BIKS609 Module - 1 Full.pptx 6TH SEM VTU NOTES

INDIAN KNOWLEGE SYSTEM MODULE 1 NOTES VTU

1. Dept of EEE

2. Overveiw Acharya stands as a beacon of excellence in higher education, boasting a legacy of academic distinction since its establishment in 1990. We offer a transformative educational experience, fostering holistic development, nurturing innovation and providing world-class facilities to ensure an enriching journey for our students. Dept of EEE

3. 11 Institutions, Infinite Possibilities We provide 100+ programs across 50 academic streams. Dept of EEE

4. Dept of EEE INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS Introduction to Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS): Overview, Vedic Corpus, Philosophy, Character scope and importance, traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge, traditional knowledge vs. western knowledge. Module - 1

5. Dept of EEE INTRODUCTION INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS There is nothing as purifying as knowledge

6. Dept of EEE Introduction Brihadishvara Temple , called  Rajarajesvaram , built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010. This is one of the earliest granite temples in the world. Around 60,000 tons of granite is said to be used to build the temple. It has one of the tallest VimĀnas (temple tower) and its Kumbhakam (the structure on the top) weight approximately 80 tons.

7. Dept of EEE Introduction The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a vast and diverse repository of wisdom, encompassing a wide range of disciplines that have developed over millennia. Rooted in the unique cultural, philosophical, and intellectual traditions of India, IKS offers a holistic approach to understanding the world, integrating spiritual, intellectual, and practical knowledge. IKS refers to the collective wisdom, scientific practices, philosophical insights, and cultural achievements that have evolved in India over thousands of years. These systems encompass a wide range of fields, including philosophy, science, technology, arts, and social sciences, reflecting the intricate interplay between thought & practice.

8. Dept of EEE Introduction Indian Knowledge System is a generic phrase that covers practically everything about India. The term IKS has 3 words in it. The meaning of IKS can be better understood if these three phrases can be analysed separately. INDIAN By this term, it is meant the indigenous sources of knowledge generated by the Indian society. The current political formation called ‘India’ is of recent origin. It does not qualify to be called ‘Indian’. The term ‘Indian’ points to the undivided Indian subcontinent ( akha ņ da bhĀrata ). We mean the geographical area spanning from Burma on the east to modern-day Afghanistan in the west, and Himalayas in the north to the Indian ocean in the south.

9. Dept of EEE Introduction This region has common cultural, literary, and social practices, and has witnessed a continuous exchange of people, and ideas among them throughout the history of undivided India. A second aspect of this is only such knowledge synthesized, codified, and made available by the ‘Indians’ is considered Indian knowledge . This implies that they ought to have been part of the Indian subcontinent, born and lived there, and are part of the knowledge system in an integral fashion . This is especially important because India witnessed several foreign travellers who visited its universities, stayed for some time and wrote about the country, the knowledge, and cultural practices. These cannot be considered as IKS itself, but can be considered as ‘literature about IKS’ .

10. Dept of EEE Introduction KNOWLEDGE Knowledge primarily arises in the form of the wisdom of the knowledge seekers. It is obtained by the insights gained by personal experiences with life situations, facing problems, and coming up with means of solving them. At other times, one obtains knowledge by means of intense observation of events, experimentation, conjecturing, and analysis. Knowledge may or may not be converted into literary format. The tacit knowledge can be preserved and transmitted through an oral tradition without loss. While both these forms of knowledge are equally important and valuable, it is impossible to formally study knowledge transmitted through oral traditions.

11. Dept of EEE Introduction Therefore, for the scope of this course, ‘knowledge’ means a formal repository of knowledge available in literary sources. The tacit knowledge gained by the seeker is eventually transmitted systematically in the form of some ‘explicit’ knowledge. This happens by the way of proposing a new theory, framework, or literary work. Furthermore, knowledge pervades spiritual, religious, and social (day-to-day issues) domains. Thus, we can summarize ‘knowledge’ as emanating from the wisdom and insights arising out of deep experiences, observation, experimentation, and analysis and validated, improved, and augmented further .

12. Dept of EEE Introduction SYSTEM A system, in IKS, is a structured methodology and a classification scheme to access the available corpus of knowledge . It should be accessed in any manner, depending on the interest, purpose, and capacity of the seeker. Since knowledge is very vast, it may throw a challenge to the seeker who may e clueless as to where and how to begin and proceed. Therefore, the available knowledge needs to be collected, grouped, and arranged logically. Codification and classification of available knowledge using a definite framework would constitute one dimension of the word ‘system’ in IKS

13. Dept of EEE Introduction The other important requirement is the interconnection between the part of the knowledge in the classification framework. The framework should also provide some logical relationship between the different parts of the proposed framework. This helps easy understanding of the overall contribution of the knowledge, and how the different components of the knowledge complement each other.

14. Dept of EEE Introduction Figure 1: The IKS Corpus - A classification Framework

15. Dept of EEE The Characteristics of IKS INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

16. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS The IKS has several distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other knowledge systems. These features highlight the unique contributions of Indian civilization to global knowledge and the enduring relevance of these traditions. The characteristic Features of IKS are: Holistic and Intuitive Approach Dharma – Centric Worldview Emphasis on self – realization and Inner Knowledge Sustainability and Environmental Consciousness Oral tradition and Textual Transmission Diversity and Pluralism Innovation and Adaptability Focus on Ethical and Moral Values

17. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Holistic and intuitive approach In IKS, the knowledge is not classified into isolated disciplines. Instead, it is integrative, where various fields of study are interlinked and complementary. For example, the ancient system of Indian medicine (Ayurveda) integrates the knowledge of human body with the mind, spirit, and the environment. It also extends to other areas such as mathematics, arts, architecture, and government. Examples include Mathematical approaches by Aryabhata and Brahmagupta are connected with astronomy and philosophy Kautilya’s ‘ Arthashastra ’ integrates statecraft, economics, warfare and philosophy into a unified system

18. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Dharma – centric overview Dharma is the righteousness, duty or law that is central to IKS. It is the guiding principle that penetrates every aspect of life in Indian thought. It is not merely a religious or ethical concept but a fundamental law of nature .

19. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Dharma – centric overview Dharma provides the moral and ethical framework within which the knowledge is pursued, applied, and transmitted. In the IKS, the pursuit of knowledge is not just an intellectual exercise, but a means of living in the harmony with the universe. Knowledge must align with Dharma, which ensures that it is used for the benefit of the society and the world at large. This dharma – centric – overview has influenced various fields of knowledge from medicine to governance to education. For instance, in Ayurveda, health is not just the absence of disease, but a state of balance in accordance with Dharma, where the individual is in harmony with the environment, society, and self.

20. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Emphasis on self – realization and inner - knowledge The ultimate purpose of knowledge , according to Indian Theist Philosophical systems, is not merely the accumulation of facts or technical expertise, but the realization of the true nature of the Self ( Ātman ) and its relationship with the universal consciousness ( Brahman ) . This is evident in the Upanishads. The IKS integrates the knowledge of the physical world (exterior knowledge) with the knowledge of the Self (inner knowledge). Indian disciplines such as Yoga, Philosophy, Logic, Reasoning are used to understand the nature of reality and the Self. This emphasis on the Self does not negate the value of empirical knowledge; rather, it complements it by providing deeper, metaphysical understanding of thee existence .

21. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Sustainability and environment consciousness These are intrinsic to the IKS. Ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas, the Upanishads, and Puranas, reflect a deep respect for nature and empathize living in harmony with the natural world. The concept of nature s revered as a manifestation of the divine. For example, the Indian science of Vastu Shastra deals with architecture and town planning emphasizes on aligning human dwellings with natural forces to create a harmony. Similarly, Krishi shastra (agriculture) advocates sustainable methods of farming that preserve the fertility of the soil and maintain ecological balance. Ayurveda, the medical science, also promotes the use of natural resources in a way that does not deplete them.

22. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Oral tradition & textual transmission Both oral and textual transmission are intrinsic to the IKS. The Vedas are the oldest texts in the world, and were transmitted through hundreds of generations by oral means ( Shruthis and Smritis ) through the lineage of a Realized Soul (i.e., the Guru) , before eventually being recorded as texts. Textual transmission of IKS include scriptures (Vedas, Puranas) and scientific and technical treaties ( Sushrutha Samhitha for Medicine, Aryabhateeya for Mathematics, Arthashastra for Governance. These have been instrumental in preserving the vast body of knowledge of the IKS. The combination of both these transmissions reflects the flexibility and adaptability of the IKS, and the communal knowledge in India (shared and accessible to all).

23. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Diversity and Pluralism The IKS is marked by its diversity and pluralism. India has become home to a multitude of philosophical, religious, and cultural traditions, each contributing to the overall body of knowledge. The diversity is reflected in the variety of schools of thought in Indian Philosophy such as Vedanta (Advaita, Vishshitadvaita , Dvaita , etc.), Budhism , Jainism, and Nyaaya . Each school offers unique perspective on fundamental questions of existence, knowledge, and ethics. This pluralism extends to other fields of IKS as well. For example, Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani are some different medical healing systems that have existed and influenced each other.

24. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Diversity and Pluralism The diversity of IKS reflects the inclusive and accommodating nature of Indian civilization. Rather than imposing a single, unified system of thought, IK traditions have embraced multiplicity and dialogue between different perspectives. This pluralism has contributed to the richness and resilience of the IKS over the millennia.

25. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Innovation and adaptability Despite being rooted in ancient traditions, the IKS has shown remarkable innovation and adaptability. Indian scholars and practitioners have constantly refined and expanded their knowledge, adapting it to charging circumstances and new challenges. This spirit of innovation is evident in fields such as mathematics, where Indian mathematicians made groundbreaking contributions to Algebra, Calculus, and Trigonometry. IK traditions have also been open to influences from other cultures. For instance, the effect of Persian and Arab cultures gave the field of Unani medicine. This adaptability has allowed IKS to be relevant and vital to this day, in spite of historical changes.

26. Dept of EEE Characteristics of IKS Focus on ethical and moral values Ethics and morality are central to the IKS. Cultivating virtues such as compassion, honesty, and self – discipline is all an integral part of the IKS along with acquiring technical knowledge. Texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, Dharma Shastra and Upanishads emphasize the importance of ethical conduct in all aspects of life including education, governance, and personal relationships. Indian medicine system of Ayurveda clearly states that the paramount duty of physician is the holistic healing of the individual.

27. Dept of EEE Introduction Repository of IKS

28. Dept of EEE Introduction

29. Dept of EEE Introduction

30. Dept of EEE Introduction

31. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

32. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS The IKS represents a vast, diverse, and holistic body of knowledge that has evolved over a millennia. However, this rich tradition has been significantly impacted by various historical factors, particularly the imposition of the British colonial education policies, which led to the marginalization of indigenous knowledge systems. The most notable of these policies were introduced by Thomas Babington Macaulay , whose educational policies radically altered the trajectory of IKS and cultural values. His famous “Minute on Indian Education” in 1835 became the cornerstone of British educational reform in India. It was a document that proposed the establishment of an education system in India that would prioritize English and replace all indigenous knowledge systems.

33. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS

34. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS

35. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS Key points of Macaulay’s Minute include: Emphasis on English education Macaulay argued that English was superior and it was essential to educate Indians in English to create a class on “Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions, in morals, and in intellect.” Neglect of indigenous knowledge He dismissed Indian Literature and Sciences are being of little value when compared to Western knowledge. He famously remarked that “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India & Arabia.” Utilitarian approach He regarded education as a means of creating workforce to assist the British administration, instead of holistic development.

36. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS Impact of Macaulay’s Minute include : Marginalization of indigenous knowledge systems Indigenous languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, and regional languages declined, which led to a cascading effect on IKS. Cultural alienation The policy fostered a sense of cultural inferiority among Indians. Indian literature, philosophy, science, and art, which were preserved for centuries through the Gurukul system were sidelined in favour of Western curricula, which created a disconnection between Indians and their cultural heritage. Creation of a colonial elite His system catered to the urban and upper class, leaving the rural population without access to education. As a result, it only produced educated individuals who were suited to serve the colonial state than to continue to the intellectual and cultural development of India.

37. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS Erosion of traditional educational institutions Traditional institutions such as Gurukulas and Pathshalas , which had been the pillars of indigenous education, were systematically undermined by the colonial state. The disconnect from indigenous educational practices led to a decline in the continuity of cultural and scientific traditions. Long-term consequences The main effect is that English and its proficiency remains a marker of social status in present day India. In addition, the neglect of indigenous knowledge system created a ga in the cultural consciousness of modern India. Most of us are unaware of the rich intellectual traditions of our ancestors, which has implications for national identity and self-esteem.

38. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS The need for revisiting IKS are: Restoring cultural identity and pride It is necessary to restore a sense of cultural identity and pride among Indians. The cultural legacy should be restored and a sense of pride in the intellectual achievements must be fostered. Promoting holistic education Present education system of Macaulay only focuses on technical know-how. However, IKS focuses on the holistic development that includes nurturing the student’s character, values, and ethical conduct in addition to imparting knowledge. It includes the development of the whole person, including physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. Therefore, IKS gives a well-rounded approach which is very relevant in today’s world.

39. Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS The need for revisiting IKS are: Revitalizing indigenous knowledge for contemporary challenges The India traditional systems contain a wealth of knowledge that can be revitalized to address contemporary challenges in the fields such as medicine, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and governance. For example, the present day medicine focuses only on treating diseases, while Ayurveda also focuses on preventing them. Providing linguistic and cultural diversity Linguistic diversity is a part of Indian cultural heritage, and preserving this diversity is essential for maintaining the richness of IKS. The knowledge of IKS is preserved in languages such as Sanskrit, and it can be preserved only with learning and usage of language.

40. Dept of EEE The Scope of IKS Starting from the Vedic period, the IKS include diverse fields such as philosophy, mathematics astronomy, medicine, architecture, music, and governance. The scope of IKS is universal , encompassing both micro-level knowledge (personal well-being), ethics, and individual practices) and macro-level knowledge (cosmology, statecraft, and social organization). Mirco-level knowledge Personal well-being Ayurveda and personal health Yoga and mental well-being Ethics and philosophy Macro-level knowledge Cosmology and astronomy Statecraft and governance Social organization and cultural practices

41. Dept of EEE The Scope of IKS Ayurveda and personal health Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, is one of the most comprehensive system in healing that addresses the micro-level needs of individuals. Ayurveda emphasizes on preventive care, diet, lifestyle, and completely natural remedies. The treatment is usually personalized and depends on the individual’s constitution (prakriti) and the balance of the three doshas ( Vaata , pitta and kapha) Ayurveda also integrates ethical considerations into health practices. It promotes the truth that good health is not just about physical well-being, but also about living in harmony with nature and society. The ethical dimension reflects the holistic nature of IKS.

42. Dept of EEE The Scope of IKS Yoga and mental well-being Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, is one of the most comprehensive system in healing that addresses the micro-level needs of individuals. Ayurveda emphasizes on preventive care, diet, lifestyle, and completely natural remedies. The treatment is usually personalized and depends on the individual’s constitution (prakriti) and the balance of the three doshas ( Vaata , pitta and kapha) Ayurveda also integrates ethical considerations into health practices. It promotes the truth that good health is not just about physical well-being, but also about living in harmony with nature and society. The ethical dimension reflects the holistic nature of IKS.

43. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

44. Dept of EEE INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

45. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Vid’ ( विद् ) which means ‘to know’. The word ‘Veda’ can be derived from five verbal roots. These mean to exist, to know, to discriminate, to obtain, and to make known. They are: विद्यते = अस्ति इति वेदः (विद सत्तायम्) = that which exists forever विदन्ति = जानन्ति धर्मादीन् अर्थान् अनेन इति वेदः (विद ज्ञाने) = that through which one knows things such as Dharma विन्दते = विचारयन्ति एनम् इति वेदः (विद विचारणे) = that which people think about विन्दति = प्रप्नोति अनेन इति वेदः (विदॣ लाभे) = that through which we obtain Dharma etc. वेदयति = ज्ञापयति इति वेदः (वेद चेतनाख्याननिवासेषु) = that which makes things like Dharma known to us.

46. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The Vedas are not merely scriptures, but are the foundation of human culture and civilization. While the actual dating of the Vedas has been a subject of debate for several years, the latest date attributed by many modern researchers falls a few millennia before the common era. Vedas are a unique repository of knowledge that distinguishes itself from other forms of knowledge. Normally, we attribute knowledge to a person. For example, Calculus is attributed to Newton or Leibniz. However, the Vedic corpus (corpus is a collection of written or spoken material ) is generally understood as a non – human source, and is called Apaurusheya . Vedas are revealed to the Rishis from time to time in their state of deep contemplation of the Supreme. That is why it is apaurusheya .

47. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Every Mantra of a Veda has an associated Rishi. It does not mean that the Rishis are the authors of the Mantra. It means that the Rishi discovered the Mantra during their state of deep contemplation of the Supreme. Veda is transmitted orally and preserved intact from time immemorial. Vedas have a well – developed system of phonetics that has ensured its preservation. Vedas are recognized by UNESCO as heritage. Since Vedas are preserved and transmitted through oral tradition, they are referred to as ‘ Shruthi ’ i.e., ‘what is heard’. The Samhitas and the four Vedas are part of the Shruti.

48. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus ‘ Smriti ’ is a Sanskrit word that translates to remember. It is a class of Hindu sacred literature. Although Smriti Vedic literature develops, interprets, and codifies Vedic philosophy, it is regarded as less authoritative than Vedic Shruti literature because it is a descendant. However, Smriti scriptures are more widely known to modern Hindus. The texts include the Kalpa-sutras, significant religious manuals; the Puranas, collections of prehistoric myth, tradition, and history; and the Ramayana and Mahabharata, two of India's greatest epics. Over time, the term "Smriti" came to be used specifically in reference to works dealing with social behavior and the law, such as the renowned Manu-smriti (Laws of Manu).

49. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus

50. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus

51. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedas have 6 parts or limbs. These are known as Vedaangaas ( वेदांगाः ) . The six Vedaanagaas are: Vyaakarana : Sanskrit Grammar (like face) Shiksha : Pronunciation of Veda Mantras (like nose) Jyotisha : Astrology and Astronomy (Like eyes) Nirukta : Vedic dictionary (like ears) Chanda : Poetic Stanzas (like legs) Kalpa : Manual of rituals (like hands)

52. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The seers concluded that the purpose of human life is to realise oneself, rid oneself of limitations and constraints, and experience bliss by knowing the Supreme (truth). To achieve this, a path of evolution is proposed. Stage - 1 In the early stages of life, each one of us is supposed to engage in world of activities, contribute actively, and enjoy a secured living . For this the Rishis proposed the Karma KaanDa ( कर्म काण्डः ) . It nudges an individual to obtain a purity of mind as we engage with the world. Since the Vedic living was centrally focused on Yajna, several instructions and operating frameworks pertaining to the Yajna for the part of Karma KaanDa .

53. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Stage - 2 As the individual progresses, there is a need for single – pointedness of the mind through contemplation and focus. In the Vedic corpus, the Upaasanaa kaanDa ( उपासना काण्डः ) provides these ideas for an individual. Upaasana literally means ‘sitting near’ ( upa + aasana ). It is a method od developing a certain attitude to worship. In simple terms, Upaasanaa refers to a state of concentration where ‘whatever is meditated upon’ is completely identified and absorbed with Self (Consciousness or Aatman ; not the body). It provides a systematic method and an opportunity to harness the inherently wandering mind towards a defined goal through contemplation . Several meditation practices are proposed in the Vedas as a part of Upaasanaa . The end goal is a purified and sharpened mind.

54. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus A purified and sharpened mind becomes a storehouse of energy, and it enables an individual to perform effectively both in the professional life as well as in his meditative practices. At a later stage of life, this is an important requirement for every individual. Stage - 3 The other part of the Veda addresses the issue of self – realization, The Jnaana Kaanda ( ज्ञान काण्डः ) opens the mind of an individual to its limits and facilitates much deeper inquiry about oneself.

55. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus English language – based work on the Vedas in India is very minimal. The Western efforts seem to have taken a main place in modern – day English language – based sources on Vedas and their interpretations. The Western approach to the study of the Vedic corpus has primarily been in extracting the archival material and publishing them afresh, with English commentary. It is mostly viewed as an intellectual and linguistic exercise. They usually overlook the experiences, native traditions, traditional and cultural dimensions that are required to understand and grasp the knowledge. In addition, the Western works generally ascribe to the Aryan invasion theory and use that as one of the main lenses to study the Vedic scriptures. One needs to be aware of these aspects while dealing with such works.

56. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: Samhitaa Braahmana Aranyaka Upanishads

57. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The Vedas are to be studied under the guidance of an able Guru. Hence, the IKS included the Gurukula System.

58. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Vedas ( Samhitaas ) The Vedas are the earliest IKS texts. According to scholars, the Rig Veda is the first Hindu text. It is believed that all Vedas were together one, and Sage Krishna Dwaipayana (popularly known as Veda Vyasa ) classified them. He is traditionally regarded as the author of the epic Mahābhārata , where he also plays a prominent role as a character. He is also regarded by the Hindu traditions to be the compiler of the mantras of the Vedas into four texts, as well as the author of the eighteen Purāṇas and the Brahma Sutras. Vyasa is commonly known as " Vedvyasa " (Sanskrit: वेदव्यास, Vedavyāsa ) as he divided the single, eternal Veda into four separate books—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. These four Vedas are popularly known as ‘ Samhitaas ’. For example, Rig Veda Samhita.

59. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Vedas ( Samhitaas ) Rig Veda Samhita has 10,552 mantras The Rishis who discovered these mantras are identified in the Súkta itself. The súkta also indicates the Devata to whom the mantra is addressed. The meter used to compose these mantras are also indicated. This meter is known as ‘ Chandas ’. Therefore, each Samhita mantra has a Rishi, a Devata and a Chandas . For example, the Savitr Mantra (popularly known as the Gayatri Mantra) from Rigveda (Mandala 3.62.10) has Vishwaamitra as the Rishi, Savitr as the Devata and Gayatri as the Chandas

60. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Sl. No. Veda Name Composed time period Features 1. Rig Veda 1700 BC Rig Veda is the oldest and most significant of the Vedas. It contains 1028 hymns in ten books (known as mandalas) that are dedicated to various gods. Indra, Agni, Vishnu, Rudra, Varuna, and other early or "Vedic gods" are among them. It also includes the well-known Gayatri mantra and the Purusha Shukta prayer. There are 25 women Rishis who have composed hymns in Rigveda

61. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The Rig Veda Manuscript in Devanaagari

62. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Sl. No. Veda Name Composed time period Features 2. Yajur Veda 1000 and 800 BCE The Yajur Veda, the second of the four Vedas, is referred to as the ritual book. It was written about one or two centuries after the Rig Veda was. Yajur signifies sacrifice. Yajur Veda is a priestly manual for use when performing Yajnas It is divided into ‘Krishna Yajur Veda’ & ‘Shukla Yajur Veda’.

63. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Sl. No. Veda Name Composed time period Features 3. Sama Veda 200 or 1000 BCE Sama Veda is composed on Chants and melodies that are chanted during worship and Yajna rituals. It is connected to the Rig Veda, and is the shortest of the four Vedas

64. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Sl. No. Veda Name Composed time period Features 4. Atharvana Veda 1000 to 800 BCE The fourth and the last Veda is frequently referred to as the Veda of magic formulae. Hymns, Mantras, and incantations included in the Atharvana Veda fall mostly outside the purview of the Yajnas.

65. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus The Atharvana Veda Manuscript in Devanaagari

66. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedas and their Sub-components

67. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: BrĀhmanas The word BrĀhmanas does NOT relate to the modern word ‘Brahmin’. The BrĀhmanas are a collection of knowledge mainly confined to rituals and rites written in prose. They form a large portion of the Vedic repository. Typically, one or more BrĀhmanas are associated with each Veda and contain commentaries and explanatory notes pertaining to the mantras used. They describe the different types of Yajnas with all the ritualistic details. For example, The Aithareya BrĀhmana describes the Soma sacrifice, Agnihotra , etc. The Kausītaki BrĀhmana proides details on food sacrifice, full – moon sacrifices, and sacrifices of the seasons.

68. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: BrĀhmanas In the Śatapatha BrĀhmana , the details of Agnicayana , Aśwamedha Yajna, Upanayana, Svādhyāya are explained. Several ritualistic aspects are mentioned in the BrĀhmanas portion. For example, in the Taittirīya BrĀhmana , the following instruction is given: One must sprinkle water around (the food) while reciting the Mantra ऋतं त्वा सत्येन परिषिञ्चामि ( rtan tvaa satyena parishinchaami ) in the evening, while the Mantra सत्यं त्वर्तेन परिषिञ्चामि ( satyam tavrtena parishinchaami ) has to be chanted in the morning. Saamaveda has the largest available collection of BrĀhmanas (eight).

69. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: BrĀhmanas The hymns of the Vedas are explained by the Braahmanas Vedic literature. They are prose works that discuss in These the different sacrifices (Yajnas) and rites as well as their esoteric significance. There are numerous Brahmanas in each Veda. The Shatapatha Brahmana, which advises "one hundred sacred paths," is annexed to the Sukla Yajurveda ( Satapatha ). Of all the Brahmanas, it is the most comprehensive and significant. The Atharvaveda has the Gopatha Brahmana added to it. Actually, these Brahmanas are in-depth analyses of the numerous hymns in Samhitas.

70. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Aranyakas The term Aranyaka translates to "the forest," often known as "forest books,". They were primarily produced for hermits and students who lived in the jungles The Aranyakas Vedic literature was subject to a rigorous code of secrecy because it was thought that teaching the uninitiated their contents would be dangerous. They were subsequently to be researched in the forest. They discuss symbolism and mysticism. They serve as the Upanishads' logical conclusion. They provide a link between the Upanishads' promoted Jnaana marga (way of knowledge) and the Brahmanas' exclusively concerned Karma marga (way of deeds).

71. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Upanishads are also known as books of philosophy, Vedanta. The basic word Upanishad, which means "to sit down near someone," is derived from the root Upani -shad. It represents a learner studying while seated at the guru's feet. The term eventually came to refer to the hidden information that the guru taught his chosen students. The term is now frequently used to refer to the guru's hidden teachings to his chosen students. The term is now used to refer to intellectual and spiritual learning. The Upanishads are also known as Vedanta (the end of the Veda), in part because they mark the end of the Vedic corpus and in part because they make clear Veda's ultimate goal.

72. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Rig Veda as 10 Upanishads. They are: Aitareyopanishad ( ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ) Aatmabodhopanishad ( आत्मबोधोपनिषद् ) Akshamalikopanishad ( अक्षमलिकोपनिषद् ) Bahvrichopanishad ( बह्व्रिचोपनिषद् ) Kaushitaki Upanishad ( कौषितकि उपनिषद् ) Mudgalopanishad ( मुद्गलोपनिषद् ) Nadabindopanishad ( नादबिन्दोपनिषद् ) Nirvanopanishad ( निर्वाणोपनिषद् ) Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad ( सौभाग्य लक्ष्मि उपनिषद् ) Tripura Upanishad ( त्रिपुर उपनिषद् )

73. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Shukla Yajur Veda as 19 Upanishads. They are: Ishopanishad ( ईशोपनिषद् ) Brihadaranyakopanishad ( बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् ) Adhyatma Upanishad Advaya Taraka Upanishad Bhikshuka Upanishad Hamsa Upanishad Jabala Upanishad Mandala Brahmana Upanishad Mantrika Upanishad Muktika Upanishad contd …

74. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Contd….. Niralamba Upanishad Paingala Upanishad Paramahamsa Upanishad Satyayaniya Upanishad Subala Upanishad Tara Sara Upanishad Trisikhi Brahmana Upanishad Turiyatita Avadhuta Upanishad Yajnavalkya Upanishad

75. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Krishna Yajur Veda as 33 Upanishads. They are: Akshi Upanishad Amrita Bindu Upanishad Amrita Nada Upanishad Avadhuta Upanishad Brahma Upanishad Brahma Vidya Upanishad Dakshinamurti Upanishad Dhyana-Bindu Upanishad Ekakshara Upanishad Garbha Upanishad contd …

76. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Contd….. Kaivalya Upanishad Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Kali Santarana Upanishad Katha Upanishad Katharudra Upanishad Kshurika Upanishad Maha Narayana Upanishad Narayana Upanishad Pancha Brahma Upanishad Pranagnihotra Upanishad Rudra Hridaya Upanishad Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad

77. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Contd….. Sariraka Upanishad Sarva Sara Upanishad Skanda Upanishad Suka Rahasya Upanishad Svetasvatara Upanishad Taittiriya Upanishad Tejo Bindu Upanishad Varaha Upanishad Yoga Kundalini Upanishad Yoga Sikha Upanishad Yoga Tattva Upanishad

78. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Sama Veda has 16 Upanishads. They are: Aruni Upanishad Avyakta Upanishad Chandogya Upanishad Darsana Upanishad Jabali Upanishad Kena Upanishad Kundika Upanishad Maha Upanishad Maitrayani Upanishad Maitreya Upanishad contd …

79. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Contd….. Rudraksha Jabala Upanishad Sannyasa Upanishad Savitri Upanishad Vajrasuchika Upanishad Vasudeva Upanishad Yoga Chudamani Upanishad

80. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Atharvana Veda has 33 Upanishads. They are: Annapurna Upanishad Atharvasikha Upanishad Atharvasiras Upanishad Atma Upanishad Bhasma Jabala Upanishad Bhavana Upanishad Brihad Jabala Upanishad Dattatreya Upanishad Devi Upanishad Ganapati Upanishad contd …

81. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Contd….. Ganapati Upanishad Garuda Upanishad Gopala Tapaniya Upanishad Hayagriva Upanishad Krishna Upanishad Maha Vakya Upanishad Mandukya Upanishad Mundaka Upanishad Narada Parivrajaka Upanishad Nrisimha Poorva Upanishad Nrisimha Uttara Upanishad Para Brahma Upanishad

82. Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads Presently available Upanishads are: Contd….. Paramahamsa Upanishad Pasupata Brahmana Upanishad Prasna Upanishad Rama Rahasya Upanishad Rama Tapaniya Upanishad Sandilya Upanishad Sarabha Upanishad Sita Upanishad Surya Upanishad Tripadvibhuti Upanishad Tripura Tapini Upanishad

83. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

84. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Traditional Knowledge (TK) vis-à-vis Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) means how they relate to and interact with each other. 1. TK as a Broader Framework, IK as a Localized Expression Traditional Knowledge forms the larger knowledge system that has evolved through classical texts (Vedas, Ayurveda, Yoga, etc.), institutional learning, and philosophical discourse. Indigenous Knowledge , on the other hand, is local, community-specific , and more experiential, passed down within particular social groups, especially among tribal and rural populations. Example: Ayurveda (TK) provides a structured medical system based on the three doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha). Tribal healing practices (IK) contribute unique regional herbal remedies that later get incorporated into Ayurveda.

85. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge 2. Interdependence: IK Feeds into TK, TK Validates IK Indigenous Knowledge is often the source of Traditional Knowledge because localized wisdom, over time, gets refined, documented, and systematized into broader knowledge frameworks. Traditional Knowledge helps preserve and validate Indigenous Knowledge by recording and formalizing it, preventing its loss due to oral transmission. Example: The medicinal properties of neem, turmeric, and ashwagandha were first known through Indigenous Knowledge (folk medicine). These were later codified into Ayurveda (Traditional Knowledge) and today are even validated by modern science.

86. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge 3. Different Modes of Transmission, But Shared Wisdom TK is often text-based (written in Sanskrit, Tamil, or Pali scriptures). IK is orally transmitted through storytelling, folklore, and hands-on learning. However, both are rooted in practical experience , emphasizing sustainability, community well-being, and harmony with nature. Example: Agricultural texts like Krishi Parashara (TK) describe farming techniques based on lunar cycles. Farmers in rural India (IK) follow ancestral wisdom of planting during specific moon phases, often aligning with the same principles.

87. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge 4. Spiritual and Cultural Integration Both TK and IK integrate spiritual, ethical, and ecological dimensions into knowledge systems. TK provides philosophical and metaphysical frameworks (e.g., Ayurveda’s concept of balance). IK expresses this knowledge in everyday practices (e.g., certain tribes follow fasting rituals aligned with natural cycles). Example: Vastu Shastra (TK) lays down architectural principles based on energy flow. Indigenous communities in Northeast India build homes in alignment with wind patterns and river flows (IK), following similar underlying principles.

88. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Conclusion Rather than opposing forces, Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Indigenous Knowledge (IK) exist in a reciprocal, evolving relationship within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). IK provides the raw experiential wisdom rooted in local culture. TK refines, structures, and sometimes expands IK , ensuring its continuity. Modern Science can further bridge the two , bringing validation while respecting traditional wisdom.

89. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Traditional Knowledge (TK) vis-à-vis Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering Even in the modern field of electrical engineering, we can find parallels between Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Indigenous Knowledge (IK), especially in the areas of energy generation, electrical design, and sustainable technology. Let’s explore how these knowledge systems relate to today’s engineering advancements. Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering: Localized, Sustainable Practices Indigenous Knowledge is often practical, sustainable, and adapted to local environments. Many tribal and rural communities have long relied on natural resources for energy needs, even before modern electrical grids existed.

90. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering: Localized, Sustainable Practices Examples of IK in Electrical Engineering: Wind & Water-Based Energy Generation – Traditional water wheels, wind-driven grain mills, and river-based power systems laid the foundation for modern hydro and wind power. Biomass & Solar Heating – Indigenous communities have used biomass burning for energy needs, which later contributed to the development of biogas plants and solar thermal heating systems. Earthing & Natural Conductors – Ancient structures incorporated materials like clay, copper, and salt for natural grounding, principles still used in modern grounding techniques for electrical safety. Eco-friendly Insulation – Use of banana leaves, jute, and bamboo in traditional housing has influenced modern insulation materials used in electrical wiring and sustainable construction.

91. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering: Localized, Sustainable Practices IK provides sustainable and decentralized energy solutions, useful in off-grid villages where mainstream electrical infrastructure is still lacking.Principles of IK-based renewable energy help in developing microgrids and distributed energy systems in rural electrification.

92. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Traditional Knowledge (TK) in Electrical Engineering: Systematized Theories & Formalized Concepts Traditional Knowledge, unlike Indigenous Knowledge, involves structured and documented knowledge systems that have influenced modern electrical theories and practices. Examples of TK in Electrical Engineering: Vedic Concepts of Energy & Vibration – Ancient texts like the Vedas describe concepts of prana (life energy) and sound vibrations (Nada Yoga), which resonate with modern electromagnetic wave theories and concepts like resonance in electrical circuits. Vaastu Shastra & Electromagnetic Fields – Traditional Indian architecture emphasizes directional alignment, which aligns with modern Feng Shui & electromagnetic field management in electrical engineering.

93. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge Traditional Knowledge (TK) in Electrical Engineering: Systematized Theories & Formalized Concepts Ancient Metallurgy & Conductivity – Advanced metallurgical knowledge in India (e.g., the Iron Pillar of Delhi) contributed to the development of high-conductivity materials used in modern electrical wiring. Ayurvedic Bhasma & Semiconductor Research – Some studies explore the use of nano-sized metallic particles in Ayurvedic Bhasma for potential applications in nanoelectronics and semiconductor technology. Electromagnetic field theories and wave propagation have roots in ancient Vedic concepts of energy and vibrations. Metallurgical advancements from traditional knowledge influence modern electrical materials (e.g., superconductors and nanomaterials).

94. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge TK & IK Together in Modern Renewable Energy and Smart Grids Today, electrical engineers are integrating both TK and IK into sustainable energy solutions: Solar Power Vedic Concepts of Energy & Vibration – IK: Tribal sun-tracking techniques used in agriculture. TK: Solar thermal technology advancements. Modern Link: AI-based solar tracking systems in photovoltaics. Hydropower & Water-Based Electricity: – IK: Traditional waterwheels in Himalayan villages. TK: Principles of fluid dynamics and mechanical energy conversion. Modern Link: Micro-hydropower plants in rural electrification projects.

95. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge TK & IK Together in Modern Renewable Energy and Smart Grids Smart Grids & Decentralized Energy Solutions: IK: Community-based energy-sharing practices in villages. TK: Mathematical modeling & electrical grid optimization. Modern Link: Blockchain-based energy trading & decentralized smart grids.

96. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Western Knowledge (WK) represent two distinct but sometimes complementary ways of understanding and interacting with the world. Below is a comparison of their key characteristics, strengths, and limitations. Strengths of Traditional Knowledge (TK): Sustainability: Practices like organic farming, permaculture, and holistic healing are eco-friendly and long-term solutions. Deep Environmental Understanding: Indigenous people often have intricate knowledge of ecosystems, climate patterns, and biodiversity. Holistic Approach: Integrates physical, emotional, spiritual, and social well-being. Community-Oriented: Encourages collective responsibility and knowledge-sharing.

97. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Strengths of Western Knowledge (WK): Scientific Rigor: Based on experimentation, peer review, and reproducibility. Technological Advancements: Has led to innovations in medicine, engineering, and digital technology. Universality: Standardized methods allow global application and replication. Fast Adaptation: Quickly incorporates new data, allowing rapid advancements.

98. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Rather than seeing them as opposites, many fields now combine Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Western Knowledge (WK) for more effective solutions: Medicine: TK : Ayurveda & traditional herbal medicine (e.g., turmeric for inflammation, neem for antiseptic use). WK : Pharmaceutical drugs & biotechnology (e.g., aspirin derived from willow bark, metformin from French lilac). Integration : Ayurveda-inspired nutraceuticals, herbal-based modern medicine. Agriculture & Sustainability: TK : Organic farming, crop rotation, seed preservation techniques. WK : Genetically modified crops, precision agriculture, AI in farming. Integration : Agroecology, permaculture, climate-smart farming.

99. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Engineering & Energy: TK: Water harvesting techniques (stepwells in India, qanats in Persia). WK: Modern hydropower, AI-driven irrigation systems. Integration : Sustainable energy solutions (solar microgrids, bioenergy). Architecture & Urban Planning: TK : Vaastu Shastra, earthen homes, passive cooling techniques. WK : Skyscrapers, modern urban planning, HVAC systems. Integration : Green architecture, bioclimatic design, net-zero buildings.

100. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Instead of framing Traditional Knowledge vs. Western Knowledge as a conflict, a collaborative approach is the way forward. Traditional Knowledge offers sustainability, deep environmental understanding, and holistic wisdom. Western Knowledge provides scientific validation, technological innovation, and scalability. By combining both, we can create sustainable, innovative, and culturally relevant solutions for the future.

101. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Feature Traditional Knowledge (TK) Western Knowledge (WK) Nature of Knowledge Holistic, spiritual, and community-based Analytical, objective, and individual-driven Transmission Oral traditions, storytelling, apprenticeship Written records, formal education, peer-reviewed research Validation Based on generations of experience and observation Empirical evidence, experiments, and scientific method Scope Localized, place-based, and deeply connected to nature Universal, standardized, and generalizable Timeframe Evolved over centuries, slowly adapting to changes Rapidly evolving through new discoveries and technologies

102. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Feature Traditional Knowledge (TK) Western Knowledge (WK) Approach to Problem-Solving Integrated, considers cultural and spiritual aspects Reductionist, breaking problems into smaller parts for analysis Ownership Collective knowledge shared within communities Often individualized or patented for commercial use Examples Ayurveda, indigenous farming, folk medicine, traditional architecture Modern medicine, industrial agriculture, electrical engineering, AI Flexibility Adaptive to local conditions, evolves with cultural needs Standardized, but rapidly changes with new discoveries View on Nature Humans as part of nature, interconnected with all living beings Humans as controllers of nature, modifying environments for progress

103. Dept of EEE Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge. Feature Traditional Knowledge (TK) Western Knowledge (WK) Technology Development Slow, based on necessity and ecological balance Fast-paced, driven by industrial and economic factors Health & Medicine Focus on prevention, herbal and natural remedies Focus on treatment, pharmaceuticals and surgeries Education System Apprenticeship, hands-on learning, guru-shishya tradition Formal institutions, degrees, research publications

104. Dept of EEE Philosophical Schools INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

105. Dept of EEE Philosophical Schools Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories: Āstika (Orthodox) Schools – Accept the authority of the Vedas. Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools – Reject the authority of the Vedas.

106. Dept of EEE Philosophical Schools ( Darshanās ) Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories: Āstika (Orthodox) Schools – Accept the authority of the Vedas. Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools – Reject the authority of the Vedas. The 6 Āstika schools ( shad- darshanās ) form the core of traditional Indian philosophy. They are: 1️⃣ Nyāya (Logic & Epistemology) 2️⃣ Vaiśeṣika (Atomism & Metaphysics) 3️⃣ Sāṃkhya (Dualism & Cosmic Evolution) 4️⃣ Yoga (Discipline & Liberation) 5️⃣ Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (Rituals & Dharma) 6️⃣ Vedānta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Metaphysics & Ultimate Reality)

107. Dept of EEE Philosophical Schools ( Darshanās ) The 3 Nāstika schools reject Vedic authority but provide significant philosophical contributions. They are: 1️⃣ Cārvāka (Materialism) 2️⃣ Buddhism (Four Noble Truths & Impermanence) 3️⃣ Jainism (Non-violence & Multiple Perspectives)

108. Dept of EEE Āstika (Orthodox) Schools INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

109. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Nyāya Darshana is one of the six orthodox or classical schools of Indian philosophy (shad- darshanās ). It is primarily concerned with logic, epistemology (theory of knowledge), and reasoning. The word " Nyāya " means "justice" or "rule," but in philosophy, it refers to " logical reasoning " or " critical examination .“ The Nyāya school was founded by Maharishi Gautama ( Aksapada Gautama) around the 2nd century BCE. Its foundational text is the Nyāya Sutras. It systematically discuss logic, inference, and the means of valid knowledge. The aphorisms are organized into five chapters, each having two sections. The English translation can be accessed for free on https://archive.org/details/NyayaSutra/mode/2up .

110. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Nyāya darshana explains this world using 5 key concepts. They are: Pramāṇa (Sources of Knowledge) Padārtha (Categories of Reality) Nyāya Syllogism (Five-Step Logical Argument) Concept of God Liberation (Moksha) Pramāṇa (Sources of Knowledge) Nyāya identifies four valid means of knowledge (Pramāṇas): Pratyakṣa (Perception) – Direct knowledge through the senses. Anumāna (Inference) – Indirect knowledge based on reasoning (e.g., seeing smoke and inferring fire). Upamāna (Comparison/Analogy) – Gaining knowledge by comparing with a known entity (e.g., the mango is as sour as a lemon). Śabda (Verbal Testimony) – Knowledge obtained from reliable sources, such as scriptures or a trustworthy person such as Guru.

111. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Padārtha (Categories of Reality) In Nyāya Darshana , Padārtha refers to the fundamental categories of reality. The sixteen categories ( Padārthas ) serve as a framework for understanding knowledge, logic, and debate. Nyāya classifies reality into sixteen categories ( Padārthas ), which include: Pramāṇa (Means of knowledge) Prameya (Objects of knowledge) Saṁśaya (Doubt) Prayojana (Purpose) Drishtānta (Example) Siddhānta (Conclusion) Tarka (Hypothetical reasoning) Vāda (Debate) Avayava (Components of an Argument)

112. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Nirṇaya (Final Decision) Jalpa (Debate with the Intent to Win) Vitaṇḍā (Criticism without Establishing an Alternative) Hetvābhāsa (Fallacies in Reasoning) Chala (Deceptive Argumentation) Jāti (False Counterargument) Nigrahasthāna (Grounds for Defeat in Debate) Here are examples of some key Padārtha types : Pramāṇa (Means of Valid Knowledge) Example: You see a fire burning with your own eyes ( Pratyakṣa - Perception ). Example: You infer that there is fire on a mountain because you see smoke ( Anumāna - Inference ).

113. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana 2. Prameya (Objects of Knowledge) Example: The existence of the soul (Ātman), God (Ishvara), or the external world. Example: A pot, a tree, or a river—all are objects that can be known. 3. Saṁśaya (Doubt) Example: Seeing a rope in dim light and wondering if it is a snake or just a rope. 4. Prayojana (Purpose) Example: Learning mathematics with the purpose of solving real-life problems. Example: Taking medicine to cure a disease. 5. Drishtānta (Example) Example: "Where there is smoke, there is fire" (kitchen as an example of this rule).

114. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana 6. Siddhānta (Established Conclusion) Example: "The world is composed of five elements ( Panchabhūta )"—an accepted principle in many Indian philosophies. 7. Avayava (Components of an Argument) Example: "There is fire on the mountain because there is smoke, and where there is smoke, there is fire." (A structured five-step reasoning process). 8. Tarka (Hypothetical Reasoning) Example: If the soul did not exist, memory and karma could not be explained—therefore, the soul must exist. 9. Nirṇaya (Final Decision) Example: After analyzing all arguments, concluding that the rope is indeed just a rope, not a snake.

115. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana 10. Vāda (Debate) Example: A logical discussion between a teacher and student about the existence of God, following proper reasoning. 11. Jalpa (Debate with the Intent to Win) Example: Two political opponents debating not for truth but to prove their own point. 12. Vitaṇḍā (Criticism without Establishing an Alternative) Example: A person only refuting others’ arguments without providing any logical alternative or solution. 13. Hetvābhāsa (Fallacies in Reasoning) Example: "The sky is blue because it is made of water" (incorrect reasoning). 14. Chala (Deceptive Argumentation) Example: A person twists the meaning of words to win a debate rather than seeking truth.

116. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana 15. Jāti (False Counterargument) Example: Saying "All animals have four legs, so a chair must be an animal" (wrong analogy). 16. Nigrahasthāna (Grounds for Defeat in Debate) Example: Contradicting one’s own statement during a discussion. Nyāya Syllogism (Five-Step Logical Argument) Nyāya has a structured system for reasoning. The western logic is inherently derived from this system. The structure is: Pratijñā (Proposition) – "There is fire on the mountain.“ Hetu (Reason) – "Because there is smoke. Udāharaṇa (Example) – "Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, like in a kitchen. Upanaya (Application) – "There is smoke on the mountain.” Nigamana (Conclusion) – "Therefore, there is fire on the mountain."

117. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Concept of God Unlike some other schools, Nyāya accepts the existence of God (Ishvara) as the ultimate cause of the universe. It argues for God's existence using logical reasoning, including the cosmological argument (cause-effect principle). Liberation (Moksha) Nyāya believes that liberation (Moksha) is achieved through true knowledge (Tattva Jñāna ) . Understanding the nature of the self (Ātman), the external world, and God leads to liberation from suffering. Nyāya played a crucial role in the development of Indian logic and epistemology. It influenced later philosophical traditions, including Buddhist logic, Vedanta, and Navya-Nyāya (New Logic).

118. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Nyāya Darshana is a school of thought that emphasizes rational thinking, logic, and systematic reasoning as the path to knowledge and liberation. It provides a structured framework for debate, inquiry, and the pursuit of truth.

119. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana Scan me to watch a detailed video on “ Nyaya: The Indian School of Logic & Epistemology” by Manjushree Hegde

120. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana Vaiśeṣika Darshana is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy (Shad Darshanas ). It is known for its emphasis on metaphysics and natural philosophy , particularly the atomic theory of the universe . The term "Vaiśeṣika" comes from the Sanskrit word Viśeṣa , meaning "particularity" or "distinction" , as it classifies reality into distinct fundamental categories. Founded by Maharishi Kaṇāda around the 2nd century BCE. The foundational text is the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra , which explores the ontology (nature of existence), physics, and metaphysics of the universe.

121. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana Vaiśeṣika darshana explains this world using 4 key concepts. They are: Padārtha (Categories of Reality) Paramāṇu Vāda (Vaiśeṣika Atomism) Concept of God Liberation (Moksha) Padārtha (Categories of Reality) Vaiśeṣika classifies reality into seven fundamental categories ( Padārthas ): stance) Guṇa (Quality) Karma (Action/Movement) Sāmānya (Generality) Viśeṣa (Particularity) Samavāya (Inherence) Abhāva (Non-existence)

122. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana Padārtha Meaning Example Dravya (Substance) The basic substances that form the universe. Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul, mind. Guṇa (Quality) Properties that exist in substances but not independently. Color, taste, sound, weight, number, size. Karma (Action/Movement) Activity that leads to change in substances. Motion of an arrow, burning of wood. Sāmānya (Generality) Common traits shared by objects. "Cow-ness" in all cows. Viśeṣa (Particularity) The uniqueness of each entity. No two atoms are identical. Samavāya (Inherence) The inseparable relation between a whole and its parts. A thread in cloth, heat in fire. Abhāva (Non-existence) The absence of something. The absence of a pot on a table.

123. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana Paramāṇu Vāda (Vaiśeṣika Atomism) Vaiśeṣika proposes an atomic theory, stating that the universe is made up of eternal, indivisible atoms (Paramāṇu) . These atoms combine in different ways to form compounds and objects . The combination of atoms is governed by Karma (motion) and Adṛṣṭa (unseen forces, including past karma). Concept of God (Ishvara) Initially, Vaiśeṣika was atheistic and focused purely on natural laws. Later, Ishvara (God) was incorporated as the ultimate cause of atomic motion and the moral lawgiver . Liberation (Moksha) Liberation is attained through true knowledge of reality (Tattva- Jñāna ) . Moksha is the realization of the self (Ātman) as distinct from the body and material world , leading to the cessation of rebirth.

124. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana Paramāṇu Vāda (Vaiśeṣika Atomism) Vaiśeṣika proposes an atomic theory, stating that the universe is made up of eternal, indivisible atoms (Paramāṇu) . These atoms combine in different ways to form compounds and objects . The combination of atoms is governed by Karma (motion) and Adṛṣṭa (unseen forces, including past karma). Concept of God (Ishvara) Initially, Vaiśeṣika was atheistic and focused purely on natural laws. Later, Ishvara (God) was incorporated as the ultimate cause of atomic motion and the moral lawgiver . Liberation (Moksha) Liberation is attained through true knowledge of reality (Tattva- Jñāna ) . Moksha is the realization of the self (Ātman) as distinct from the body and material world , leading to the cessation of rebirth.

125. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana Scan me to watch a detailed video on “ Vaisheshika : The Indian School Of Ontology And Natural Philosophy” by Manjushree Hegde

126. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya Aspect Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Founder Maharishi Kaṇāda Maharishi Gautama Main Focus Metaphysics and classification of reality (ontology) Logic, epistemology, and reasoning Core Text Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Nyāya Sūtra Reality (Padārtha) Seven categories: Dravya (substance), Guṇa (quality), Karma (action), Sāmānya (generality), Viśeṣa (particularity), Samavāya (inherence), Abhāva (non-existence) Sixteen categories including Pramāṇa (valid knowledge), Prameya (object of knowledge), Saṁśaya (doubt), etc. Knowledge System Emphasizes the classification of existence rather than methods of knowing Focuses on how knowledge is obtained and validated .

127. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya Aspect Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) Two: Perception (Pratyakṣa) and Inference (Anumāna) Four: Perception (Pratyakṣa), Inference (Anumāna), Comparison (Upamāna), Verbal Testimony (Śabda) Atomic Theory Believes in Paramāṇu (atoms) as the ultimate building blocks of reality Accepts the material world but does not emphasize atomic theory Concept of God Initially atheistic, later incorporated Ishvara (God) as the guiding force of atomic motion Strong theistic approach, proving the existence of God through logic Liberation (Moksha) Attained by understanding reality (Tattva-jñāna) and detachment from material bondage Attained by removing ignorance through logical reasoning and valid knowledge Relationship Later merged with Nyāya to form the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school Complementary to Vaiśeṣika, focusing on logic rather than ontology

128. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Sāṃkhya Darshana is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy (Shad Darshanas ). It is known for its rational and dualistic approach to reality, emphasizing the distinction between consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti). It is one of the oldest philosophical systems, deeply influencing Yoga, Vedanta, and Buddhism. Founded by Maharishi Kapila (c. 7th century BCE or earlier). The primary text is the Sāṃkhya Kārikā by Ishvarakrishna (c. 4th century CE). Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata also contain Sāṃkhya concepts (Chapter 2 of Bhagavd Gita is called “Sāṃkhya Yoga”).

129. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Sāṃkhya darshana explains this world using 3 key concepts. They are: Dualism ( Dvaita ) – Purusha & Prakriti The 25 Tattvas (Elements of Reality) Liberation (Moksha) – Freedom from Prakriti Purusha & Prakriti Sāṃkhya identifies reality into two fundamental categories ( Dvaita ): stance) Purusha Prakriti Purusha (Consciousness, Soul, Observer) The eternal, passive, and unchanging witness. Exists independently from material existence. Infinite in number (each being has its own Purusha).

130. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Prakriti (Matter, Nature, Energy) The active, creative, and changing principle. Includes mind, body, and the entire material universe. Composed of three Gunas (qualities): Sattva (purity, knowledge, light) Rajas (activity, passion, motion) Tamas (inertia, darkness, ignorance) According to Sāṃkhya , when Purusha interacts with Prakriti, the material world emerges. Prakriti evolves into 23 Tattvas (Principles), creating everything we experience.

131. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Purusha & Prakriti Sāṃkhya explains reality through 25 fundamental principles: Category Elements 1. Purusha (Spirit) The conscious observer 2. Prakriti (Matter) The unmanifested source of all material existence 3. Mahat (Buddhi – Intelligence) Cosmic intelligence, first evolution of Prakriti 4. Ahamkara (Ego-Sense) Individual identity, the "I“/”mine” feeling 5-9. Manas (Mind) & 5 Jñānendriyas (Senses) Mind, sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell 10-14. Five Karmendriyas (Action organs) Speech, hands, feet, excretion, reproduction 15-19. Five Tanmatras (Subtle elements) Sound, touch, form, taste, smell 20-24. Five Mahābhūtas (Gross elements) Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Space 25. Liberation (Kaivalya) State of freedom from material bondage

132. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Liberation (Moksha) – Freedom from Prakriti Bondage happens when Purusha wrongly identifies itself with Prakriti (body, mind, emotions). Liberation (Kaivalya) is attained when one realizes that Purusha is separate from Prakriti. This leads to freedom from suffering and rebirth.

133. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Prakriti and its Evolution into Matter

134. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana Scan me to watch a detailed video on “ SĀṀKHYA: INDIAN METAPHYSICS OF EXPERIENCE” by Manjushree Hegde

135. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Founder Maharishi Gautama Maharishi Kaṇāda Maharishi Kapila Core Text Nyāya Sūtra Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Sāṃkhya Kārikā Main Focus Logic, epistemology, and reasoning Ontology (study of reality) and metaphysics Dualism (Purusha & Prakriti), evolution of the universe View on Reality Pluralistic realism (16 categories of knowledge) Atomistic realism (7 Padārthas) Dualistic realism (Purusha & Prakriti) Key Concepts Pramāṇa (valid knowledge), Hetvābhāsa (fallacies), Tarka (reasoning) Seven Padārthas (categories), Atomic Theory (Paramāṇu) 25 Tattvas (elements), Three Gunas (qualities), Evolution of Prakriti

136. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) Four: Perception, Inference, Comparison, Verbal Testimony Two: Perception & Inference Three: Perception, Inference, Testimony Concept of Atoms (Paramāṇu Vāda ) Accepts atoms but does not focus on them Strong atomic theory; universe is made of eternal atoms Does not focus on atoms; believes in Prakriti as the cause of creation Concept of God (Ishvara) Strong theistic approach; God as the moral lawgiver Initially atheistic, later incorporated Ishvara as the guiding force of atomic motion Originally atheistic, later theistic Sāṃkhya included Ishvara Liberation (Moksha) Achieved by removing ignorance through logical reasoning Achieved by true knowledge of reality (Tattva-Jñāna) Achieved by realizing Purusha is separate from Prakriti

137. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Relationship with Other Systems Combined with Vaiśeṣika to form the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika school Later merged with Nyāya to refine logical arguments Provided the foundation for Yoga philosophy Influence Strong influence on Indian logic and debate traditions Influenced scientific thought and physics in ancient India Influenced Yoga, Vedanta, and Buddhism

138. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana Yoga Darshana, also known as Pātañjala Yoga , is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy (Shad Darshanas ). It emphasizes self-discipline, meditation, and self-realization as a path to liberation (Moksha). It is closely related to Sāṃkhya philosophy but incorporates Ishvara (God) and practical spiritual techniques. Founder : Maharishi Patanjali (c. 200 BCE – 200 CE) Primary Text : Yoga Sūtras of Patanjali The Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads also contain Yoga concepts.

139. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana Yoga darshana explains this world using 4 key concepts. They are: Yoga – Union of Self and Ultimate Reality The Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Yoga The Concept of Ishvara (God) Liberation (Moksha) in Yoga Yoga – Union of Self and Ultimate Reality The word Yoga means "union" —a connection between individual consciousness ( Jīvātman ) and universal consciousness ( Paramātman or Brahman). Yoga provides a practical path to achieving liberation through self-discipline.

140. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana The Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) Patanjali outlined an 8-step system for achieving spiritual enlightenment: Stage Meaning Purpose 1. Yama Moral discipline (non-violence, truth, self-control) Ethical foundation 2. Niyama Personal discipline (cleanliness, contentment, austerity) Inner purification 3. Āsana Physical postures Physical well-being, steadiness 4. Prānāyāma Breath control Control over life energy (Prana) 5. Pratyāhāra Withdrawal of senses Freedom from distractions 6. Dhāranā Concentration Focusing the mind 7. Dhyāna Meditation Deep contemplation 8. Samādhi Ultimate absorption Liberation, union with the divine

141. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Yoga Yoga Darshana recognizes three sources of valid knowledge ( Pramāṇas ): Pratyakṣa (Direct Perception) – Seeing, hearing, experiencing directly. Anumāna (Inference) – Logical deduction based on observation. Śabda (Verbal Testimony) – Knowledge from scriptures and enlightened beings. Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Yoga Unlike Sāṃkhya, which was originally atheistic, Yoga accepts the existence of God (Ishvara). Ishvara is considered a special Purusha (conscious being) who is beyond suffering and karma. Devotion to Ishvara ( Ishvarapranidhāna ) is one path to liberation.

142. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana Liberation (Moksha) in Yoga Liberation (Kaivalya) is achieved when the Self (Purusha) separates from the material world (Prakriti). The mind becomes completely still (Chitta- Vritti Nirodha ), leading to self-realization and freedom from suffering. Scan me to watch a detailed video on “ Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation” by Manjushree Hegde

143. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Founder Gautama Kaṇāda Kapila Patanjali Core Focus Logic, epistemology Ontology, atomism Dualism (Purusha & Prakriti) Discipline & Meditation Main Text Nyāya Sūtra Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Sāṃkhya Kārikā Yoga Sūtras Reality Pluralistic realism Atomistic realism Dualism of Purusha & Prakriti Union of Self & Divine Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) 4 (Perception, Inference, Comparison, Verbal Testimony) 2 (Perception, Inference) 3 (Perception, Inference, Testimony) 3 (Perception, Inference, Testimony)

144. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Concept of God Theistic Initially atheistic, later theistic Originally atheistic, later theistic versions Accepts Ishvara as a guide Liberation (Moksha) Removing ignorance via logic Knowledge of reality Realizing Purusha & Prakriti are separate Discipline & Meditation (Ashtanga Yoga) Influence Indian logic, debates Ancient physics, ontology Yoga, Vedanta, Buddhism Yoga practices, Hindu traditions

145. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Pūrva Mīmāṃsā , also known simply as Mīmāṃsā , is one of the six classical Indian philosophical systems ( Shad Darshanas ). It focuses on the interpretation of the Vedas, rituals, and Dharma (duty) . The term Mīmāṃsā means "reflection" or "investigation" , and it primarily deals with understanding the correct performance of Vedic rituals and the authority of the Vedas . Founder: Maharishi Jaimini (c. 200 BCE – 200 CE) Primary Text: Mīmāṃsā Sūtras by Jaimini Commentaries : Śabara Bhāṣya by Śabara (explains Jaimini’s Sūtras ) Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and Prabhākara developed two major schools

146. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Core Philosophy of Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Vedas are Eternal & Authoritative The Vedas are self-existent, unauthored ( Apaureshaya ), and infallible. They are the ultimate source of knowledge regarding Dharma (duty). Karma (Action) is Supreme The main focus is on performing Vedic rituals correctly. Rituals ( Yajñas ) ensure worldly prosperity and spiritual progress. No Direct Focus on God (Ishvara) Pūrva Mīmāṃsā is non-theistic; it does not emphasize a personal God. It believes rituals themselves produce results through the power of mantras and correct performance. Law of Karma Actions (Karma) leave invisible impressions ( Apūrva ), which later bear fruit. Good actions bring good results, and bad actions bring suffering.

147. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Dharma as the Supreme Goal Dharma is defined as actions prescribed by the Vedas. The ultimate purpose of human life is to follow Dharma through rituals and duties. Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Mīmāṃsā Mīmāṃsā accepts six sources of valid knowledge (Pramāṇas): Pratyakṣa (Perception) – Direct sensory experience. Anumāna (Inference) – Logical reasoning. Upamāna (Comparison) – Understanding through analogy. Arthāpatti (Postulation) – Presumption based on necessity. Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension) – Knowledge from the absence of something. Śabda (Verbal Testimony) – Vedic authority is the highest source of knowledge.

148. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Two Major Schools of Mīmāṃsā There are two major schools in Mīmāṃsā : Two Major Schools of Mīmāṃsā Unlike other philosophies, Mīmāṃsā does not focus on Moksha as the main goal. However, later interpretations describe Moksha as the cessation of rebirth through perfect action and detachment. School Founder Key Beliefs Bhāṭṭa Mīmāṃsā Kumārila Bhaṭṭa Emphasizes strict ritualism and realism Prābhākara Mīmāṃsā Prabhākara Accepts a more flexible interpretation of rituals

149. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Scan me to watch the two-part videos on “ PŪRVAMĪMĀṂSĀ: RITUALS, HERMENEUTICS AND EXEGESIS ” by Manjushree Hegde Part - 1 Part - 2

150. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Founder Gautama Kaṇāda Kapila Patanjali Jaimini Core Focus Logic, epistemology Ontology, atomism Dualism (Purusha & Prakriti) Discipline & Meditation Rituals & Dharma Main Text Nyāya Sūtra Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Sāṃkhya Kārikā Yoga Sūtras Mīmāṃsā Sūtras Reality Pluralistic realism Atomistic realism Dualism of Purusha & Prakriti Union of Self & Divine Vedic authority

151. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) 4 (Perception, Inference, Comparison, Verbal Testimony) 2 (Perception, Inference) 3 (Perception, Inference, Testimony) 3 (Perception, Inference, Testimony) 6 (Perception, Inference, Comparison, Postulation, Non-apprehension, Verbal Testimony) Concept of God Theistic Initially atheistic, later theistic Originally atheistic, later theistic versions Accepts Ishvara as a guide Does not focus on God

152. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Liberation (Moksha) Removing ignorance via logic Knowledge of reality Realizing Purusha & Prakriti are separate Discipline & Meditation (Ashtanga Yoga) Not a primary concern, focuses on Dharma Influence Indian logic, debates Ancient physics, ontology Yoga, Vedanta, Buddhism Yoga practices, Hindu traditions Hindu rituals, Dharma traditions

153. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Uttara Mīmāṃsā ( Vedānta ) Uttara Mīmāṃsā , commonly known as Vedānta , is one of the six classical Indian philosophical systems (Shad Darshanas ). While Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (earlier inquiry) focuses on rituals and Dharma, Uttara Mīmāṃsā (later inquiry) is concerned with the nature of Brahman (Ultimate Reality), self-knowledge, and liberation (Moksha). Founder : Vyāsa ( Badarāyaṇa ) Primary Text : Brahma Sūtras ( Vedānta Sūtras ) by Vyāsa Other Foundational Texts: Upanishads (Core philosophical teachings of the Vedas) Bhagavad Gītā (Spiritual discourse on duty and self-realization)

154. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Uttara Mīmāṃsā ( Vedānta ) Core Philosophy of Uttara Mīmāṃsā ( Vedānta ) Brahman is the Ultimate Reality The Upanishads describe Brahman as infinite, eternal, and beyond duality. Everything in the universe originates from, exists in, and ultimately merges into Brahman. Ātman and Brahman are One Ātman (individual self) is not different from Brahman (universal self). Realizing this unity leads to liberation (Moksha). Moksha (Liberation) is the Supreme Goal Unlike Pūrva Mīmāṃsā , which emphasizes rituals, Uttara Mīmāṃsā focuses on self-realization and detachment from material existence

155. Dept of EEE Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Uttara Mīmāṃsā ( Vedānta ) Critique of Ritualism Rituals are seen as helpful but not essential for Moksha. Jnana (knowledge) is superior to Karma (rituals). The World (Maya) is an Illusion Advaita Vedānta argues that the physical world is a temporary illusion ( Māyā ). Three Major Schools of Uttara Mīmāṃsā ( Vedānta ) School Founder Key Beliefs Advaita Vedānta (Non-dualism) Adi Shankaracharya Brahman alone is real; the world is illusion (Māyā). Ātman and Brahman are identical. Liberation is attained through knowledge. Vishishtadvaita Vedānta (Qualified Non-dualism) Ramanujacharya Brahman is the Supreme Reality but has attributes. Individual souls are distinct but dependent on Brahman. Liberation is union with Brahman in devotion. Dvaita Vedānta (Dualism) Madhvacharya Brahman (God) and individual souls are eternally separate. Devotion to a personal God (Vishnu) is the path to liberation.

156. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā vs. Uttara Mīmāṃsā Criteria Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta) Core Philosophy Atomism & Realism Logic & Epistemology Dualism (Prakriti & Purusha) Union of Soul & God Vedic Ritualism Non-Dualism / Theism Metaphysics 9 Categories (Dravya, Guna, Karma, etc.) 16 Categories (Pramana, Doubt, etc.) Purusha (Soul) & Prakriti (Matter) Purusha & Ishvara No creation theory, Focus on Dharma Brahman as Ultimate Reality Epistemology Perception & Inference Perception, Inference, Analogy, Testimony Perception & Inference Same as Sāṃkhya + Devotion Vedas as Supreme Authority Vedas & Direct Experience of Brahman

157. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā vs. Uttara Mīmāṃsā Criteria Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta) Concept of God Not necessary Theistic Atheistic Theistic Not relevant Depends on Sub-School (Advaita, Dvaita) Liberation (Moksha) Freedom from pain via knowledge Removal of ignorance Realization of Purusha's independence Union with Ishvara Attaining heaven via rituals Realization of Brahman

158. Dept of EEE Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā vs. Uttara Mīmāṃsā Criteria Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta) Ethics & Practice Moral duties Logical reasoning & Debate Knowledge & Detachment Meditation & Devotion Vedic Sacrifices Self-inquiry & Devotion Major Texts Vaiśeṣika Sutra Nyāya Sutras Sāṃkhya Kārikā Yoga Sutras Mīmāṃsā Sutras Upanishad s , Brahma Sutras, Bhagavad Gita

159. Dept of EEE Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

160. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka Cārvāka Darshana , also known as Lokāyata (world-outlook), is an ancient Indian materialistic and atheistic philosophy that rejects the authority of the Vedas, the concept of an afterlife, and metaphysical entities like the soul ( Ātman ) and God ( Īshvara ). It advocates for a hedonistic approach to life, emphasizing direct perception ( pratyakṣa ) as the only valid means of knowledge while rejecting inference ( anumāna ) and testimony ( śabda ) as unreliable sources. The philosophy encourages individuals to seek pleasure and avoid suffering, as it considers the physical body to be the only reality. It dismisses rituals, religious duties, and moral constraints that are not based on direct experience.

161. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka Due to its critical stance against orthodox traditions, Cārvāka was often criticized by other philosophical schools, including Vedanta, Buddhism, and Jainism. Though very little of its original literature survives, Cārvāka’s influence can be seen in debates on skepticism and rationalism in Indian philosophy. The key features include: Materialism ( Lokāyata ) – Cārvāka holds that only the material world exists, rejecting the existence of soul ( Ātman ), God ( Īshvara ), and an afterlife. Empiricism & Pratyakṣa Pramāṇa – It accepts only direct perception ( pratyakṣa ) as a valid means of knowledge, rejecting inference ( anumāna ), verbal testimony ( śabda ), and other indirect means.

162. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka Hedonism – Pleasure ( sukha ) is considered the highest goal of life, and pain ( duḥkha ) should be avoided. It encourages enjoying life rather than engaging in spiritual or religious austerities. Critique of Religion & Vedas – Cārvāka rejects the Vedas as authoritative, dismissing them as composed by self-serving priests. It opposes rituals, sacrifices, and religious dogma. Skepticism of Inference & Logic – It argues that inference is unreliable since it depends on assumptions that cannot always be verified. Rejection of Dharma & Moksha – Unlike other Indian philosophies, Cārvāka denies the concepts of dharma (moral duty) and moksha (liberation), as they are based on unproven metaphysical beliefs. Focus on the Physical Body – Consciousness and life are seen as products of the physical body, which ceases to exist after death.

163. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka Cārvāka was a radical school of thought that challenged religious orthodoxy and promoted a rational, materialistic outlook on life. Scan me to watch a detailed video on “ CARVAKA Philosophy Explained ”

164. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism Buddhism is a spiritual tradition and philosophy founded by Gautama Buddha in the 5th–4th century BCE in ancient India. It is based on the pursuit of wisdom, ethical living, and mental discipline to attain liberation (nirvana) from suffering. Core Teachings The Four Noble Truths – The foundation of Buddhist philosophy: Dukkha : Life is characterized by suffering. Samudaya : The cause of suffering is desire and attachment. Nirodha : Suffering can end by overcoming desire. Magga : The way to end suffering is the Eightfold Path.

165. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism The Eightfold Path – A guide to ethical and mindful living: Right View (understanding reality) Right Intention (commitment to self-improvement) Right Speech (truthful, kind communication) Right Action (moral behavior) Right Livelihood (ethical occupation) Right Effort (self-discipline) Right Mindfulness (awareness and focus) Right Concentration (meditation for mental clarity) Concept of Nirvana – The ultimate goal, where one is free from suffering and the cycle of birth and rebirth ( samsara ). Karma and Rebirth – Actions ( karma ) influence future lives, shaping the cycle of rebirth.

166. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism Major Schools of Buddhism Theravāda – The oldest school, focused on personal enlightenment through meditation and monastic discipline. Predominant in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar. Mahayāna – Emphasizes compassion ( karuṇā ) and the ideal of the Bodhisattva (one who helps others attain enlightenment). Found in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Vajrayāna (Tibetan Buddhism) – A mystical and esoteric form of Buddhism incorporating rituals, mantras, and meditation techniques. Practiced mainly in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia. In India, both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, along with Vajrayana (a branch of Mahayana), are practiced, with Mahayana being more prevalent in northern India and Vajrayana having a strong presence in regions like Tibet and the Himalayas.

167. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism Buddhism has a profound impact on philosophy, ethics, meditation, and mindfulness practices worldwide. It promotes peace, non-violence, and self-awareness, making it relevant to contemporary life. Scan me to watch the videos on Buddhism

168. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism Jainism is an ancient Indian philosophical school emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa), self-discipline, and spiritual liberation . It was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), the 24th Tirthankara (spiritual teacher), though its roots trace back even earlier. Jainism teaches that liberation ( moksha ) is achieved through ethical living, self-control, and deep meditation. Core Teachings of Jainism The Three Jewels ( Ratnatraya ) – The path to liberation: Right Faith (Samyak Darshan) – Belief in truth and teachings of the Tirthankaras . Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana) – Understanding reality without ignorance. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra) – Practicing ethical discipline and self-control.

169. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism Five Major Vows ( Mahavratas ) – Ethical principles followed by Jain monks and nuns: Ahimsa (Non-violence) – Avoiding harm to all living beings, including insects . Satya (Truthfulness) – Speaking only what is true and beneficial. Asteya (Non-stealing) – Not taking what is not given. Brahmacharya (Celibacy/Chastity) – Controlling desires and maintaining purity. Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness) – Detachment from material possessions. Karma and Rebirth – Jainism teaches that karma binds the soul to the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) . Only by eliminating karma through self-discipline can one attain moksha (liberation).

170. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism Doctrine of Anekantavada (Multiplicity of Truths) – Reality is complex, and truth can be viewed from multiple perspectives, promoting tolerance and open-mindedness. Asceticism and Renunciation – Jain monks and nuns practice extreme self-discipline, including fasting and meditation, to purify the soul. Major Sects of Jainism Digambara ("Sky-Clad") – Monks renounce all possessions, including clothing, emphasizing complete detachment. Śvetāmbara ("White-Clad") – Monks and nuns wear white robes and believe women can attain liberation. Jainism promotes non-violence, vegetarianism, environmentalism, and ethical living , making it highly relevant in today’s world. Its principles of compassion, minimalism, and mindfulness continue to inspire people globally.

171. Dept of EEE Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism Scan me to watch a detailed video on “ Jainism Explained ”

172. Dept of EEE Cārvāka vs. Buddhism vs. Jainism Feature Cārvāka Buddhism Jainism Philosophy Materialistic, Hedonistic Spiritual, Ethical Spiritual, Ascetic View on God Atheistic Non-theistic Non-theistic View on Soul No soul No permanent self Eternal soul Afterlife No rebirth Rebirth until Nirvana Rebirth until Moksha Goal of Life Enjoy pleasure End suffering Liberation from rebirth Concept of Karma Rejects karma Karma affects rebirth Karma binds the soul Sources of Knowledge Only perception Perception, inference, scripture Perception, inference, multiple views Ethics & Morality Pleasure-driven Compassion, Eightfold Path Strict non-violence, Five Vows

173. Dept of EEE Cārvāka vs. Buddhism vs. Jainism Feature Cārvāka Buddhism Jainism View on Material World Only material world exists World is transient World is real but attachment is bondage Role of Asceticism Opposed Balanced renunciation Extreme asceticism

174. Dept of EEE Āstika vs. Nāstika Schools INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

175. Dept of EEE Āstika vs. Nāstika Schools Criteria Astika (Orthodox) Schools Nastika (Heterodox) Schools Acceptance of Vedas Accepts Vedic authority Rejects Vedic authority Belief in Atman (Soul) Believes in eternal soul (Atman) Varies; Buddhism denies Atman Major Schools Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta Charvaka, Jainism, Buddhism Philosophical Approach Combination of scriptural authority and logic Empirical, rational, or materialistic approaches Concept of Moksha (Liberation) Achieved through knowledge, devotion, or karma Different interpretations; Jainism focuses on liberation, Charvaka rejects it Belief in Karma & Rebirth Strongly believes in karma and rebirth Varies; Charvaka rejects, Jainism & Buddhism accept

176. Dept of EEE Āstika vs. Nāstika Schools Criteria Astika (Orthodox) Schools Nastika (Heterodox) Schools Epistemology (Sources of Knowledge) Scriptural authority + logic Empirical or rational approaches View on Deities Believes in multiple deities forms or Brahman Charvaka rejects deities, Jainism and Buddhism have different views