa. 58:3, 4.
1 Sam.15:13, 21.
Isa. 1:11, 15.↩
77. Mat. 6:2, 5.
John 5:44.↩
78. Zech. 7:5, 16.
Hos. 10:1.↩
79. Luke 18:11.↩
80. 1 Sam. 15:22.↩
81. Eccl. 7:20.↩
82. Deut. 10:12.
Tit. 2:12.
Jam. 2:10.↩
83. Luke 18:11, 14.↩

43. 84. 1 Sam.16:7.
2 Chron. 25:2.↩
85. Heb. 11:6.
1 Cor. 13:1, 2, 3.↩
86. Rom. 10:3.↩
87. Rom. 9:30, 32.
Matt 11:23, 24 and 21:41.↩
88. Mat. 6:5.↩
89. Prov. 26:23.
Mat. 23:27.↩
90. Prov 15:8.
Rom. 3:20.↩
91. Prov. 27:1.
Jam. 4:13.↩
92. Eccl. 12:1.
Rev. 2:21.↩
93. Luke 13:24.
2 Cor. 6:2.
Heb. 3:7, 8, 9.↩
94. Eccl. 11:9.
Luke 14:18, 19, 20.↩
95. Amos 6:3, 4, 5, 6.
Eph. 5:16.
Luke 19:42.↩

44. 96. Luke 13:21, 25, etc.
Phil. 2:12.↩
97. Mat. 18:7.↩
98. John 7:48.↩
99. Psal. 19:8, 11.
Exod. 23:2.
Psal. 50:17, 18.↩
100. 2 Tim. 3:5.↩
101. 1 Cor. 11:1.
Phil. 4:8.↩
102. Psal. 32:5.
2 Chron. 32:26.
Mat. 26:75.
Prov. 1:24, 25.↩
103. 2 Pet. 3:16.↩
104. Prov. 14:6.
Isa. 35:8.
Hos. 8:12.↩
105. Matt. 11:25.
Prov. 2:3, 4, 5.↩
106. Acts 28:22.↩
107. John 12:42, 43.↩
108. Luke 12:4, 5.
Isa. 51:12, 13.↩

45. 109. Luke 9:23, 24, 25 and 16:2.↩
110. Luke 9:26.
Prov 8:36
John 3:19, 20.↩
111. Psal. 78:38.
2 Kin. 14:26.↩
112. Psal. 30:9.
Mic. 7:18.↩
113. Mic. 7:18.
Rom. 9:23.↩
114. Rom. 2:4.
Hos. 11:4.↩
115. Luke 13:34.↩
116. Luke 19:42, 43.
Jude 4.↩
117. Rom. 2:5, 6.
Isa. 1:24.
Amos 2:13.
Gen. 18:25. ↩
118. Mat. 25:3, 1, 2.
Prov. 12:8, 29, 30.↩
119. Isa. 5:18, 19.
Gen. 2 : 17.
Rom. 2:8, 9.↩

46. 120. Rom. 6:23.
2 Thes. 1:8, 9.↩
121. Ezek. 33:11.
Exod. 34:7, and 14:17.
Rom. 9:22.↩
122. Rom. 9:18, 19.↩
123. Heb. 22:17.
Rom. 11:7, 8.↩
124. Luke 13:27.
2 Pet. 1:9, 10, compared with Mat. 19:16.↩
125. Acts 3:19, and 16:31.
1 Sam. 2:15.
John 3:19.
Job 5:40.
2 Thes. 2:11, 12.↩
126. Ezek. 33:11, 12.
Luke 13:34.
Prov. 8:33, 36.↩
127. Gen. 2:17 .
Mat. 25:41, 42.
Ezek. 18:20.↩
128. 2 Pet. 1:10.
Acts 13:46.
Luke 13:24.↩
129. Mat. 7:7, 8
Gal. 5:22, 23.↩

47. 130. John 3:19.↩
131. John 5:40.↩
132. John 15:22, 24.
Heb. 2:3.
Isa. 66:34.↩
133. Mat. 11:22.
Luke 12:48.↩
134. 1 Cor. 1:21.↩
135. Mat. 11:22.↩
136. Gen. 1:27 .
Eccl. 7:29.
Hos. 13:9.↩
137. Mat. 11 : 25, compared with 20:15.↩
138. Rom. 1:20, 21, 22.↩
139. Rom. 2:12, 15 and 1:32.
Mat. 12:41.↩
140. Rev. 20:12, 15, compared with Rom. 5:12, 14 and 9:11, 13.
Ezek. 18:2.↩
141. Psal. 51:5.↩
142. Ezek. 18:20.
Rom. 5:12, 19.↩
143. 1 Cor. 15:48, 49.↩

48. 144. Rom. 5:12.
Psal. 51:5.
Gen. 5:3. ↩
145. Mat. 23:30, 31.↩
146. Rom. 9:15, 18.
Rom. 5:15.↩
147. Mat. 20:15.↩
148. Psal. 58:8.
Rom 6:23.
Gal. 3:10.
Rom. 8:29, 30, and 11:7.
Rev. 21:27.
Luke 12:14, 8.
Mat. 11:22.↩
149. Rom. 3:19.
Mat. 22:12.↩
150. Rev. 6:16, 17.↩
151. Psal. 139:2, 3, 4.
Eccl. 12:14.↩
152. Mat. 25:45.↩
153. Mat. 22:12.
Rom. 2:5, 6.
Luke 19:42.↩
154. Mat. 28:18.
Psal. 137:7.↩

49. 155. Isa. 33:14.
Psal. 11:6.
Num. 25:19.↩
156. Mat. 25:41, and 25:10, 11, 12.↩
157. Luke 12:20.
Psal. 49:7, 17.
Deut. 32:2.↩
158. 2 Pet. 3:10.↩
159. Mat. 13:41, 42.
Rev. 20:13, 15.↩
160. Luke 16:28.↩
161. Rev. 21:4.
Psal. 58:10.↩
162. 1 Cor. 6:2.↩
163. Compare Prov. 1:26. with 1 John 3:2, and 2 Cor. 5:16.↩
164. Luke 16:25.↩
165. Psal. 58:10.↩
166. Mat 25:41.↩
167. Luke 13:38.
Prov. 1:26.↩
168. Mat. 25:46.↩
169. Mat. 13:41, 42.↩

50. 170. Mat. 25:30,
Mark 9:42.
Isa. 30:33.
Rev. 21:8.↩
171. Mat. 22:13, and 25:46.↩
172. Rev. 14:10, 11.↩
173. Luke 16:24.
Jude 7.↩
174. Isa. 33:14.
Mark 9:43, 44.↩
175. Luke 12:47.↩
176. Mat. 11:24.↩
177. Luke 16:23, 25, and 13:28.↩
178. Luke 13:24.↩
179. Mat. 9:44.
Rom. 2:15.↩
180. Psal. 58:10.
Rev. 10:1, 2, 3.↩
181. Mat. 25:46.↩
182. 1 John 3:2.
1 Cor. 13:12.↩
183. Rev. 21:4.↩
184. Psal. 16:11.↩

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