biology module 2 and 5notes 4th semester 2nd year VTU notes

biology module 2 notes 4th semester 2nd year VTU notes
biology module 5 notes 4th semester 2nd year VTU notes

1. Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA as bioplastics),
Nucleic acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies and RNA vaccines for Covid19,
Forensics – DNA fingerprinting), Proteins (Proteins as food – whey protein
and meat analogues, Plant based proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning
agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in biosensors, lignolytic
enzyme in bio-bleaching).
Module 2: Biomolecules and their Applications
(Qualitative) 08 hours

2. Module 2
Biomolecules
and their
Applications
(Qualitative)Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and
structures and perform a vast array of
functions.

3. Carbohydrates
1. Cellulose-
based water
filters
2. PHA
bioplastic
3. PLA
bioplastic

4. CelluloseCarbohydrates
vpolymer made up of glucose subunits.
vconsisting of 3,000 or more glucose units.
vDue to inter-and intramolecular hydrogen bonding
between the hydroxyl groups of the neighboring cellulose
chains, cellulose is insoluble in water, despite being
hydrophilic, and is difficult to dissolve with common organic
solvents.
vCellulose filter papers are versatile and diverse tools for
microfiltration: work by trapping particulates within a
random matrix of cellulose fibers.
vcommonly used fibers in filtration media.
vcompatible with a multitude of filter production processes,
such as embossing, corrugating, and pleating.

5. Cellulose-based water filters
•Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer found in plant
cell walls. They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an alternative to
traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of
cellulose make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose filters can effectively remove
particles, pathogens, and other contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable.
•composition: resin and cellulose fibers.
•Different grades of cellulose filter media are designed to meet application-specific requirements.
Grades: different combinations of fibers + resin systems, each providing different physical properties,
chemical resistance, filtration efficiency, pressure drop, and flow characteristics.
•The interest in the use of biobased
filters for water purification has
increased in recent years, as such
filters have the potential to be
safe, clean, affordable, lightweight,
biodegradable, alternative to
synthetic filters and sustainable.

6. Cellulose-based water filters
Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps:
1.Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water filter will depend on the desired
properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical resistance. Common cellulose materials include paper, cotton, and
wood fibers.
2.Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small pieces, washing it to remove
impurities, and drying it for use.
3.Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either stacking it or compacting it using
heat and pressure.
4.Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached ot a filter medium such as a mesh or a support structure
to provide stability and increase the filter surface area.
5.Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to modify its properties, such as increasing its
hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents.
6.Housing Assembly: The filter medium is
assembled into a housing that provides
a means to attach it to a water source
and to collect the filtered water.
7.Filter Testing: The completed filter is
tested to ensure that it meets the
desired specifications, such as filtration
efficiency and flow rate.

7. ☞Advantages:
⊶Renewable fiber sources
⊶High strength and durability
⊶Large surface area
⊶Chemical stability
⊶Strong adhesion to glass
⊶Abundant source
vApplications:
⊶ Gas turbine filtration
⊶ Fuel and oil filtration
⊶ Engine air intake filters
⊶ Coalescing filters
⊶ Hydraulic filters
☞Disadvantage:
⊶Cellulose lose mechanical strength in
certain chemical or high-temperature
environments and absorb water in high-
humidity conditions
⊶potentially altering its filtration
properties.
Properties:
⤞High Porosity
⤞Biodegradability
⤞Cost-effective
⤞Renewable resource
⤞Good mechanical strength
⤞Chemical resistance
⤞Large surface area

8. PHA bioplastic

9. PHA bioplastic
ØPHA- (Polyhydroxyalkanoates)
ØAre family of intracellular biopolymers
Øsynthesized via various bacteria as intracellular carbon and
energy storage granules.
Ørenewable polyesters
Øproduced by various microorganisms in response to various stress conditions
ØEg: excess carbon or limited phosphate, nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen) to provide protection
from nutrient starvation and extreme conditions.
ØPHAs characteristics:
⊶water insolubility
⊶resistant to hydrolytic degradation
⊶biocompatibility
⊶suitability for medical applications
⊶nontoxicity.

10. PHA bioplastic: applications
•Packaging: various forms of packaging such as food containers, beverage cups, and clamshell
containers.
•Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can be used in the manufacture of medical devices such
as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems.
•Textiles: production of biodegradable textiles, as well as biodegradable composites for use in
construction and furniture.
•Agricultural Mulch Films: production of biodegradable mulch films for agriculture to reduce soil
erosion and conserve moisture.
•Consumer Goods: production of various consumer goods, such as toys, phone cases, and water
bottles.
•Automotive Parts: production of biodegradable automotive parts such as air ducts and headlamp
covers.
• Electronic Devices: production of biodegradable components in electronic devices such as
smartphones and laptops.
•Aerospace: production of biodegradable parts in aerospace applications, such as insulation and cable
management.
•Sporting Goods: production of biodegradable sporting goods such as golf tees and fishing lures.
•Construction: production of biodegradable insulation and soundproofing materials.

11. PLA bioplastic
ØPolylactic acid or Polylactide (PLA)
ØDerived from renewable biomass: fermented plant
starch like corn starch, cassava, sugarcane or sugar
beet pulp, maize.
ØPLA is a polyester: polymer containing the ester group
Ømade with two possible monomers or building blocks:
lactic acid, and lactide.

12. PLA bioplastic
Properties of PLA
¢Linear and thermoplastic polymer
¢biodegradable under appropriate conditions
¢regarded as food safe since it decomposes back
into its lactic acid
¢non-toxic building blocks.
¢does not degrade naturally: Must be composted
under a special conditions: temperature of 60 °C,
humidity of 90%, time period 60 to 90 days.
¢decomposes into CO2, lactic acid, and H2O.
¢better durability, transparency & mechanical
strength
Applications of PLA:
ofood packaging, disposable
cutlery
oClothing fibers: Disposable
garments
oMedical Implants, suture
oDrug carrier
oFood friendly films
oAgriculture: Grow bags, net
oTissue engineering

13. Nucleic acid
1. DNA Vaccine
for Rabies
2. RNA
vaccines for
Covid19
3. Forensics –
DNA
fingerprinting

14. ☞Vaccine: preparation that is
used to stimulate the body's
immune response against
diseases.
☞Vaccine administration: through
needle injections, but some
can be administered by mouth
or sprayed into the nose.

15. Nucleic acid
1. DNA Vaccine
for Rabies
2. RNA
vaccines
for Covid19
3. Forensics –
DNA
fingerprinting

16. RNA vaccines for Covid19

18. oCoronavirus (Covid-19) is an infection diseases by the SAR-CoV-2 Virus.
oMessenger RNA, or mRNA technology, instructs cells to make a protein that generates an
immune response in the body, thus producing the antibodies against a disease.
oIt is basis for Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines being used by governments
worldwide, and the UN -supported COVAX global vaccine solidarity initiative.
omRNA is molecule that instructs the cell for making Protein.
omRNA vaccines contains the instructions for making the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.
oThis protein is found on the surface of the virus that cause COVID-19.
oThe mRNA molecule is essentially a recipe, telling the cells of the body how to make the
spike Protein.
oCOVID -19 mRNA vaccines: given by injection, usually into muscle of upper arm.
oAfter the protein piece is made, the cell breaks down the instruction and gets rid of them.
omRNA never enters the central parts (nucleus) of the cells, which is where our DNA
(genetic material) is found.
oOur DNA cannot be altered by mRNA vaccines.
oPfizer, BioNTech, Moderna, COVAX are the current vaccines available
RNA vaccines for Covid19

19. Nucleic acid
1. DNA
Vaccine for
Rabies
2. RNA
vaccines for
Covid19
3. Forensics –
DNA
fingerprinting

21. DNA Vaccines
⤕DNA vaccine: transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as
a mechanism to induce an immune response.
⤕DNA vaccines also termed as the third-generation vaccines
⤕use engineered DNA to induce an immunologic response in the host against bacteria, parasites,
viruses, and potentially
⤕DNA vaccines induce an adaptive immune response.
⤕working principle:
ouse of a DNA plasmid that encodes for a protein that originated from the pathogen in which the
vaccine will be targeted.
oVirus RNA is taken responsible for producing spike protein. It is attached to simple DNA of virus
which doesn’t effect humans. This transferred to plasmid.
oA plasmid is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated
from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found as small
circular, double-stranded DNA molecules in bacteria
oPlasmid is injected to humans which enters the human cell making way towards cell nucleus. The
plasmid then produces mRNA that produces spike protein. When cell dies naturally the spike
protein remains. This combines with our immune system and produces antibody for the attacking
virus.

22. DNA Vaccines
Plasmid DNA (pDNA) is
⤕Inexpensive
⤕Stable
⤕relatively safe thereby allowing this non-viral platform to be considered an
excellent option for gene delivery.
⤕virus vectors that have been used to source pDNA include onco-retroviruses,
lentiviruses, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and Herpes simplex-1.
Advantages:
✷cheaper
✷efficient strategy for rabies prophylaxis
✷feasibility in several animal models including companion animals, since 1994
Rabies Vaccine: Rabies Immunoglobulin

23. Nucleic acid
1. DNA Vaccine
for Rabies
2. RNA vaccines
for Covid19
3. Forensics –
DNA
fingerprinting

24. Forensics-DNA
Fingerprinting
➴DNA typing or DNA profiling or genetic
fingerprinting or genotyping or identity testing
➴Alec Jeffreys, 1985
➴DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique
used to determine the probable identity of a
person based on the nucleotide sequences of
certain regions of human DNA that are unique to
individuals.

26. Forensics-DNA
Fingerprinting
➴Blood
➴Semen
➴Hair Follicles
➴Saliva
➴Skin cells
Samples

28. Amplified by
PCR
Gel

29. Amplified by
PCR
Gel

30. Amplified by
PCR
Gel

33. Working of DNA fingerprinting for forensic applications Here is how it works:
ØSample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological sample, such as blood, semen, or hair. The
sample is then purified and processed to isolate the DNA.
ØDNA amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified (many copies are made) using a technique
called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR produces many copies of a specific DNA region, which
allows for more accurate analysis. Special Enzyme (restriction endonucleases) are used to cut DNA
into different size pieces.
ØDNA analysis: The amplified DNA is then analyzed using a technique called gel electrophoresis. The
DNA fragments are separated based on size and charge, and a DNA profile is generated. It is then
placed into wells using agarose gel. When potential is applied this separates the molecules in DNA
based on their different sizes. Pattern is then transferred to a nylon sheet. The lines are observed
under X-rays.
ØDNA comparison: The DNA profile obtained from the biological sample is then compared to the DNA
profiles of other individuals, such as suspects or victims, to determine fi there is a match.
ØDNA comparison is typically done manually by forensic analysts, as it involves analyzing complex DNA
profiles and comparing them to control samples to determine if there is a match. However, artificial
intelligence (AI) is beginning to play amore prominent role in DNA analysis, particularly in the
development of automated DNA profiling systems.
ØThe DNA profile consists of a series of bands on a gel, which represent specific DNA fragments. The
bands are compared to those from a control sample, such as blood or saliva from a suspect or
victim, to see if there is a match. If there is a match, it is considered strong evidence that the
biological sample came from that individual.

34. Forensics-DNA
Fingerprinting
»identify prospective criminal suspects.
»prove paternity and establish familial ties.
»identify and protect the commercial crop and
livestock types.
»figure out an organism's evolutionary history and
the relationships between different groupings of
species.
»identify victims of natural disasters and mass
casualties
Applications-

35. Proteins

36. Protein as
food
1. Whey
protein
2. Meat
analogs
3. Plant-based
protein

37. ☞Whey protein is rapidly absorbed
by the body
☞Is high in branched-chain amino
acids: essential for muscle
growth and repair.
☞Good source of essential
nutrients: calcium, potassium, and
vitamins B2 and B12.
Whey protein

38. Use of whey protein as food
1.Sports nutrition: used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts to help build and repair
muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise, and increase overall muscle
mass.
2.Weight management: used to help manage weight by increasing satiety and
reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by preserving muscle mass
while reducing body fat
3.Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been
shown to have various health benefits, including improved immune function, lower
blood pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
4.Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a
drink or in a variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient source of
protein, making it a popular option for people with busy schedules or limited access
to fresh foods.

39. Whey
protein

40. Protein as
food
1. Whey
protein
2. Meat
analogs
3. Plant-based
protein

41. Meat Protein Analog

42. Meat
Protein
Analog
Cultured meat
Embryo

43. Protein as
food
1. Whey
protein
2. Meat
analogs
3. Plant-
based protein

45. Lipids

46. Applications of
lipids
1. Biodiesel 2. Cleaning
agent

47. ✣Biodiesel is a mixture of
monoalkyl esters of long chain
fatty acids or esters of
glycerol
✣Obtained from the renewable
sources like vegetable oils like
soyabean oil, palm oil, peanut
oil, sunflower oil, jathropa oil
(triglycerides).
Lipids for Biodiesel

48. Manufacturing of biodiesel
•Synthesis method: trans-esterification of the vegetable oil with any alcohol in presence of
catalysts like KOH or H2SO4.
•Most commonly used alcohol is methanol to produce methyl esters (commonly referred to as Fatty
Acid Methyl Ester-FAME) as it is the cheapest alcohol available.
•Ethanol can be used to produce an ethyl ester (commonly referred to as Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester
FAEE)

49. Manufacturing of biodiesel
•Warm oil is mixed with the mixture of NaOH and methanol. The above is mixed.
Transesterification reaction takes place to give suitable products.
•Products are allowed to settle and from the bottom glycerol layer is drawn off.
•The upper layer of methyl ester is washed with water and purified further to remove
excess of alcohol which finally gives biodiesel.
•Cooking oil or animal fat can be converted into biodiesel.
Advantages:
qIt is biodegradable
qNontoxic
qfree from Sulphur compounds.
qNonedible oils can be used.
qEcofriendly products are formed.

50. Applications of
lipids
1. Biodiesel 2. Cleaning
agent

51. Lipids as
cleaning agent

52. Lipids as cleaning agent
Working: ability to dissolve grease and oils. Lipids are composed of hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions,
which allows them to surround grease and oils, effectively breaking them down into smaller particles
that can be more easily removed. commonly used in cleaning products such as soaps, shampoos, laundry
detergents, and dishwashing liquids. When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface, the
hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic
regions interact with water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away. The combination of the lipid and
water also forms an emulsion, which helps to suspend and remove dirt and debris dissolved in water.
In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering capabilities, that can
enhance their cleaning performance. For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming agents in
shampoos. These additional properties can help it loosen and remove dirt and debris, making the
cleaning process more effective.

53. Enzymes

54. Applications of
enzymes
1. glucose-oxidase
in biosensor
2. lignolytic enzyme
in bio-bleaching

55. glucose-oxidase
in biosensor
•When blood/glucose solution is placed in the
strip, a chemical reaction occurs inside it,
generating a small electrical current
proportional to the glucose concentration.
•This current is constantly monitored while the
strip is in place, allowing the device to monitor
when blood is placed.
Gluconic acid

56. Glucose-oxidase in biosensor
•Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological
recognition element with a transducer to detect and quantify
target analytes. The biological recognition element can be an
enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that
specifically interacts with the target analyte. The transducer
converts the biological response into an electrical signal that is
quantified and interpreted.
•Glucose oxidase particularly oxidizes glucose. During this
electrons are lost which will produce electric current.
•Glucose sensor strip has three electrodes. Name. the strip
contains an enzyme (glucose oxidase) that oxidizes glucose into
gluconic acid. The strip also contains ferrocyanide in it. The
gluconic acid produced will react with ferrocyanide. This reaction
generates electrons which runs as small electric current on the
strip. electrical current proportional to the glucose
concentration. This current is read by glucometer, converted into
digital value and displayed on glucometer screen.

57. Advantages of glucose sensor:
qSensitivity: highly sensitive and can detect target analytes at low concentrations,
qSpecificity: designed to specifically recognize a target analyte, minimizing
interference from other substances in the sample.
qRapid response time
qPortability: small and portable design. Hence useful in remote locations.
qCost-effectiveness: manufactured at a low cost, hence alternative to more
expensive analytical methods.

58. Applications of
enzymes
1. glucose-oxidase
in biosensor
2. lignolytic enzyme
in bio-bleaching

59. Bio-bleaching
•Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such as enzymes,
to remove color and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles.
•Sustainable alternative to traditional chemical bleaching methods that
use harsh chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.

60. Lignolytic
enzyme
•Group of enzymes capable of degrading lignin. These
enzymes catalyze the oxidation of colored impurities in the
fiber, giving brighter and more uniform color.
•major ligninolytic enzymes: laccase, lignin peroxidase,
manganese peroxidase, and versatile peroxidase
•Produced by fungi, bacteria and plants. These enzymes
are immobilized on a support (like ceramic bead or
cellulosic matrix, to ensure stability and prolonged activity.
•The immobilized enzymes are then added to the fibres,
where they catalyse the oxidation of coloured impurities,
resulting in a brighter and more uniform colour.