Bed210 sep 2020 unit 2

it is all about the unit 2 syllabus of Gender, School and Society according to IPU syllabus of B.Ed.

1. Course Title: Gender, School and Society Course Code: BED210 9/15/2020 1

2. 9/15/2020 2 Objectives of the Course: • To develop understanding of some key concepts and terms and relate them with their context in understanding the power relations with respect to Educating and Education • To develop an understanding of the paradigm shift from Women studies to Gender Studies based on the historical backdrop. • To reflect on different theories of Gender and Education and relate it to power relations. • To analyse the institutions involved in Socialisation processes and see how socialisation practices impact power relations and identity formation

3. 9/15/2020 3 07/09/2020 UNIT 2: Gender Studies: Paradigm Shift • Paradigm shift from Women's studies to Gender studies • Historical backdrop: Some landmarks from social reform movements https://www.slideshare.net/BeenishSaleem2/gender-studies-1

4. 9/15/2020 4 A paradigm shift from women's studies to gender studies There is a Paradigm shift because earlier women were needed to be motivated and their family members had to be counseled to allow the women to contribute to the nation. It could be by means of studying or getting employment or involving in politics. The studied shifted to gender because now, both men and women have the same status. They can equally participate in all the fields that require their contributions.  So, a study is required to analyse their “social, behavioural and cultural attributes”.  What are their expectations etc.., This is mainly due to the rising awareness among the people and whole of the society, the rights of women now equal to the men so they can also do the same like an independent person and whatever they want. This is why you always see women participate in every field.

5. 9/15/2020 5 Introduction: A reform movement is a kind of social movement that aims to make a gradual change or change in certain aspects of society rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements. These social reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian people. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class. They worked for the abolition of castes and untouchability , purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities, and illiteracy.Social reform became an integral part of religious reform in India and this was equally true of Brahma Samaj , Prarthana Samaj , Arya Samaj , Ramakrishna Mission, and Theosophical Society in Hinduism as also among the Muslims, the Parsis and the Sikhs. The social reform movement in India has aimed at uprooting social evils and inculcating in men and women the spirit of sacrifice for the general good of the society.Some of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the British officials and some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations framed by the British Government.

6. 9/15/2020 6 Sati and Child Marriages: The term sati literally means a 'pure and virtuous woman'. It was applied in case of a devoted wife who contemplated perpetual and uninterrupted conjugal union with her husband life after life and as proof, thereof burnt herself with the dead body of her husband. Enlightened Indian rulers like Akbar, the Peshwas had imposed restrictions on its performance. Though the East India Company broadly adhered to its declared policy of noninterference with the social customs of the people, yet early Governors-General like Cornwallis, Minto and Lord Hastings had taken some steps to restrict the practice of sati by discouraging compulsion, forbidding administration of intoxicating drugs to the sorrow-stricken widows, putting a ban of the sati of pregnant women or widows below the age of 16 years and above all, making compulsory the presence of police officials at the time of sacrifice who were to see that no compulsion was used.

7. 9/15/2020 7 Enlightened Indian reformers led by Ram Mohan Roy launched a frontal attack on the evil of sati. With an eye, to the coming Charter debates in the British Parliament and anxious to get a renewal of its charter for another 20 years by presenting a creditable image of its activities in India, the Court of Directors encouraged William Bentinck to enact legislation to suppress sati. Regulation XVII of December 1829 declared the practice of satis or burning or burying alive of widows illegal and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide The Regulation of 1829 was applicable in the first instance to Bengal Presidency alone, but was extended in slightly modified forms to Madras and Bombay Legislative action in prohibiting child-marriage came in 1872 when by the Native Marriage Act marriage of girls below the age of 14 and boys below 18 years were forbidden.

8. 9/15/2020 8 However, this act was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims and other recognized faiths and as such had a very limited impact on Indian society. B.M. Malabari , a Parsi reformer of the 19th century, started a crusade against child marriage and his efforts were crowned by the enactment of the of Consent Act which forbade the marriages of girls below the age of Sharda Act 1929 further pushed up marriage age and provided for penal action of boys under 18 and girls under 14 years of age. An improvement was made by the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1978 which raised the age of presage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys 18 to 21.

9. 9/15/2020 9 Education of Women: Hindu society in the 19th century suffered from religious illusions that Hindu scriptures did not sanction female education of girls wrought wrath of gods leading to their widowhood. The Christian missionaries, whatever their motive, were the first to set up to Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in 1819. However, the celebrated name of J.E.D. Bethune, President of the Council of Education, will always be remembered with respect. In 1849 he founded a Girl's School in Calcutta. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar also did a lot in popularising the cause of education and was associated with no less than thirty-five girl's schools in Bengal.In Bombay, the students of Elphinstone Institute became the spearhead of the movement for women education and founded the Students Literary Society. Charles Wood's dispatch on Education laid great stress on the need for female education. In the broad perspective, women education became a part of the general campaign for an amelioration of the plight of women in society.

10. 9/15/2020 10 Abolition of Slavery: Slavery of the Greek or Roman or American Negro type did not exist in India. Slavery in India was more akin to what may be termed as a bonded-servant, bonded-labor type and slaves in India were treated in a humane manner unknown to Western countries. In this context, the observation of the Committee of Circuit deserves to be quoted. It reads, "The ideas of slavery borrowed from our American colonies will make an even modification of it appear in the eyes of our countrymen in England a horrible evil. But it is far otherwise in this country here slaves are treated as children of the families to which they belong and often acquire a much happier state by their slavery than that could have hoped for by the enjoyment of liberty. If in northern India slaves generally served as domestic servants, in south India slaves were mostly employed in cultivation. Of course, European slave-owners in India treated their slaves in the same inhuman manner characteristic of Western slave-owners.

11. 9/15/2020 11 Historical backdrop: Some landmarks from social reform movements BRAHMO SAMAJ & RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY: Raja Ram Mohan Roy was popularly known as the 'Father of Indian Renaissance ' was born on 22nd May 1772 in a Brahmin family in Bengal. He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1815 and the Brahmo Samaj on 20th August 1828. Through these organizations/Institutions, he fought against Orthodox Hindus and the fanatic Christian Missionaries. He was against of Sati system, Polygamy, Child marriage, Caste system, and Untouchability . He was the great supporter of Inter-caste marriage, women education, Widow Remarriages etc. Raja Rammohan Roy was not merely a religious reformer but a social reformer also. His greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1829. Raja Rammohan Roy realized that the practice of Sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women.

12. 9/15/2020 12 Therefore he started working as a stout champion of women’s rights. He worked very hard for years to stop this practice of ‘Sati’. In early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on the question of Sati. On the one hand, he showed by citing the authority of the oldest sacred books that the Hindu religion at its best as opposed to the practice and on the other, he appealed to reason and humanity and compassion of the people. He visited the burning Ghats of Calcutta to try and persuade the relatives of widows to give up their plan of self-immolation. His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the orthodox Hindus who bitterly attacked him. He advocated the abolition of polygamy (a practice of a man having more than one wife) and child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit property. He condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing ideas that women were inferior to men in intellect or in a moral sense. He advocated the rights of widows to remarry.

13. 9/15/2020 13 ARYA SAMAJ & SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI (1824-1883): Swami Dayanada was born in 1824 in a small town of Gujarat. Swami Dayanand Saraswati , the founder of the ' Arya Samaj ' in 1875 in Bombay and he was one of the makers of Modern India. His Arya Samaj gave emphasis on the liberation of the Hindu Society. He called people ‘Go back to the Veda’ created consciousness among the people. Dayanand Saraswati undertook a tour of the entire county, made fiery speeches condemning the caste system, idolatry, and child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. He advocated the ideal age for a girl to be between 16 and 24, and for men between 25 and 40. Dayanand Saraswati was the first leader in the field of theology who welcomed the advances of sciences and technology. To him, the Vedas as the sourcebook contains the seed of science, and to him, the Vedas advocate the philosophy of dynamic realism.

14. 9/15/2020 14 PRARTHANA SAMAJ & RANADE: The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825-1898) in 1876 with the objective of rational worship and social reform. The two great members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade . They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of a lot of women and depressed classes. Justice Mahavdev Govind Ranade (1842-1901) devoted his entire life to Prarthana Samaj . He was the founder of the Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan Education Society. He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well. To Ranade , religious reform was inseparable from social reform. He also believed that if religious ideas were rigid there would be no success in social, economic and political spheres. M.G.Ranade was the leader of social reformation and cultural renaissance in Western India.

15. 9/15/2020 15 Ranade’s great message to the persons who were involved in social service was “Strength of numbers we cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction, singleness of devotion, readiness for self-sacrifice, in all honest workers in the cause.” SATYA SHODHAK SAMAJ & JOTIRAO GOVINDRAO PHULE: Jyotirao Govindrao Phule , who was a prominent activist, thinker and social reformer from the Indian state of Maharashtra during the 19th century, was also famous by the name of Mahatma Jyotiba Phule . During his time, he tried bringing in positive renovations in the spheres of education, agriculture, caste system, the social position of women et al. Out of everything that Phule ever did, he's most remembered for his selfless service to educate women and lower caste people.

16. 9/15/2020 16 Jotirao Govindrao Phule popularly known as Jotiba . They worked for the upliftment of women, took up the cause of women and downtrodden masses. Jyotiba with his wife started a girls school in Poona, in 1857. He also opened a school for the children of the depressed classes. Jotiba Phule was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra. He challenged the dominance of Brahmins and worked for organizing and activating the masses. He championed the cause of villagers and actively worked for rural development in Maharashtra. Jotiba was given the title of ‘Mahatma’ for his work for the cause of the oppressed. In 1873, he founded the Satya-Shodhak to give strength to his movement and make it popular.

17. 9/15/2020 17 ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR: Another outstanding reformer in Bengal was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891). A scholar of great depths, he dedicated himself to the cause of the emancipation of women. It was due to his sincere efforts that obstacles to the marriage of widows were removed through a law in 1856. He played a leading role in promoting the education of girls and started and helped the setting up a number of schools for girls. Vidyasagar did not concern himself much with religious questions. However, he was against all those who opposed reforms in the name of religion. Vidyasagar championed the uplift of the status of women in India, particularly in his native Bengal. Unlike some other reformers who sought to set up alternative societies or systems, he sought, however, to transform orthodox Hindu society from within. Vidyasagar introduced the practice of widow remarriages to mainstream Hindu society. In earlier times, remarriages of widows would occur sporadically only among progressive members of the Brahmo Samaj .

18. 9/15/2020 18 KANDUKURI VEERESALINGAM: Kandukuri Veeresalingam was born on April 16th, 1848, in Rajahmundry was a renowned scholar and a versatile intellectual who stood strongly for several social causes, like widow remarriages and abolition of child marriages. With his rational and dynamic thinking and views, he battled vehemently for women's equal rights. In 1878, the Rajahmundry Social Reform Association was founded that emphasized on the anti- nautch movement to discontinue the hiring of nautch girls. However, the association started concentrating on widow remarriage at a later stage. Under this association, Kandukuri Veeresalingam organized the first widow remarriage on December 11, 1881, of Gogulapati Sreeramulu and Gowramma . Though he faced severe criticism from the society he was successful in convincing people on accepting widow remarriage. He later took up the cause of opposing child marriages and Kanyasulkam , a kind of dowry given by the groom to the bride's parents. In 1884, Kandukuri Veeresalingam set up another school for girls at Innispeta in Rajahmundry.

19. 9/15/2020 19 He was honored with the title of " Rao Bahadur " in 1893 by the government in appreciation of his work towards the society. Kandukuri Veeresalingam was highly influenced and moved by the Brahmo Samaj leader, Atmuri Lakshmi Narasimha . Further, the ideologies and principles of Raja Rammohun Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar , and Keshub Chunder Sen made a great impact on him. Following the footsteps of Brahmo Samaj , Kandukuri Veeresalingam established the first Brahmo Mandir in Andhra at Rajahmundry in 1887. This was followed by a widows' home and a similar structure for Social Reform Association at Madras. He began the first theist high school, the Hithakarini School at Rajahmundry in 1908. In the same year, he donated all his wealth and property for the social activities of Rajahmundry Widows' Home and the school. All these donations were kept under the management of Hithakarini Samaj Association.

20. 9/15/2020 20 VIRCHAND GANDHI:     Virchand Gandhi was from Mahuva . He advocated female education. He is a 19th-century Indian patriot who was a friend of Mahatma Gandhi and contemporary to Swami Vivekananda. He and Swami Vivekananda drew equal attention at the first World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. He won a silver medal in same. His statue still stands at the Jain temple in Chicago. He was a key member of Indian National Congress and as a reformer established. Society for the Education of Women in India (SEWI), under the banner of SEWI, several Indian women came to the USA for higher studies. Gandhi Philosophical Society, School of Oriental Philosophy, Jain Literature Society in London and he delivered 535 lectures in the USA and Europe. He also died at age of 37 alike Swami Vivekananda. Today Government of India has recognized his service by issuing a postal stamp in his memory.

21. 9/15/2020 21 DHONDO KESHAV KARVE: Dhondo Keshav Karve (18 April 1858 – 9 November 1962) was a social reformer of his time in India in the field of women's welfare. Karve was one of the pioneers of promoting women's education and the right for widows to remarry in India. The Government of India recognized his reform work by awarding him its highest civilian award, Bhārat Ratna , in 1958 (Incidentally his centennial year). The appellation Maharshi , which the Indian public often assigned to Karve , means “a great sage”. Those who knew Karve affectionately called him Annā Karve . (In Marāthi -speaking community, to which Karve belonged, the appellation Annā is often used to address either one's father or an elder brother).

22. 9/15/2020 22 SCHEMES & PROGRAMMES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT Indian government takes some schemes and programmes for the solution to this problem. These are – National Women’s Commission (1992)- To protect the rights of women in general Kasturba Gandhi Educational plan (1997)- Educational institutions in those areas where women’s literacy rate is very low.  ~ 788 ~ International Journal of Applied Research Balika Samruddhi Yojna (1997)- For girls child development   Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (2000)- To impart quality education to girls and SC, ST also. Swayamsidha Yojna (2001-2002)- Self-reliance and empowerment of women.   Kishori Shakti Yojna (2000-2001)- Adolescents strength and awareness (11-18) years of age.

23. 9/15/2020 23 SCHEMES & PROGRAMMES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT Kanya Vidhya Dhan Yojna (2004)- To promote higher education among girls Moulana Azad National Scholarship Scheme (2003)-  For the promotion of girls education in the country. Gaurav NariNiti (2002)-  Women’s pride, gender equality etc. Ladli (2005)-  To raise the status of the girl child in the society providing them the right to birth and right to survival. Krishi TalimYojna (2010)- Field of agriculture is imparted to women farmers Nari Adalat (2007)-  For women justice in society. 33% reservation in panchayet has already for women and reservation bill is pending to parliament separate reservation to women education and empowerment

24. 9/15/2020 24 SCHEMES FOR ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY AND EMANCIPATION OF RURAL WOMEN  The Ministry of Women and Child Development is implementing various schemes/programmes for achieving gender equality and emancipation of women including rural women such as: BetiBachaoBetiPadhao (BBBP):  to address the declining Child Sex Ratio (CSR) and related issues of empowerment of women over a life-cycle continuum. It is a tri-ministerial effort of Ministries of Women and Child Development, Health & Family Welfare and Human Resource Development. .   Pradhan MantriMatruVandanaYojana (PMMVY),  (erstwhile Maternity Benefit Programme) to contribute towards the better enabling environment by providing cash incentives for improved health and nutrition to pregnant and nursing mothers. Scheme for Adolescent Girls  aims at girls in the age group 11-14, to empower and improve their social status through nutrition, life skills, home skills and vocational training.

25. 9/15/2020 25 National Nutrition Mission  (NNM): aims to attain a " Suposhit Bharat" and has also the objective of improving the nutritional status of pregnant women and lactating mothers and reducing anaemia among women along with children. RastriyaMahilaKosh (RMK ), for extending micro-finance services to bring about socio-economic upliftment of poor women, Mahila e- Haat , a unique direct online digital marketing platform for women entrepreneurs/ SHGs/ NGOs, Pradhan MantriMahila Shakti Kendra,  which will empower rural women through community participation to create an environment in which they realize their full potential, The Ministry also conducts  Training of Trainers of Elected Women Representatives of Panchayati Raj  to deliberate upon issues related to empowerment of women and functioning of PRIs; describe processes of participatory planning in local governance; and enable women to identify their own leadership potential to contribute effectively as change agents. http://drselvaa.blogspot.com/2019/01/a-paradigm-shift-from-womens-studies-to.html

26. 9/15/2020 26 THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN ACT, 1990 The National Commission for Women Act, 1990 (Act No. 20 of 1990 of Government of India) constituted the National Commission for Women as a statutory body. The first commission was constituted on 31st January 1992 with Mrs. Jayanti Patnaik as the Chairperson. The Act of 1990 under Section 3 provides for the constitution of the commission. This section lays down that the commission will consist of one Chairperson, who is committed to the cause of women, five members from various fields and a member secretary who shall be an expert in the fields of management, organizational structure, sociological movement or a, member of the civil service of the Union. All the members of the commission are nominated by the Central Government.Each person holds office for a period of five years or till he attains the age of seventy. At least one member each of the Commission must belong to a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe. In addition to the abovementioned members of the Commission, the Commission has the power to set up committees with members from outside the Commission.

27. 9/15/2020 27 http://www.gender.cawater-info.net/knowledge_base/rubricator/feminism_e.htm https://www.pacificu.edu/magazine/four-waves-feminism https://www.progressivewomensleadership.com/a-brief-history-the-four-waves-of-feminism/

28. 9/15/2020 28 A Brief History: The Four Waves of Feminism: Feminism is a historical movement which has brought about many changes in every sphere of women’s lives such as: right to vote, right to life, right to work, right to education and equal pay in the labour market. First phase of feminism had its origin in 19th Century Europe which gave voice to women and other marginalized groups in the society for which feminist collective actions remain alive across time and society. To understand the transition that has taken place within the feminist struggle, the movement can be categorized into three feminist waves.   First wave feminism: refers to the idea of identifying women’s movement as an organized collective action. First wave feminism aimed for equal rights for women in the early years of twentieth century. This movement can be equated with the suffrage movement and movement for women gaining occupational rights. The full-scale women’s rights convention first held at Seneca Falls, New York in the year 1848 can be attributed as the beginning of the first wave feminist movements in America.

29. 9/15/2020 29 The title “ second wave ” was coined by Marsha Lear and was marked as the rise of feminist consciousness in the 1960s. It had its root in the prevailing culture after the Second World War when there was an amendment to the idea that women ’ s place is there in the home. Second wave of feminism included two major positions. One aimed to achieve equal opportunities for women and men and the other strand emphasized the differences between women and men in relation to several types of knowledge and skills. The equal opportunity strand involves some positive discrimination towards women and emphasized that women and men are similar and equal. The second wave metaphor represented the manifestation of power that could exist in institutions such as: caste, class, race, ethnicity, economy, education, politics and so on. It has been critiqued on grounds such as: idea was derived by and for white women; its concepts cannot be applied to women of developing countries and the strong criticism came from post-modernism and post-structuralism which stated that the second wave feminism has provided an essentialist and universal account of patriarchy or women ’ s oppression.

30. 9/15/2020 30 Third wave feminism appeared in the mid-80s through the writings about intersections of feminism and racism ( Kinser , 2004). The third wave tried to understand feminism beyond the power and imagination of the upperclass white women of the western world. Feminists of the third wave argue for creating space for the women of colour . Third-wave feminists can be identified as a different generation to second-wave feminists and they focused on the individual position and their personal empowerment. They place more emphasis on individual agency and choice. They place importance on theorization of individual positions and reclaiming the rights and recognition for all genders (Coleman, 2011: p. 8-10). Feminism has also been understood from different theoretical positions including: radical feminism, cultural feminism, socialist feminism, eco feminism, global feminism and new feminism.

31. 9/15/2020 31 Radical feminism : Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts. Radical feminists view society as fundamentally a patriarchy in which men dominate and oppress women. cultural feminism : Cultural feminism, the view that there is a "female nature" or "female essence", attempts to revalue and redefine attributes ascribed to femaleness. It is also used to describe theories that commend innate differences between women and men. Black feminism: Black feminism holds that the experience of Black women gives rise to a particular understanding of their position in relation to sexism, class oppression, and racism. Socialist feminism : Socialist feminism rose in the 1960s and 1970s as an offshoot of the feminist movement and focuses upon the interconnectivity of the patriarchy and capitalism. Socialist feminists argue that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women's oppression.

32. 9/15/2020 32 Postmodernist feminism: Postmodern feminism is a mix of post structuralism, postmodernism, and French feminism. The goal of postmodern feminism is to destabilize the patriarchal norms entrenched in society that have led to gender inequality.  Liberal Feminism: Liberal feminism is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on women's ability to maintain their equality through their own actions and choices.  Eco feminism: Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism that sees environmentalism, and the relationship between women and the earth, as foundational to its analysis and practice. Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the concept of gender to analyse the relationships between humans and the natural world. Global feminism: Global feminism is a feminist theory closely aligned with post-colonial theory and postcolonial feminism. It concerns itself primarily with the forward movement of women's rights on a global scale.

33. 9/15/2020 33 New feminism: New feminism is a form of Christian feminism that not only emphasizes the integral complementarity of women and men, rather than the superiority of men over women or women over men, but also advocates for respecting persons from conception to natural death.  Note: Integral complementarity  differs from fractional  complementarity , in that it argues that men and women are each whole persons in and of themselves, and, together, equal more than the sum of their parts.

34. 9/15/2020 34 Theories on Gender and Education and their application in the Indian context Socialisation Theory People at a particular point of time believed that because girls tend to perform poorly in “ masculine ” subjects such as math and science, they are incapable of meeting high intellectual standards. This was discredited by a number of feminist thinkers and they strongly concluded that this is only because of unfair treatment and missocialisation of girls because of which they could not do well in a few subjects. This is the starting point of the socialisation theory. Socialisation theorists argue that girls can meet the same academic standards as boys, provided they face no negative intervention from different socialising agents. The major ideas of socialisation theorists are as follows: • Gendered behaviours are products of socialisation . • Children learn to be male or female by observing and imitating parents and other adults.

35. 9/15/2020 35 • Children learn their identity by internalising societal gender norms. • Conformity to gender stereotypes and role expectations develops through gender-based chores in families. • Childhood gendered behaviours follow through life course. • Childhood gendered behaviours are the result of relatively stable social and cultural forces. • By providing all children with gender-neutral education and eliminating other obstacles to female success, schools would not only ensure fairness, but would increase the pool of skilled workers, thereby benefiting society as a whole. • Apart from a few compensatory gestures (such as inviting female role models to visit the classroom or staging occasional math and science workshops for girls), the pedagogical interventions called for by socialisation theory are fairly straightforward: if girls are to

36. 9/15/2020 36 flourish, teachers, parents, and administrators need to treat girls in the same ways that they treat boys. Of course, the difficulty lies in the implementation. • Not only do teachers have to want to treat boys and girls equally, but they have to overcome their own socialised perceptions of how they treat girls and boys.

37. 9/15/2020 37 Structural Theory Social structural theories (e.g., Lips, 1991) examine the way in which society creates and supports gender roles, rather than the way in which individuals come to develop individual gender identity. These theories focus on the socio-cultural context; how relations between women and men are linked to gender roles and sex stereotypes, and the social structures which support these roles and stereotypes. Power and status differences are seen as crucial factors in developing and maintaining differences between men and women. Structural theories focus on the systematic consolidation of power and privilege in the hands of a minority. According to such theories, power is something one group exercises over another; it is a kind of possession or property legitimated by laws, standards, hegemonic practices, and institutional relations. Both gendered and other forms of inequity are organised and sustained by more or less stable (albeit flexible) power arrangements. India being a male dominated society, male group always enjoys

38. 9/15/2020 38 higher status and privileges over females. Socially and culturally one can experience the power domination of male in Indian society. Hence, the role assignment comes from a patriarchal society. In many Western countries for example, heterosexual unions are materially privileged over gay and lesbian unions in terms of insurance coverage for partners, adoption and fostering policies, the right to marriage, and representation in anti-discrimination laws. In many sectors in India, women are paid lesser than men for the same amount of work. Some jobs are meant for women based on their gender. Policies or systems of law that hold women responsible for pregnancy deny them the right to abortion. Structural inequity also may characterise systems of knowledge. Socialisation and structural theorists alike argue that marginalised groups are underrepresented in recognised history, literature, science, and art because they have been denied access to education and positions of leadership. In India, common women are not given the opportunity for education. These are the results of patriarchal power in Indian society

39. 9/15/2020 39 14/09/2020

40. 9/15/2020 40 Gender Difference Theory Gender difference researchers believe that female/feminine traits should be recognized and celebrated. Rather than socialize girls to be more like boys, difference theorists seek to revalorize the relational characteristics associated with girls. As they see it, the educational problem for girls is the lack of fit between school culture and feminine culture : relational values are risked by the public sphere's commitment to rationalism, competition, conquest, consumerism, and radical individualism. There are two prominent views about the origins of gender differences in human behavior. Some theorists see gender differences as a reflection of naturally evolved tendencies and society must reinforce those tendencies if it is to function smoothly. Socio-biologists call this perspective as essentialism. The second group of sociologists sees gender differences as social constructionism, mainly as a reflection of the different social positions occupied by women and men. They view gender as constructed by social structure and culture.

41. 9/15/2020 41 This variation denies the idea that there are essential and universal behavioral differences between women and men. In societies with low levels of gender inequality, the tendency decreases for women to stress the good provider role in selecting male partners, as does the tendency for men to stress women's domestic skills. Women have become considerably more assertive, competitive, independent, and analytical in the last four decades. The gender differences are not constants and they are not inherent in men and women.

42. 9/15/2020 42 Deconstructive theory : The  deconstruction theory  of  gender  and education focuses on the fact that women are not considered as a rational  gender  of the society, and also they don't have excess to quality education as men do . Like structural (and, to some extent, socialization) approaches, deconstructive educational interventions rely heavily on alternative texts and interpretive practices. Deconstructive classroom practices differ from structural and socialization approaches, however, in problematizing appeals to equity, fairness, and other overarching categories of value. Deconstructive theories also challenge the quasi-essentialist appeals to caring and femininity found in gender difference approaches.

43. 9/15/2020 43 Whereas the latter redefine education as a relational enterprise in which feminine/female responsiveness, caring, and women's intuitive knowledge are given central value, deconstructive theories underscore the need to deconstruct assumptions about gender and authenticity-along with the categorical claims that difference theorists make on behalf of intuitive knowledge and caring. Briefly, we may summarise the following issues highlighted by deconstruction which became particularly useful as strategic tools for feminist theorists: • Loss of mastery of one dominant perspective and acknowledgement of plural perspectives; • Undermining of the authority of the knowing (privileged male) subject by those at the margins; • Exposing the tyranny/ cruelity of the law of the signifier by

44. 9/15/2020 44 showing how it permits only certain representations while blocking others; • Undermining and exposing logocentric and phallocentric discourses where the ‘other’ (woman) is spoken for, but does not speak or represent herself; • Encouraging a critique of hegemonic systems, especially patriarchy; • De-centering the unitary, masculine subject and enabling voices at the margins to make themselves heard. Source: http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/40671/1/Unit-4.pdf

45. 9/15/2020 45 15/09/2020 Power Control in Patriarchal, Patrilineal , Matriarchal and Matrilineal Societies: Assessing affect on Education of Boys and Girls

46. 9/15/2020 46 Polyandrous, Matrilineal and Matriarchal Societies in India Matriarchal societies A social system organized around the principle of mother-rule in which mothers, or females are at the top of the power structure. “ The opposite of matriarchy is patriarchy” Descents and relationships are determined through female line. OR A form of social organization in which the mother or the oldest female heads the family . Matricentric , Matrifocal , are inter-linked terms. List of existing matriarchal societies : Garo , Bribri , Akan , Masuo , Minangkabau

47. 9/15/2020 47 The Khasi Community Is Matrilineal, But Not Matriarchal https ://feminisminindia.com/2018/03/16/khasi-community-matrilineal-society/ Matrilineal is the tracing of descent through the female line. The word ‘lineal’ refers to someone’s lineage, so matrilineal describes anything related to kinship through a female line. In a matrilineal tradition, the children take their mother’s last name . Some of the traditional societies which still practice matrilineality are the Lao of Thailand, the Anis of Taiwan, the Minangkabau of Indonesia and the Musuo of China. In India, the matrilineal societies are distributed in the southwest region (the Nairs of Kerala and the Buns of Karnataka) and in the Northeast region (the Khasi , Jaiñtia and Garo of Meghalaya).

48. 9/15/2020 48 The matrilineal Khasi were the first among all the mongoloid people of the North East to achieve a high culture level, even prior to intensive contact with outsiders. Meghalaya, a state in the northeastern part of India, is home to three tribes that practice kinship based on matriliny . Namely the Khasi , Garo and Pnar / Jaintia communities. A matrilineal society is one in which the lineage or ancestry of a society is traced through that of the mother, not to be confused with matriarchy. With the entire state of Meghalaya following a matrilineal system, the one thing most people tend to misuse is the word ‘matrilineal’ and mistake it to be  matriarchal in nature . In the case of the Khasi community, this, however, is not true. The husband is still the head of the family and elder men have a vital part to play in society .

49. 9/15/2020 49 Thus , the men have a greater overall social power than the women. Women are still the primary caregivers in the family and are expected to raise the children, cook, clean, etc. The men are looked upon as the primary providers and also as more authoritative figures. THE HUSBAND IS STILL THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY AND ELDER MEN HAVE A VITAL PART TO PLAY IN SOCIETY . Now the exact origins of how the Khasi community adopted a matrilineal setting in their society isn’t that well documented. But the most common statement heard is that men rarely had time for child-rearing back in the olden days due to them having to fight in wars as well as to hunt to provide food for the family. With the men being gone during times of war, there was never any certainty that they would return home safe and unscathed. Due to this, men eventually ended up abandoning their rights to inheritance, after which the women had to take over the

50. 9/15/2020 50 responsibility to further propagate their bloodline and clan name, as well as traditions. Something that is to be noted is that since the child’s identity is taken completely from the mother’s side, there are rarely any cases of illegitimate children, save for a few exceptions. This means that even if a child hasn’t been conceived within matrimonial bounds, they can still lay claim to inheritance and the family name. Within the society, people cannot marry within their  Kur  (clan or bloodline). That is to say that two Khasi people with the same clan name (the same last name) are not allowed to marry each other. It is often looked down on if such a situation is to happen. In older days, if such a thing were to happen, the people involved were ostracized.

51. 9/15/2020 51 Inheritance , which back in the day often meant that only the youngest daughter ( Khadduh ) would inherit the remains of her parent’s wealth and property, without any further consideration towards the other siblings. This isn’t practised as much in families with parents who want to treat their children at par with the other. They can, therefore, divide their assets among their children equally. The youngest daughter also takes care of her parents during their old age. When she does get married, her husband ends up moving in with her and her parents. Due to westernization and the introduction of Christianity, most Khasis have converted to different branches of Christianity and don’t completely follow the religion, customs and traditions from the pre-Christianity days. In recent years, there have been men who want to  uproot and do away wit h  such a system, because they think that it is biased towards them .

52. 9/15/2020 52 THE MEN ARE LOOKED UPON AS THE PRIMARY PROVIDERS AND ALSO A MORE AUTHORITATIVE FIGURE. Even though the Khasi community is a matrilineal society, the women folk aren’t as empowered as you’d think they are. Women were never allowed to participate in a local governing institution (the  Dorbar Shnong ) , banned by the Head Man, also known as the  Rangbah Shnong .  Till date, most of the grave family decisions are taken by the father who exercises a lot of control over the family. The disparity between the number of women who are at the forefront of politics within the state versus that of men is a rather large gap that is quite likely the same in other states of India. Khasi women are rather excluded from politics. The current political system  that is male dominated certainly plays no such favours to the section of the population that are women .

53. 9/15/2020 53 Back in the 2013 Assembly elections, we did see the largest representation of women in the MLA with only 8.33 percent. So although they do claim a matrilineal society free from the harsh clutches of patriarchy the truth is that the privilege of totally abstaining from such a system is something that women have yet to manage to gain total independence from . “ As a Khasi student studying in a college with many diverse communities like the Mizos , Meteis , Nagas , lots of explanation I have to do to make them aware of our matrilineal system. The questions they would ask are “is it true that after marriage, you have to move to your wife house?”, “is your mother the head of the family?” and some of them would ask “why are you allowing females to control over you?” So what is the role and status of a Khasi man in his society? When

54. 9/15/2020 54 the son marries and lives with his wife, the mother claims the ‘person’ of the son as hers but the son of his wife become the child of the new family and also the son becomes the father of the family through his wife. In one word, a Khasi man is the head of his wife’s family. His position in the family is an honoured one and as the bread-earner and as the protector of his mother, his sisters and young daughters and sons and his position as the exalted defender of his mother’s family. A Khasi man is ‘u Kñi ’ or maternal uncle and he is ‘u Kpa ’ or a father, without whom worship and religion would be an act of sacrilege. His position may appear in the eyes of foreigners (also in the eyes of my friends) as somewhat ridiculous, but to a Khasi man the foundation of his self and person in the family which centres round his own thought, and that his life and his soul and the life and soul of those near to him.

55. 9/15/2020 55 Many social scientists both foreign and Indian who have made studies on these Khasi social system have made a mistake by coming to a conclusion that a Khasi society is matriarchal in nature. Matriarchy is a social system in which females hold the primary power position in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property at the specific exclusion of man. But this is not true in case with the Khasi society which makes it matrilineal and not matriarchal. In fact, Khasis have matrilineal residence and material descent only. Though descent is traced through the mother, yet father is the head of the family. While the father is the head of the family and the main earner for the family’s income, the mother is the mere keeper of all earnings. While the mother nurses the children, it is the father that the children will expect to get the most advice and decision regarding the future. It is the father who is expected to be the defender of the family and family’s property.

56. 9/15/2020 56 So now, I can say, so what if I move to my wife’s house after marriage, so what if my children don’t bear my name, I am still a man and a father of my children and also an uncle of my sister’s children. Dear brothers, who are living in a matrilineal society, we should be proud of our matrilineal culture and embrace it until the last breath .” https://theshillongtimes.com/2017/11/19/matrilineal-not-matriarchal-role-of-khasi-men-in-society / https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/living-examples-of-matrilineal-societies-in-india-312344-2016-03-08 The matrilineal societies of Kerala: Kerala has the best sex ratio of the country, a fact which is not only to be credited to the high literacy rate, but also to the fading culture of a matrilineal society. Officially , the state has banned the matrilineal/ matrilocal family structure through the Joint Family System (Abolition) Act, 1975. The act was passed by the Kerala State Legislature. Compared to the previous two social formations, Kerala is surrounded by states that have a strong culture of patriarchy, resulting in the fading of matrilineal families. On the other hand, women in Kerala enjoy a higher political stature compared to most women across the country, as well as the two aforementioned tribes. A few families still follow the matrilineal tradition of carrying the mother's name throughout their life.

57. 9/15/2020 57 Polyandry in India It  refers to the practice of polyandry, whereby a woman has two or more husbands at the same time , either historically on the Indian subcontinent or currently in the country of India. An early example can be found in the Hindu epic  Mahabharata , in which  Draupadi , daughter of the king of  Panchala , is married to five brothers. Polyandry was mainly prevalent in the Kinnaur Region, a part of Himachal  in India which is close to the  Tibet  or currently the Indo-China border. As mentioned in the epic  Mahabharata , the Pandava  were banished from their kingdom for thirteen years and they spent the last year hiding in this hilly terrain of Kinnaur . A minority of the Kinaauris still claim to be descendants of the Pandava and thus justify the practice of polyandry. However, this is a debatable issue as Kinnauris existed long before the Pandava as mentioned in the epic .

58. 9/15/2020 58 Polyandry in India Apart from Kinnaur , polyandry was practised in South India among the Todas  tribes of  Nilgiris , Nanjanad Vellala of Travancore and some Nair castes. While polyandrous unions have disappeared from the traditions of many of the groups and tribes, it is still practiced by some  Paharis , especially in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Northern India.

59. 9/15/2020 59 Concept of Patriarchy and Matriarchy Patriarchy Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. In the domain of the family, fathers hold authority over the women and children. A patriarchal system is a social system in which the father is the head of the household. This, however, is not confined to the household alone. It can be extended to the entire society where males dominate in all social, political, economical, legal and cultural roles. For instance, in most patriarchal societies women were very much confined to the domestic sphere, where they were completely cut off from the realities of the society.

60. 9/15/2020 60 Let us take some examples to clarify the way in which patriarchy is evident in our daily life. When a man raises his voice in the course of an argument and insects on his point of view, without letting others especially women get to utter a single word, his actions are likely to be described as “aggressively patriarchal”. If a women complains of sexual harassment at her work place, and all the men in her office deny that this could ever happen. The reasoning of men can be described as being “typically patriarchal”.

61. 9/15/2020 61 Matriarchy Matriarchy is a social system in which females hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property at the specific exclusion of men, at least to a large degree. A matriarchal system is a social system in which the mother is the head of the household. In a matriarchal society, the governance of the society is also in the hands of women. When examining the human history, there is very little evidence of matriarchal societies, because most confuse an egalitarian society or matrilineal society to a matriarchal society.

62. 9/15/2020 62 Patriarchy: A social system in which the father is head of the household, having authority over women and children. A system of government by males. The dominance of men in social or cultural systems.

63. 9/15/2020 63 Issues related to Indian Women in Patriarchic society: Selective abortion and female infanticide Sexual harassment Dowry and Bride burning Disparity in education Domestic violence No property Rights.

64. 9/15/2020 64 What do men control in the Patriarchal System : Different areas of women‟s lives are said to be under patriarchal control. 1. Women’s productive or labour power : Men control women‟s productivity both within the household and outside, in paid work. Within the household women provide all kinds of services to their husbands, children and other members of the family throughout their lives. Feminist writer Sylvia Walby calls this as the “patriarchal mode of production” where women‟s labour is expropriated by then husbands and others who live there. She calls housewives as the „producing class‟ and husbands are the „expropriating class‟. The work done by housewives is not considered as work at all and housewives become dependent on their husbands.

65. 9/15/2020 65 2. Women’s Reproduction : Men also control women‟s reproductive power. In many societies women have no control over then reproduction capacities. They cannot decide how many children they want, whether to use contraceptives, or a decision to terminate pregnancy. In addition men control social institutions like religion and politics which are male dominated. Control is institutionalized by laying down rules regarding women‟s reproduction capacity. For example, in the Catholic Church, the male religious hierarchy decides whether men and women can use birth control contraceptives. In modern times, the patriarchal state tries to control women‟s reproduction through its family planning programmes.

66. 9/15/2020 66 3. Control over Women’s Sexuality : Women are obliged to provide sexual services to their husbands according to their needs and desires. Moral and legal regulations exist to restrict the expression of women‟s sexuality outside marriage in every society,

67. 9/15/2020 67 4. Women’s Mobility : Besides control of women‟s sexuality, production and reproduction, men also control women‟s mobility. The imposition of purdah restriction on leaving the house, limit on interaction between the sexes are some of the ways by which the patriarchal society controls women‟s mobility and freedom of movement. Such restriction are unique to women, while men are not subject to such restrictions.

68. 9/15/2020 68 5. Property and other Economic Resources : most property and other productive resources are controlled by men and are passed on from father to son. Even in societies where women have legal rights to inherit property, customary practices, social sanctions and emotional pressures that prevents them from acquiring control over them. According to UN statistics, “Women do more than 60% of the hours of work done in the world, but they get 10% of the world‟s income and own 1% of the world‟s property”. http://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/TYBA%20study%20material/Gender%20&%20Soc.. pdf

69. 9/15/2020 69 STATUS OF EDUCATION IN MATRILINEAL SOCIETY Women have the freedom to develop their vocational and technical skills, they make use of leisure time by reading or doing agricultural work and they do have a say in the education of their children. The influence of Education has been worthwhile as it has helped women for better living, it has taught them the need to exert themselves, it has helped them in the understanding of their spouses better and better management of the family and education has helped them to be responsible and resourceful in their jobs. Women encourage their children to take up unconventional courses of study. Education was discovered as not only a means of employment but it also helps to build character and change mindset, to raise up a good and responsible family. Women have been empowered to take decisions regarding reproductive health, those that matter at home and outside it .

70. 9/15/2020 70 REALITY: MATRILINEAL SOCIETY : EDUCATION Educationally , the status-quo that still exists is the lack of education in Khasi mothers which make them blind and indifferent to the plight of their sons. Education is one of the forces which has great impact on the status of women, it is an important agent of changes in the socio-economic and political fields, it aims at upgrading functional literacy skills for women. Ensuring equal access to education for girls and women help eliminate poverty and increase their participation in decisionmaking bodies at every level. Education has brought about a revolution in women‟s world and their status, for an educated woman understands her partner better. However, Khasi women need proper political education in order to make them conscious about their political rights and privileges. Large-scale awareness in education at all levels is necessary for women‟s political empowerment, it will facilitate women in increasing political consciousness and participation since it cannot be given but develop from within. Educational opportunities have improved the status of women and women leaders generally come from the well educated.

71. 9/15/2020 71 Education system in Patriarchic society: 1. Why are India’s Girls Being Enrolled In Government Schools and the Boys in Private ? https://resetfest.com/why-are-indias-girls-being-enrolled-in-government-schools-boys-in-private / We live in a patriarchal society, and because of an assumption made at birth, boys are given more resources . 2. education system as transmitting  patriarchal values . https:// www.tutor2u.net/sociology/reference/feminist-views-on-the-role-of-education Heaton and Lawson (1996) argued that the  hidden curriculum  taught patriarchal values in schools. They noted traditional family structures in textbooks (along with many other gender stereotypes, subjects aimed towards specific genders, gender divisions in sport and the gender division of labour in schools (predominantly female teachers and male managers ). https:// www.tutor2u.net/sociology/reference/feminist-views-on-the-role-of-education

72. 9/15/2020 72 3. Boys are valued for their ability to protect and provide, while girls are valued for sexual, reproductive, and domestic labor.  Education can be a powerful transformative force, provided education itself is transformed. To achieve a gender-just society, where our daughters feel safe, equal, and free, boys and girls  both  must be taught to examine the construction of gender in patriarchal societies. Whereas girls must learn to recognize themselves as equal and resist discrimination, boys must learn to deconstruct a patriarchal conception of masculinity, and construct egalitarian beliefs . https://www.brookings.edu/blog/education-plus-development/2019/04/10/teaching-boys-to-examine-gender-in-patriarchal-societies /