Biology project genetic Disorders class 12 science

Genetic Disorders

1. 11. B

JOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES & PROCESSES

1 Biotechnology isthe chaque o sing Te ogni or
their enzymes for products & processes useful to human.

+ The European Federation af Biotechnology (EFI)
des Biotechnology as the integration of natural
science and organisms cells, pats there and molecular
analogues fr products and services

Bioicchnoogy eas wit:
+ Mirobemeditd process (making ur, bread ns ct).
= Invi ferilzaton (sb baby programme.
+ Synthesis and using ofa gene,

Preparation of DNA vai.
= Coresting a defcive gene

PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Coro techniques of modern biotechnology —

* Genetie engineering: The technique in which genetic
material (DNA & RNA) is chemical are and

rode ino host orgasm to change the pheno

+ Bloprocssengincering: Maintenance of trame
in chemical engncering processes for growing desired
nerbeleukaryotie cel forthe mantic of abo,
vaccines enzymes ee

Basic steps in genetical ing an organism

a) Hentfication of DNA with desirable genes: Traditions!
hybridisation ads to inclusion and malian of
undesirable gene alongwith desd genes. In gene
engineering, only desirable gees aro node

») Introduction of the identified DNA iat the hos
vector DNA such as plasmid is wed to deliver an alin
piece of DNA ino tb bos organi

©) Maintenance of Introduced DNA in the host a
transfer of the DNA to ls progeny: A piece of alien
DNA has ao the sequence calle Origin of replication
(or) nec for starting replication So, cannot multiply
Fis nthe progeny cells ofthe organism, Hence alien
NA fs integrated inthe cient genome (has ni}
e mutpics & inheri along with host DNA.

+ The process of joining and insering a fein piece of
DNA imo a bost anim to produce new genetic
‘combinations is call recombinant DNA technology.

+ First recombinant DNA (DNA) was produced by
Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer (1972)

+ They isolated an antic resisten gone (pios of
DNA) foma phanid of Salmon pphémurum. I was
linked witha plasmid vector and transfered into coll
Aare the gene was expose & mld in al

TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Restriction Enzymes (molecular scissors)

= The enzymes tht cut DNA at pei is it fragments

= They bolong to ls of eyes called ue

= In 1963, 10 enzymes responsible fr resitig growth of
aceriophage in Eco wer ote One enzyme added
mehyl groups w DNA. The other fenicio
endonuclease) cu DNA.

= Mor than 900 pestitlon enzymes have been isolated
rom over 230 seais of acter

‘Naming ofthe restriction enzymes:

~ Fst eter indicate genus. The second wo eters indicate
pies of prokaryote el rum which hey wer soa
Es. EcoR comes fom B col RY 13 (te sti,
Roman numbers = the order in whch the enzymes were
isl rom hat tim of acer)

‘Types of Restriction enzymes:

+ Exomuceases: They remove nucleus fom te ens of
the DNA

+ Endonucteses:

© They at specii poston within the DNA. Eg. Eco

= They into sec recognition Sequence ofthe DNA and
ut the wo strand a spi pins

= Theft restriction codonelene Is Hid I I cuts DNA
molocules by rcogniing a poi soqunse of 6 base
‘sir. This alle the recognition sequence for Hind I

= Restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific
palindromic nucleotide sequences in ths DNA. I a
sequence of base pars that read the same on the 860
anda in $°-> 3 direction and in 3°— 5 ston E
Palinomic nice sequence for eo is
SGAATIC Y
ES

Stop noma man DNA by Eco

- Restriction enzymes cut he strand il avy om the
centre ofthe palindrome sits, but Between he same (no
bases on th opposite strands. This eaves single stranded
‘overhanging sehe atthe ens. They are called ely
‘ends. They frm bonds with ei complementar ut

2. ‘counterparts. This stickiness faire action of the
‘zyme DNA ase.

= When cut by the same resto enzyme thereat
DNA fragments hae the same Kind of scky-ends and
these ar joined together by DNA gases

2. Cloning Vector.
FH DNA molseule that can cay a Prin DNA
‘segment and epica inde the hot el
Eg. Plasmids, bacteriophages ee
Plasmids are autonomously replicating cular ext
Shromosomal DNA of ict, Some plsmids have only
opis per ll Others have 18100 copies pel.

+ Bacteriophages (high number per cell) have very high
‘copy mmbers of hr geome within the bata el.
‘When the closing vector are lipid in the hot, the
linkod pese of DNA is also multi 16 he numbers

‘ual tthe copy number the estar,
Features required for cloning into a vector

Origin of replication (or)
“This isa sequence where replication start
A pics of DNA linked toot ean replicate within the hast
calls, This also controls the copy number a linked DNA,
So. forgetting many copies ofthe target DNA, it shoul be
lone ina vector whos origin suport high copy number,
’. Selectable marker (marker gene)
I sa gone tha els o sl the transformants and
“imite he non transformant.
Ita pics a DNA is introduced in a host bacrum, ts
all transformation, Such bacterium is runtorman. I
transformation doesnt ak plas itisnonsansfrmant
‘Scletable markers of Ecol incu the gence encoding
resistance to amibiotis Ie ampli, elorampheniol
tetracycline, kanamycin ee Norma Ecol ells have mo
resistance aginst hese amis
€.Cloning sites
= Those arth reeogton stes fr escin enzymes.
2 Ton the alien DNA, the vector nse single ar very
{ew recognition sites.
= Mor than oe recognition sites generale sever
Fragments I complicts he gen chning,

~ Ligation oF allen DNA is cared outa a reson site
present ooo the two amibai resistance gees,
Fg ln vector pBRS2Z, foreign DNA is gated a Bam HI
site of tevacylie resistance gene. AS a rel
recombinant plasmid is formed. If ligation does not
‘occu, ti cal non-recombinant plas

+ Restriction sites: Hind
Heo Bat Sil Po
a, Ca
sort
genes: amp an.
+ Rape codes forthe
pans in de

= plan of sid.

at nig pra
2 When a foreign DNA is inserted within gene of acter,
at gene is incite It is called. Insertional
inactvaion. Here, the esombinant plasmids tose
fetraeytine resistance du to insrion of foreign DNA
2 Wien he plasmids a introduced io Eco cll, 3 ys
of ells ar obtain
© Non-transformants: They have o plasmid So they
reno resto either etc ampli.
Transformants with non-recombinant plasmid:
‘They ar resistant to oth eacyelie & ampicilin.
© Transformants with recombinant plasmid They re
resista only to smc
= Recombinant plasmids can be sed out fom non
recombinant ones by pain transformants on amplclin
medium. Then the wnnsfanmas are tarse on
tetraeyeline medium
2 The recombinants growin ampli medium but ot on
tetraeyeline medium. But, non-recombinans grow an he
num onainin bth cambios.
= Thus, one ambit resistance gene helps to els the
transfomants. The inactivated abiotic resistance gene
helps to selec recombinant.
= But this ype of schon. of recombinants isa cu
procede beau es simultaneous plating on 2 pts
lavine diet abi. So, alematve seletabe
ares have develope bad on tr bility 1 pode
‘colour in presence fa chromogenic sustrato
= In this, «recombinant DNA is ins ine the coding
sequence (ono) of an eye, galactosidase. So, the
_geneisinativated (serio inactiva) Such colonies
do mor produce any colour. These are identified as
recombinant colon
be psi in bacteria have no a ise, i gives blue
‘coloured colonies in presence of chromogenic substrate

«Vectors for cloning genes in plants & animals

Genie tools of some pathogens can be transformed into

wef vector fr dtverng gees o plans & animals

+ Agrbactrium tmeaciens (a paihogen of ray dico
plans) cn diver a piece of DNA (T-DNA) 1 tam
normal plat elit tumor, These temor sell endoso
‘the chemical quired bythe pathogen.

3. ‘The tumor inducing (TD plasmid of 4 mumfacen 6
modified int cloning vector which is ot pathogenic but
cause mechanisms o deliver gene retin plans

«+ Retroviruses in animals cn rnsform normal cll ito
cancerous els. So, they ar used 10 deliver desinble
gene nto animal cl

3. Competent Host (For Transformation with

Recombinant DNA)
ice DNA I a hydrophile molecule, it cannot pass

"rough cll membranes. So bacterial ells are made
“competent to take up alien DNA or pli follows

= Treat bacterial cell with specii concentration of a
valent cation (eg cuen) — DNA eters he bacterium,

Tough pores in cal wall = Inubat the ells wih
recombinant DNA on ie + Place them briefly at SC.
‘heat shock) — Put he back one = Bacteria take up
recombinant DNA.

‘Other methode to introduce lion DNA into host cele

+ Mlerodnjeton: In this, combinant DNA is dey
injected no the usas of an anima cl

+ Mills (gene gun): In this els re bombarded with
high veais mico-arices of gold or tungsten coated
with DNA, Tis method is suitable for plan
*Disarmed pathogen” vectors: They nfs he ell and
danser the recombinant DNA ino the bos, Eg A
umefacins

PROCESSES OF RECOMBI

INANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)

Trea the acer clan or animal sue wihenzmes
Tike sozyme (bac) celle (plant), china
‘angus te. The cll is broken releasing DNA & other
macromolecules (RNA. pti, pacers pis).

= RNA is removed by weing with rome. Protas
are removed by etment with protease Othe molle
ar removed by appropriate rime.

= When child han sed, pried DNA precip
‘outa collation of fine treads in ho suspension,

2. Cutting of DNA at Specific Lo

2 ri DNA is incubated withthe restriction enzyme
As a result, DNA digests. These DNA agents are
separated by technique called ge lectrophoresi.

3

[Agarose gol cecirophoress is employed o chock the
progresión of a estcton enzyme digestion. DNA is
ogatvelyclargal. So it moves towards the ano. DNA
fragments are separated according 10 tei ie trough
sieving eft ofthe agarose gel (a polymer exacted rom
sca weeds). The smaller size agent moves ae.
The proces is epeated with he vector DNA aso.

DNA fragment can be sen as bright orange coloured
Vos lon they ar tained wih ethidium Bromide and
‘expose UV raison.

DNA bands are cut out rom agarose gel. It is called
‘lution. The cutout gene of Interest and eu vetor are
rise and ligase is add. erstes recombinant DNA.

3. Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR

Polymerase Chain Reaetion (PCR) i the sen of
multiple copies ofthe gee ers iro using 2 cs
‘of primers & te enzyme DÑA polymerase.

~ Primers as small ehemiallysyteszed aimless
tu re complementar tthe regions of DNA,

Steps of PCR:

+ Denatraton: Is th beating of target DNA (gene of
interes a high temperature (4°C) o separate the sands.

Each strands act as tmp for DNA synthesis

Annealing: st ining ofthe to primes (at 52°C)
the 3 end ofthe DNA templates

Extension Li the alin of cogidos 1 the primer

ing a themostable DNA polymerase called Tag

polymerase. Its slated rom a bacterium, Thermus

“aguas remains active high temperature during the

martin of double srandsd DNA,

Through continuous replication, the DNA segment is

ampli up Lili copies.

The ampli gen an be us to pate witha vestr

for further cloning.

[a =
Y Denatraton
Bas ET jones
° =
LÉ nn

=.-

4: Insertion of Recombinant DNA into Host Cell
Using any methods, the ligated DNA is introduce into
rein hos) el organism, Tey a up DNA from
ite surounding
fa recombinant DNA bearing ampiclin resistant gene
is transfered into E. col cells the host ells econ
ampli restant cel

4. TIF the waned cols are spread on agar pats
<onining ampicillin, only wansformants will grow,
Untranformed recien cells wil de

_—5. Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product _

~The aim of recombinant DNA technology sto produc a
esiable protein

Aa protein encoding foreign gone is expressed in a
ceologons hos, itis calla recombinant protein.

2 Tho cel with (rign genes ca be gro in Libro
“The cultures ae used to extract the desired protein and
purify ity using separation techniques.

= The cell can also be mulíplic in continuous culture
system. Hete tbe used mum is drained out ro ene
‘ie wile fresh medium is added fom the other. I
raisins the cell more plsioogically active and 0
produces a larger biomass. It ills more desire ren.

Bioreactors

= Those are the veses in which raw mare are
biology converted o specifi prod, cuyes et
‘sing mirobil, plan, anima e human cl

Bioreactor: are used to produce large quantities of
‘routs, They can proces 100-100 res of culture.

= A boreacoe provides the optimal growth conditions (H,
Temperature, subte, sas, vitamin, oxygen) lo gel
esd product.

= The most commonly used Directors are of sting pe
(strred-tank bioreactor).

Its usually cylindrical or with curved base o facilitate the
mixing of the rector content, The tor facilite even
‘mixing and oxygen availability. Alerativly ae can be
Bubble though th rector
Te borsctor as

+ Anorygen doler system

+ A foam control system

2 A temperature control system

+ PH como system

+ Sampling prs (for peridi withdrawal ofthe cur).

——— 5 Downstream Processing
TIL a series of processes such as separation and
purieation of products ar the biomas stage.
= The product i fomulated sith suitable preservatives
Such formulation undergoes through cínica wis and

‘sit quality contol testing.

MODEL QUESTIONS

1. enti the oo
2) Separation of DNA,
+) Lar scale puricatonot product
2. Draw & abel he parts of pBR322

>) Amplieaian of DNA.
4) slaion of separated DNA Fragments

3. Same processes of recombinant DNA technology are gven blow: Arrange them in correct one.

<a. Amplio of gee of interest using PCR
Obtaining the foreign gene product
soliton ofthe geneticmateril (DNA)
4. Observe the following and answer tothe questions.
5_onarre_
Er, mm
3) lente above sequence.

Cutie! DNA at pci cations
insertion of recombinant DNA int the hotel
[Downstream processing

ati te signifie ofthis kindof sequence in recombinant DNA technology?

estricto enzymes 8 ases opened the doorway for recombinant DNA technology. Do you agree with Just

{6 Electrophoresis the migration of charged particles in soluto under the influence ofan elected

2) Who developed this technique?

1) Name the supporting median AGE and PAGE,

7.. A plasma circular double-stranded extra chromosomal DNA ina bacterial cl
2) Name he natural occur passin olan in Agrobacterium.

1) Name an artificial reconstructed plasmid

8 PoRIsmeantfor making multiple copies oa gene af Interest Mention the major steps involved in PCR. Name an
oran form hich a thermostable DNA polymerase is slated

5. 12. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Bitecinolo has many applications such as Blopharmaccuticas, therapeutics, da

des gencticall modified crops,

proceed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.

Biotechnology has rica research ares:
a. Providing te Best

ist inthe form of improved organism usual a microbe are.

bo. Creating optimal conditions tough engincerin fr estas tse
«Downstream processing technologies opi the potiaorganic compound

‘APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

3 options for increasing fod production

a. Agro-<hemical based agriculture uses rien &

pesticides. Expensive, Causes environmental palin.

o. Organe agriculture: Expensive

Genetically engineered erop-ased agriculture rusos

genial modified crops. Geneicaly Modified
(Organisms (GMO) are the plans, bata, fungi &
aim whose genes ar ltr by manipulan

‘Advantages of gonetic modification in plants:

makes cups more tolerant to bite stress (cold
‘ough sal het ete).

+ Pesos cops eu th use ofchemica posts

due posan oss

increase efficiency of mineral usage by plans it
vents cuy exhaustion of ol ri)

+ enhances ntitonal value of fod. .g Gon rice
(Vitamin A enihed rc),

«+ Tore allormade plans to supply altematve resources
(arches, sl pharmaceuticals onus

Pest Resistant Plants

They actas biopesticie

= erde he need for insecticides

Eg Bt coon, Bt om, os tomato, otto, syabean ek.

Bt Cotton:

+ Some sains of Bac ains have psn that ill
inc like colperuns (betes), lepidopteran (acc
uno, amy ion & diras (ie, mosquitos)

= A hornos forms am insecticida proton (Bt toi)
‘ys during a paseo heir gros. It doesnot il he

Balsam eis as inci proto

2 When a inst ingests te tn, becomes stv due 10
alkaline pl 0 he gut wich solis he esta. Toxin
inds o surfa of mnt epithe els rating pores.
tenses cll sweling ad ysis and death ofthe nec

BS toni genes were isolatod rom thuringiensis and
incorporated ino cop plans such as cotton

+ Most Bt toxins are insct-group specifi. They ar cod
by ery genes. Eg. proteins encoded by ro & rl
genes contol cotton ballworms, Protein of em gene
‘ons com bore.

Nomatode resistance in tobacco plants:

= A nematode Meloidogn incognita ints the rots of
‘bacco plans casing a reduction in cd

acabe prevented by RNA interference (RNA) state.

= RNAI ls a method of cellar defense in all cuajo
‘organisms. I prevents translation of specie miRNA,
(slening due o complementary IRNA molecule

2 The source of ths complementary RNA is from an
Infection by RNA vines or mobile gente elements
ransposons that plate va an RNA intermedi
Isolate Nematode specific genes (DNA). It intrdaced
into host plant using Agrohactrtum vector I produces
bash sense & antisense RNA in host ell These RNAS
are complementar. So they form double stranded (ds)
RNA. nts RNA ad lees he pac RNA of
nematode Ths the paras canot survive transgenic
ost exposing pei interering RNA,

APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

~ Recombinant DNA technology ps for mass proton
‘of safe and more festive therapeuti drugs.

= Prodets (om noma sources case unwatted
immunological responses. But recombinant therapeutic
doce na ave such problems,

2 At present, about 30 recombinant herapeties have boon
approved. Of these, 12 ar Being marks in Ida

4 Genetically Engineered insulin

+= Instn is used to manage dultanset diabetes.

1 Insulin rom the pancreas of animals (cale & pigs) causes
allergy or he types fractions tothe For roti

+ Now. its possible to produce han isn sing ace

= Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chan A
8 eta) hr ar inked by dildo bios

In mammal, insulin is syed as a prohormone

orties >
pros Ww bone

mate and. Kneral —

hormone. Are

Te ptos. un

cake an can men a

fled €pepide Te ner

removed ring maturation ato lin

1983, E Lilly (an American company) pepurc wo
DNA sequences corresponding to À & caine of human
inslin and invoduced them in plasmids of Ecol to
‘roduc sli chains, Cains A&B were combined by
‘resting ide band tof human insulin Huma.

T

6. 2, Gene Therapy
+ Asa method to ort a gee defect in achildienbryo
= Here, genes are insert into a persons cell ad ses 10
eu à herdiary disse, I compense for the none
funcional en.
1 Fist liial gene therapy (190) was given to à year old
‘sl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) define.
= This is caused due othe deletion ofa gene of adenosine
deaminase (an cuya for the function of immune
Sy emy en be card y one marron transplantation
or by enzyme replacement therapy joio ol ADA).
But les ar not completely curative
Gene therapy for ADA deicieny: Collet Iymphoeyes
from the patient blood and grow ina clr» trace
à functional ADA DNA imo lymphocytes (using a
reroiral esto) They ar tum tthe pain
This shouldbe periodica repeated as lymphocytes ae
ot immer,
Ifthe ADA gene rom mano cl induced ao cell
tly embryonic sages, it ould be a permanent eur
3, Molecular Diagnosis
= Conventional methods (serum & ane analysis) aro not
“table fr cary diagnosis of sess,

2 A posible by techniques sch as Recombinant DNA
technology, PCR & ELISA
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):
= Presence of a pathogen is normaly suspocted only based
on sympioms. By this im, the concentration of pathogen
À already very high th body.
= However, very low concentration of bacteria oe vies can
be detecte by amplio tr meli ci y PCR,
2 Uses of PCR:
© To detect HIV in suspected pation.
‘© To dec gene mutations in suspectod cancer patents
© Toidemtty many eter genetic disorders
= Aigle sanded DNA or RNA, aged with a radioactive
molecule (poe) shytidiz 1 is complementary DNA |
in clone of cols Is detecte by auoradiograpky. The
‘lone having muted gen wll nt appear on photographi
fim, because the probe will not have complementario
with mated gene
ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay):
= His on antigen-antibody interaction.
+ Infection hy pathogen cn be detected by the presence of
antigens (proteins, slyeoprotins e) e by detecting the
anubodiessythesied against the pathogen,

TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

ies an he animal whose genome as been alero by
introduction ofa foreign gene by manipulation.

Eg. Transgenic ats abs, ig, esp, cows and fh,

= Oer98% of he tagenic annals are mic,

Benefits of transgenic animals.

+ Tostudy regulation of genes and thelr action on normal
physiology & development: Ez. Study of inane
row factor. Genes (hom other species) that alter
Formation ofthis factor ar nado! und the biological
letsare sue. This gives information bout biological
rol ofthe factor

+ To study the contribution of genes a the development
‘of disease and thereby new treatments: Ep. tonsgen
modes for human dieses auch as can, ya bos,
‘heumsoid abris & Aimer

+ Biologeal products: Some medicines contin expensive
biological products. Transgenic animals can be used to

produce Biologia! produ By inroducing genes wich
codes fora paricla product.

‘They are sed lo teat dscses such as emphysema,
plenylctnura (PKU), este oss te. Eg, human
protein (-t-anttrypsin usd 1 rat emphysenm.

In 1997, Rose (fist transgenic com) produced human
roch milk (2.4 gm po fire). contain human
‘eactatbumia tis mural more balance produc
For hu Babies han natural comi

Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice ae used to tes
the say of the polio vaccine Lt is rte, they ca
replace the use of monkeys est the safey of acces.
Chemical safety testing (only testing): Some
vransgeic animals carey genes which make them more
sensitive o fie sbsunces than nonsrangenic animals
“They ar expose to th tone substances and the ofi
‘ued ves immediate results

ETHICAL ISSUES

{+ Problem of unpredictable ex
may cause unpredictable resus,
Indian Goverment has setup organizations Ike GEAC
Genetic Engineering Approval Commitee) to make
decisions about the validity of GM research and he safety
‘of GMorganisns or publie services

+ Mio-pireye tithe un of binrsources by minions
companies and othe organizations witht proper
luhoration from the counties and people concemod,
Cenain companies have got patents for products and
tecnologies hat make us ofthe genetic materials, plants

“Gana modern

‘te, that have Doo US SOUS EEE
farmers and indigenous people ofa county. Eg, Basmati
sie, tal medicine (ue, oem ete)

Basmati has unique aroma avout India has 27
varices of Basmati. In 1997, an American company gt
pate it on Basmati io trough the US Patent and
‘Trademark Office. This allowed the company to sl a
“new vary of asma This was actually derived rom
Indian farm vais. Indian Basal was crossed wih
semi-dvarf varies and claimed as a movely. Other
people sling Basmati ice could be reset hy patent,

7. General, insane mations ar poor in iovesity | Indian Prlamenthas cearedthescond amendment othe
and wadtionl knowledge. The developing and fn Patents BL that has considered pent terms
‘undeveloped world hive rich biodiversity and | emergency provisions and research and development
traditional knowledge related to iorusunsn inate

Last develop avs to prevent unauthorized exploitation

‘of bicresoures and traditional knowles,

MODEL QUESTIONS

1. There are many advantages o genet modification in plans Mention any fouradvantages.
2. Nowadays tral as ben much nthe news. Being GM Foods advantageous or disadvantageous? List out any
to pois ch
3. ‘Transgenic animals are ait be Benfica o humans Justify his statement by giving vo reasons
4. Genetica modified tomato has some significance Comment.
3. than example explain how bitschnlogy has on apple in cach of he allowing:
3) IncuringDibetes melitas 1) Inrisim pestresistant plas
9 In producing nutriionaly balanced
Srey expaintheters:a)arygene — D)Cpeptido
Explain RNA interference (RNAI) strate
Biotechnology has provided some techniques fr carly diagnosis of diseases Mention any 2 examples.
Expand the allowing abbreviations
2) GMO) MCR ADA ELISA) cat
10. oyou think seth to manipulate organisms for human Benefits? Justify your answer.
1, Wat do you understand by the term Blopiracy?

errs

8. 13. ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

Ecology is the uy of ineracions among organisms and Between the organism and its physi (bit) envionment

Ecology is concomed with evel of biologi

organizo: Organs, Popalaons, Communities mes

ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

"Physiological ecology (Ecology tthe organic eves
the study of adaptation o an organismo environments in
terms of survival a reproduction
‘The orion of ah andthe tit of is ais cause anal
variations in temper escasos. Major biomes (des.
ran fre und te ar formed du o tos variations &
cin ain & so)

We
1:
Lee

(one ten mp er cn

Regional and local varations within a biome lad othe
Formation of diferent habia.

+ Lee exe in une & hash labs. Es. Rajasthan
ser, nso Megha res, dep ocean tees,
teeta sans, permafos (now Inden) pla regions,
high mountain tops, hema springs & compost pits
(Ou inetn habit or many mier

= The physio-chemical (bla) components (water
Tigh, temperature, soil ee) & biate components
Apatiogcs, paras, predators, competes cc.) ed to
variation firent habit

= The distinct ole and poston of an organise in is
environment is called its niche. By is, cach organism
toleates various conditions, les various resources

abiotic Factors —————

2. Temperature

= The most ecologically rlean environmental fc.

= Temperature on land ares seasonally. I. gradually
ssrnses from squator to the poles and from pains to
oui tps, rages rom ue Ives Gn polar ares
high atados) 1080 (in tropical desert).

- Avorgo temperature in thermal springs & dcop

hyértherma vents above 100°C

Mango ees cannot grow in tempor count (Canada

Germany) Thre no Snow Top in Ker ors

“Tuna ses are rare beyond op atten those.

+ Temperature aft ints of enzymes, ts metabolism
and other physiological functions ofthe organism.

Bsc on range o mal tern, nian ae 2 ype

= Eurythermal: They can oleate a wide range of
temperatures.

* Stenothermal: They can oleate oly a Ba range oF
temperatures.
b. Water
Its second most important actor

+ Desert organisms have special dapations o limits wate,

= Prier & dio o plant dependen on water

© For aquatic organisms, water qual (ll, chemical
compost) is importa, The sl concentration (ait
in part per thousand) is es han Sin inland water, 3035
inthe sea and > 10 some hypersn agoons.
ase om he tolerance to sain, organisms are 2 po:

+ Euryhaline Tolerate wide ange aline
+ Stenohaline lee only à nat range of sali
Many freshwater animals cannot ive fr long in se water
an ie vera becas ofthe soi problems.

ght

= Plans acd unha fr potes.

= Small forest plans (herbs 4 shrubs) aro adapted 10
‘hotosyntesize optimally under very low light because
they ae overshadowed by all, anoped es,

2 Many plants depend on sunlight for photoperilien (e.
Rover).

+ Many animal use iumal and seasonal variations in gt
inte and photoperiod fr ining their logis,
reproductive & migratory at.

Suns ultimate our fright & temperature on nd
Deep (> 500m) in the ou, he environment is dark and
‘ther io nergy availble om sun.

= The petal quality of slr radin lo important fr
Bt. The UV spcrum haf 1 many organins. No
all the colour components of the vse spect are
{salable formarine plan

sol

= Nature & proper of soi is dire due 1o climate
‘weathering simon. metodo soil development te.

= Sollcomposiion, grain sire & aggregation deci
percolation and water holding capacity ofthe sol

= Those characteristics and purer ike pH, mineral
composition & topography dtemine the vegetation and
animal nan ara

In aqua environment, the sedimentcharcteristies
determine the ype of enti animals.

‘Responses to Abiotic Factors ——
"Organs maintin a sale intemal environment
homer) despite saying extemal environmental
‘onions. This possible by following process.

Regulate
sth maintenance of homeostasis by physiological &
Estaca meas nes const body temperate

9. Women), constant ovate _conesntaton
serge. Eg All binds & mamas, very Fe
lower vertebrates and invertebrates

= Thermoregulation in mammals: The sucess of
mammals is mainly due 1 their ability to maintain a
cons body temperature.
In summer, when outside temperatur is more tan body
temperature (SPC), sweating oscun. This eels in
‘evaporative cooling and rings down body temperature
In winter, when the temperate is below STC, shivering
‘oc I produce ea and rises the body temperature

= Most of the organisms are oot regular or ar pil
rien because themnoregusion is energetically
‘expensive expecially for small animals (shew, hang
binds). They havea age surface aca rave o thir
volume. So they lose ody het very fast when it isco
‘sie: Then they have to expend much nergy t generate
‘dy eat. So, very al animal are ae Polar Regions

Conform

+ 99% of animals and cal al plants canot matin a

‘constant intemal environment. Tei body temperature ot

change with the sirounding | A,
‘conditions. They are called |

‘conformers. Î

+ Inagua animas, or.
concentration o body ids
changes wih da of he
“ambient osmotic concentration.

© Migrate

Many animals ike binds move away temporal rum
‘res habia à more hospiable arca and return hon
ref period is over.

= Eg. Daring winter, Keolado National Pak (Bharpur,
Rajasthan) hosts migrtoy bids coming fom Siberia and
‘ter extremly cold northem regions

a. Suspend

2 Inter, ng & lower plans, tisk walled pores help
to survive. unfavoursble™ conditions, Under suitable
‘onions, they germinate

«In higher plants, sects and some vegetative reproductive
stractures Servet te over period o tess hy reducia
‘heir metabolic activity. They geminte under favourable
rns and temper
In animal: Examples are
+ Hibernation of eas during Winter.
+ Action of soe sis an hes rng sumer

* Diapanse a ge of suspend developmen) of many
plankton in lakes & pond

‘Adaptations

Adaptation is the morphological, physiological &
"ouvir ate tat enables an orgasm 1 survive
and reproduce ins habia,

= Many adaptations have evolved over long evolution
time and ate gently xed

Adaptations of kangaroo rat in North American deserts:

+ Incl ft oxidation gives waters product here is
nextel source of water,

+ Abily to concenrat urine so that minimal volume of
‘water used to remove etretory products.

Adaptations of desert plants:

* Presence af hick cule on et srices

Sunken stomata minimise water los due o transition

CAM photosythete pathway cables thse stomata to

remain closed during dy tine,

+ Der plans ike Opuntia have mo leaves they are
reduced to sine), Photosynthesis is done by stems.

‘Adaptations of mammals:

* Manmals from slder climates have shor ears and
limbs to rede heut loss. This ale Allen's Rule,

+ Aquatic mammals Like sels have a thik Iyer of ft
(Ober) Below their skin that acts as an insultos and
rece loss of body eat,

Physiological and biochemical adaptations:

+ Archachacteria re found in ot springs & dep-sch
hydrothermal vents where temperature is >100C. Many
hi in Antarctic water (emporte lo PC)

+ Many marine inverter & aes Hiv a grat depths in
the ocean whore the pressure is >100 mes the normal

imosperic pressure

A à higado place (3,500 m) we fel aide

etes. I symptoms ae muse, har puptations &

fatigue. his is due to low atmospheric pressure. So the

Body ds ot et enough Oz Graal, we aclmatiz the

situate ad the body compensts low Osavalaiity by

increasing RBC & breathing rate and decreasing the

Binding capacity ofbemogloin

‘Behavioural adaptations:

+ Desert liars as in the sun and bso at when thir
body tempera i on; ut move into shade when he
ambient temperature tats increasing

+ Some species burow int the soil hide and escape fom
the aboveground heat.

POPULATIONS

~ A population isa gro of individuals oF same species tat,
live in a given geographical aca, share or compete for
Similar esoures and potential reproduce

2 Eg Alte cormorants in a wetland rats an abandoned
lng, tekiood tes in forest ct, bacteria in à
ltr plate and lous plants in. pond ec.

Population ecology is an import are of esclogy a
links ecology o population genetic evolution

Population Attributes
2 Birth rates Refer t per cap bits
gna pond tere are 20 lots plants las year and
‘trough reproduction $ now plants ar add,

10. ence the eet population = 28
‘The bin rate" 820 = 0. ofipeing peros per year

+ Death rats: Refer to per capita deaths.
Fig. individual ina laboratory population of 40 ri is
Aid during a week
Hence the death rate = 440 =D. individuals perf fy
perwesk

+ Sex ratio: A population has ex ao
F8. 60% ofthe populations females and 40% mas

+ Age pyramid Ii the strstr obtained when the age
iron (individual given ago ar age group is
‘ltd forthe population
For human population, ae pyramids general show age
<sribution of males and mals in combi agra,

—— D = à
ps =
Pe ones we eme
Re ag pears em

+ Pot soso pogo dmg i
tur oi das eva
Fe pop ni of Sn cn a ira
ee tay ls D
Bénin pet
Dt el re
By ee rn aap
et
Pe as tie er
Tout mer e aa hg pp.
De m nine pen Sale fr

knowing absolute population density) use. E. Number
‘of ishcanght per wap indicate is tt population density
inthe ake,

In some cases, indirect estimation of population sizes is
performed. Fg. Tiger census in atonal parks & tiger
eserves base on pug marks & fecal pelle

2 POPULATION GROWTH ———

‘The population size changes depending on cos ike food

alla. predation pressure & weather.

‘Changes in population density ve some de about he

population = whether itis Mourihing or declining

base proceses that Mutua the population density:
ty (BI the number of bit in à population

ven prio.

urine
"o. Morality (D) Its te number of eats na population
ring a given prod

+: Immigration (D: lis the number o individuals ofthe
same species that have come into he habt fom
sere during given time period

4. Emigration (E): I is hc number o individual he
population who Is he habitat ad gone cer during
a ven time period.

Natal & immigration increase tb population density and

‘morality & emigration decrease the population density.

demi 8)
T-

EN

Gr)

HEN isthe population densiy atime thn its density at
time Hts

Nowe Not (B+) =D +E)
Population density increases if B+I is more tan DIT.
‘Oris it will deceso

= Under normal conditions, bits & deaths ar important
factors influencing population density. Other 2 actors
ae importance oly under special conditions. Eg. fora
new colonizing abit, immigration may be more
grato population growth than bir aes.

Growth Modes
a. Exponential growth

+ Resouess (00 & space ar essential forthe unimpeded
popultion grow.
If resources are unlimited, each species shows its fll
inne potential to grow in number. Then the population
rows inn exponential e geomeric asha
IF population ize = N, in ates (per copita is) = b
and death aes per capita dats) = the the ic or
corse in N during unit ine period (INN willbe
ETES
Lex hed) = thon
anaes
“The + Cinin rte of natural increas") san impor
parameter fr assessing impuets of any bite or bite,
Facioron population growth,
value forthe Norway at = OS
+ valo forthe our bete = 0.12
+ valo for human population in India (1981) ~ 0.0208
“The integral form ofthe exponential growth equations
Where,
N= Population density aft time
AN Population density aime zero
= intime ate of aa nee
the base of natural logarts (2.71828)

= exponctl growth tape eave)
b= logis growth Sigmoid eure)

11. bo Logistic grow

There is no population in mature having united
resources für exponent goth. This leads 1
‘ompeiion amang individual fr mie eos

«Everly he its indi survive nd produce.

= In naar, given habitat has enough resources o support
4 maximum possible number, beyond which no futher
row posible. is cal carrying capacity (K),

2 A population with mite resourses shows initially ag
phase phases o acceleration & deceleration and final.
an assmptote. This ype of population grow called
VerhultePearl Logit Growth. I is dert by
Following equation

Kew
avais (EES)
‘Where = Population density at imeı
= Inns ve of naar increase
K Caryingcapciy
1 Since resources for gow fr most anima populations are
limited, he logistic growth model is more els

life History Variation —————

* Population evolve to maximise ther eproductive fines
or Darwinian oes (hgh vale). Under a para st
‘of selection presses, organs evelve towards the most
ficient reproductive stat.

+ Some organisms breed only one in hi liftimo (Pair
‘salons Rubio) whi ther bred many times (mos
ir and mammals,

+ Some produce a lugo number of smaliza ofpring
(Oyster, pelage fishes) while others produce à small

umber of large-sized pring (is, mammal),

These fet indie at life history trat of organi

have eve du oie abiotic and io component

ofthe habia,

I CI CE
Organs rat in various way to frm a ioogica
comm.

traction beten vo species ill Intersect
interaction. They include

‘Name of interaction

“Matalin: Both species are
ent

‘Compett
aed C)
Predation: One GOT 7
oni, Other (prey) arm

Parasia: One parasite) is :
ent Otros hard

‘Commensalim: One is Te

benefited. Others nat (0)

Amensalism: On shes,

rer mat

+ Inpredatión, parasitism & commensllns einen
apio live clowely iger

DIESE

- I»

a. Predation

In abroad cool context all camivors hetivors et,
ar pro, About 25% insets are php,

Ka probe overeplis is prey, Ihn the prey might
Become extinct, I rss in the extinction of predator.
“Therefore, predators in natur ar ‘prudent.

Importance of predators:

1 Predators contol pre populations.

When cerain exotic species are inmoduced into a
scopaphial ara, hy sed at due o the absence is
natural predators. E, Prickly pear acts indeed into
Austral (1920) ean havoc by spring Late, tas
‘onl by inroducing cactus fcding predator mh
Prato are used in Balgial contro methods
+ Predators maintain species diversity in a community by

reducing competion among prey species

Eg the predator sii Pater hc rocy intl

communes of American Pai Cas. nan experiment,

all these strishes were removed from an enclosed
intertidal are, I aus extinction o over 10 invertebrate
species within a year, det interspecific competition.

Defenses of pre species o lessen impact of preda

+ Camouflage (ric colouration of soe isos & fu.

+ Same are poisonous and so avide bythe predator.

* Monarch battery highly taifa o pedo bid

is due toa special chemical in body. Wis acquired
rng separ stage y eng o poisonous Woe

+ Thorns (Acacia, Caras ete.) are the most common
morphologie! means of defense of plans

+ Many plants produce chemical make te erbivore
sick, abit feeding or digestion, dpt its eprodction
or Ki i Eg. Caloropis produce highly” posonaus
‘cardiac plycondes. Therefore ct o gous do cti
‘icon, caféine, quiine, strychnine, plu, ct. ars
defenses agaist gruen and browses.

b. Competition
Its a proces in which fines o oe pois (1
spray lower in presence of aot species.

Intrpscifie competion i a potnt force in organic
voltio

+ Competition ocur when closely related species compete
forthe same limited sures

= Unrate species can ao compe fo the resource, E
Flamingos & fits in some shallow Sout American
lakes comps for zooplankton.

- Compson oc in abundan resources alo. Eg. In
Interference competition, the Tsd ficiency o one
esis is recede o the interfering and inhibitory
sen of her species, even routes a abun

Evidences for competition:

» The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos lande became
‘extinct within a decade fer gusts were introduced on the
‘sland, ducto greater browsing cine of he gous.

valu)

12. Compete release: I th expansion of distbatonal
range ofa species when the competing species removed
‘Connell’ field experiments: On the rock sea costs oF |
Seid hee ao 2 bamac species: Bolas (larger &
‘competitively superar) & Chkamalas (small) Balam
‘dominates imorida ara and exclus Canals,
Wien Connell experimental removed Balam,
Chthamalu colonize the intel zone

Gauss Competitive Exclusion Principe:

= Its that mo closely related secos competing forthe
same resources cannot cost indefinitely and the
compet inferior one willbe eimiated eventually
This may be te in ited resources, but not terne

2 Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms for
soexisenee ralhr than exclaion. Eg. raue
partionine

= Resource partioning: It is the division of limited
‘esoures by species to avoid competition Por this they
choose diferent ed tines or diront foraging
Pater. Eg. MacArthur showed that ve lose reat
species of warbles living on a we could avoid
‘competion and comes due to behavoural res in
‘hei Foraging ative.

€ Parasitism

= Many parasites ar hostspeci (he con passo oy
single host species). They tend to vel, ite
host volves special mechanisms agaist the paras, he.
pars also evolves mechanism to counteract them 10
remain with he same hos specie.

Adaptations of parasites: Los of ses organ, presen
‘of adbesve orga or socks to ting on othe hos, los of |
genie te high reacio aps ec.

= Life eels of parsis are len complex. E

lan ver Nuke depends on 2 intermedite hosts a
soa & ist complete its ie ey.
‘+ Malia parasite sde mosquito spread o aber hos
= Parasites har the host, Thy may reduce the survival,
population density, growth and reproduction of the host
‘They may make the ost physically weak and more
vaine to predio.
‘Types of parasites:
1. Ectoparasites
= Parasites tht fe on he extemal suce oF os. Ei
Lion human,
+ Teksondops.
‘+ Extoparastie Copepods on many marino he.
Gasca plant on has plan

+ Gasca has chlorophyl and eaves. ders its
triton fom the host plat.

+ Female mosquito considered prs, because it
nes our loo only for reproduction, ot as food

2. Endoparasites
2 Parts that ive inside the hos body at ent sites
Aver kidney, ings, RBC et),

+ The if yes of endporasie are morecomple

+ They have simple morphologie anatomia Fu and
high repute potent
rood parasitism in birds

Hero be prac is ly eggs in he nest fs host and
es the host inba em,

+ During evolution, ges ofthe parie bid ave evolved
to resemble the hosts eg in size and colour. So the host
‘bid cannot detec and jet the foreign gs easly

+ Eg Brod pasts between cuckoo and crow.

a Commensalism
Examples:

+ Orchid (+ gringas epipht on a mango bach (0)

+ Bamocles() growing onthe hack ofa whale (D.

+ Catle egret (4) & grazing cal (0) The egress forage
lose 1 where the cal ro gazing. As the ate more,
‘th vegetation insets come ot Otherwise itis dieu for
the egrets to find and catch he insets.

+ Sea anemone (0) & clown ish (+) Singing tontos of
anemone gives protection fish rompers

e. Mutualism

Examples

+ tens lisa ruta retos between funge &
photosyntesizng algae os eanobactr.

+ Mycorrhizc: Associations between fing & the roots of
higher plants. Te ing ep the plant in he ation of
‘seni nurients ro the soi wl the plant provides
‘he fang with arobydetes.

+ Mutuals bv plant & animal through polination and
seed dispersion:

Examples

1. Fi trees & wasps, The fig sechs is pointed only
y ls parer wasp specs Female wasp pollitos
the fig inflorescence while searching fr sabe og
laying ses in fruits. The fig offers the sp some
developing seeds, a fod forthe wasp mac

2. Orchids show diversity of Ar pues. They cam
trae the right polizato inset (bes bumblebees)
to ensure pollito. Not all orchids oe read,
‘Sexual dec” of Ophrys (Mediterranean och). One

peta is flower resembles female bc in ize, colour

8 markings, So male bee “psulocopuaes* wil he

Mower and is desd ith pole. When this be

"pscudocopulates” with another ower, it transfer

pollen tit

the female bec colour pers change shay

during evolution, polinatin sucess wil be reduced

nes the orchid lower covolis to main the
resemblance ofits petal othe female bes.

13. MODEL QUESTIONS

. Alfreshwater animals cannot ve for long in seawater ora marin organism in freshwater, lve reason.
2 Observe the figure lon

2 Expand 8 DIRE
When wil population density increase?
Listo factors which influence population density under normal conditions.
3. Observe the graphical representation ofonganlmie response and name ab

i
A
4. Dieretresponses made by organism to cope ih the stressful stations are given below Arrange them in columns
Rogue Change ody temperature according to external environment
Gonform Hardand resistant spore hibernation
Mia Sweiting and shivering to nina body temperature
Suspend Moving to hasptable area
5. Match he liowing
Nameofinieracion —| Type ofinieracin, samples
Mats = Tata
Competition En Tanda
Param mn Flings ier
Comment = chen

6 is common tin villages whore cate egrets racing care found ISSN
{What ind of interaction do they show?
À. Give an example of such an nteraction rom plants

14. 14, ECOSYSTEM

“An esosptem funcional wit of ature, where ving organisms tee ech thet nd with epic environment

ECOSYSTEM - STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

“Types of ecosystems:
+ Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest grassland, dese ec
© Aquatic conte: Pood Ike wetland, riser & ety.
+ Manemade ecosystem: Crop sand aqui
1 Etre biosphere is eres lal system.
2 nan econ, bite and soe components internet
and funcion a au.
= Versa distribution of dire species occupying
rent loves i called station. Eg ina for,
trees cup tp stata ayer, shrubs the second an herbs
e roses the oto ayers
Pond (Aquatic ecosystem)
A pond isa sallow, simple sustainable waterbody tht
exibit al base components fan cosy.

+ Climate conditions: Solr input, yes of emperors,
lent et

+ Autotrophi components: Phyoplnkion, sme aise
andthe floating, submerged and marginal plans

+ Consumers heterotrophs): Zoplaktoa, se swimming
and botom dling forms.

+ Decomposers: Fung bacteria and ages

ond performs ll the functions fan cosy. E

© Astorphs convert inorganic nto orgie material sing
Solar rain ner

> Heteratrphs consume the auttrophs

+ Decomposition and misclizaon of the dead mater to
release thom bck for reine by the atooph

4 basi components of functioning o an cost

1) Prodecísiyy 2) Decomposition
© Abloie components: Water and sol depos, pee: A
1. PRODUCTIVITY,

Solar energy the base requirement foram ecosystem 10
function and sust

Amount of biomas (organi male) produced peri rea
‘veratime period y plants during photosynthesis called
primary production, I is expressed in wight (2°) or
energy (heal)

= Theratof biomass production is calló productivity. tis
expressed ing “yr or (kel m Ar

ei divided into gos primary product (GPP) and net
‘ary productiva (NPP).

= Gross primary productivity (GPP) I the re of
roduten of organi mater during photosynbei. A
‘omidenble amount of GPP suse by plan inspiro.

- Net primary productivity (NPP) It isthe available
biomass forthe consumption hetero (herbivores de

decompose) 1, NP isthe Gros primary prod
mins respiration losses (R
NPP= GPP=R
Secondary produetviys isthe rate fFomaton of nw
‘organic mate by consumers
2 Primary produc vre in diferen con tem
cause depends on
The plant socios inking mas
© Environmental factor.
© Avalbiliy of mens
© Photosynthetic capacity of plats.
= Annual net primary productivity of whole Bosplcte
about 17 bon tons (dy weg) organ mater OF
"his, despite occupyig about 708 of the sure, he
Product ofthe ocean is only 5 lion tons.

2. DECOMI

TIC the ecos of complex organic matter dy
-ecomposers ino norgani substances ike CO,, water and
rte is largely an oygenrequiig proces.

+ Raw material for decomposin sealed Detritus. Eg
ead plant remains (leaves, bak, Mowers ete), dead
remains animals, eal mater,

‘Steps of decomposition

a. Fragmentation: Is the breakdown of tris ino
sale pails by detriveres (e, carbon),

>, Leaching: Wate soluble inorganic utcns go down
int sol horizon and psp as unavailable sas

Catabolism: Depadation of dette simple
inorgani substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes.

The above tee procesos ocur simon

Focus os anota
substance) in soil. Humus i ein to mierobil action
nd so dscomposss very slowly. Being coloidal, it sees
as eservoirof nations
€: Mineraleatlons e st elas of inorganic mavens
cto e degradation o humos by ome microbes.
Factors influencing decomposition
+ Chemica composition o detritos
9 Decomposiioialow in dts ching & ei.
© Iisquicker in dei ic in ittogen and water-oluble
subances ike sugar.
+ Climate factors demperature & soil mehture):
© Warm and mois environment our decomposion
© Low temperature & anaerobiosis ibi decompoidon
sling a bull of organe mati

15. 3. ENERGY FLOW,

© Suns the ony sure of energy forall costes (ep
exp sea ydihomal scsysem)

OF he incident solar radiation, less han SOS is
photosymbetclly active radiation (PAR).

Plans and photoset bacteria (atop, x sola
radian energy to make food.

= Plants capture only 2.10% of the PAR, This energy
‘stains the nie ving word

= Fomsytems obey 2 Law of thermodynamics. Thy nec
constat supply o energy 1 syihesize the mel. I
alps to counteract he top.

Producers (Autotrophs):

= These ar organisms that yates od.

= Ina terol ccosysem, major produces are thus
and woody pans. Primary producers in an aquatic
ects ar phytoplankon algae and higher plans.

= The energy tapped by the producer I passed on lo à
consumer or the organism die.

‘Consumers (hotorotroph

= These re animal that dete indirect depend on
plants fr fod. The include

inact, bids, mammal, alles te

© Secondary consumers (primary carnivores: Fees on
herbivores. E, og, fos, man
6 Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores: Fed on
primary sumivors. Eq tiger, ion ke
+ The chin of feeding ations beten diferent
‘organisms scaled a od chal. 2 types
+ Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Here primary consumer
Feeds on ving plas (producen Eg.
come > osa

> ce
roca) Pam Come Say cmt)
+ Deus Food Chain (DFC): Here, primary conse

feeds on dead organic matter (deis). Death of

~ Det is made up of decomposers (apretrophe) sich
as fl & cia. They serie digestive enzymes that
Breakdown des io simple inorganic materials, which
are abso by ihm, Ths, hey gt energy erent
In an aquatic coste, GEC isthe major conduit or
nergy flow

= Ina eesti coste, a much amount of energy ows
tg the DFC than though the GEC.

DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels, Some

nal of DFC are prey tothe GFC animals Some

animals (cockroaches, rows, human ete) are omnivores

Sch interconnection of fo shine ar al oad web.

+ A specific place of organisms in the fod chain I known
stir trophic level

one oo cam)

Tan consumer | free a
ee)
seo cover ER
rimar covouner | E Vol ete)
E En cono
mon podar | ep e,

Eee von e
“The amount of energy decreases at sueesive topic
level. When an organism dic became dead amass
(rita) san energy source fr dvomposes.
Organs at each trphi level depend on tose at the
lower topic evel for heir enor
“The amount of ving material in atopic level at given
mei cal standing ero. tis measured asthe blomass
(as of living organismo) or he mamber ina unit are.
«Biomass af spies measured in terms of fresh o dry
"eight. Dry weight is mor accurate because itis the exact
mass of body which remains coman
Number of tophi levels in GPC is rested as flows
10% hw nly 10% of energy stated wo cache

oran th begiming ofthe DFC. level fo the lower trol evel
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Tue representan ofa fod ann be form of pyramid = Er Om)
is called ecological pyramid, — as

The bas ofa pyramid represents producers (Fist opti =
Ion). The apex represents tetany oF opens consumer, Soo 5

2 Booogie pyramids ar 3 types: Pyramid of number, Pa ce OO »
Pyramid o biomass and Pyramid o ene =

a) Pyramid of number: Eg sland osysiem o

Nombra

So) ET
Fran oom PO rs
Pama pi Oy sence

b) Pyramid ol biomas: boss sharp dees in

biomass at higher rophie evel

©) Pyramid of energy Primary produces convert only 1%
‘ofthe ener nte sight available thom nt NPP

a ee
a

16. Any calculations oF energy content, biomas, or number
sto include all organisms a that opie evel

= A trophic evel represents. functional ve, nota pce
as sch A species my occupy more la one opi ve
inthe same cost atthe same time. EA paros
primary consumer when iets ees us, eas. His
secondary conser when cat ist wom

In most ccosstms, all ho pyramids are ur, Le
producer are higher in number, biomass and energy han
the hab, and horitas ar higher in number,
biomass and energy than the camivoros

= But in some eases, inverted. pyramid for number and
biomass are present

Inverted pyramid of number: Eg. Insets ing on ares.

= Inverted pyramid of biomas: E
5 Smal standing crop of phytplankion supports large

standing crop of ooplankton.

‘Pyramid of biomass io mr bocas ths
mas of he fr exces that of phytoplankton

vo vent

en PA
many ri
proce PP) Ka

is always lost as heat a each trophic level So energy a.
lowe topic levels lays mor than at a higher eve
Limitations of ecological pyramids
doesnt conser he same species belonging to twoor

more trophic eve.
+ Iassunes spe food chan tht ever exists in ate.
lt docs nor acsommodae a food web.
© Saprophytes are not include,

ECOLOGICAL

SUCCESSION

Tiss radial slow and predictable change in the species
‘composition ofan ae Ling 10 à climax community
{community thats in quil with he eavironmen)

= In this, some species colonize an aca and increase in
number, wheres other species cine and ip

= The ene sequences of communis that successively
ange in an are ae cal sere Individual transitional
oras re ced sera stages eral communities).

Theo mai a ba area rll pioneer specie,

© During succession there ia change in species diversi
inerease in number of species and organisms and an
increas in tl bors.

+ Preset communis are us tosuccsson of milions
‘of years. Succession and evolution wee parla process.

= Succession is 2 ps:

5 Primary: The secession taking place in areas whore
living oreaisms ever exite Eg. newly cooled
lava, bre rook, newly ere pond or esc

“To cab a bite community ero ssl mst be

formed. So primary succession I a very low proces.

Secondary: The succession king ple nan are ace

the existed organi are ost Ep shandoned fam

lands, bumedo cut forest, ands tht are Nord

Sine some sol or sediments present, succession i

faster han primary sucesion.

“The secs ht ivade depend on he nature ofthe oi

vail of water ec

+ Insocesson changes in vegetation aft Fo & sie of

animals, Ths, sucesion eds 1 change in number and
‘types of animal & dsomposes

Natural or human induced disturbances (deforestation fie
te) conver a particular seal tage to an ear sage
“They erate new conditions that encourage some sci
and iscouage o eliminate ther species

‘Succession of Plants

2 Based on the nature of the abit, succession of plant is
2 pe: hydrarch apd orar
© Mydrareh sucesion: as plas in wet ras. ft

progress from hydric o mese conditions
> Xerareh succession: takes pla in dy ae. I
progress rr ere to mest condition.

1 Hee, both hydrurch era successions ead to
ruedan water condition (mes the climax community)

= Primary succession on rocks (acropiyte habia)
Lichen (pioneer species. Tey cece ai to disave
‘ck, hfping in wearing e ol formation) > all
Plans ike bryophytes (ey need oly small anoun of
So) — bigger plants - forest (mesi.
“The climas community (ores) remains sable if the
environment remain unchanged,

«Primary sucesion in water
Phytoplankton(pionses) — rooted-submerged plants =
rooted-loating angospems —> feeling plants -+
red-samp -» marb-meadow + srub + es (Gima
community for).
Wi ime, the water bys converted ino land

4. NUTRIENT CYCLING

Amount oF nares (CNP, Ca et presen inthe sala
“vente called the standing sat varies in dierent
Kids of coses and also on sonal.

+ Nutrient ae never lost fom the eosjtems. They are
reeled again ad gan

~The movement of muet elements though various
components oF an cosytem is cll nutrient eyeing
(biogeochemical eels)

+ Nutrient eyes ate 2 yp
a. Gaseous eye: For tis, he reservoir eis in the

atmosphere Eg. Nivogen & Carbon yes

17. ‘Sedimentary yee: For this e reservo oti

ans cus Fg Sulphur & Phosphons eels,

- Environmental factors (oi, moisture, pH, temperate,
te) regule the rate of release of miren ino, he
amospher. The reservoir meets wilh the defc of
tin det imbalance in th ate fin ae

Carbon Cycle

escroto carbon: Aumosphere (aout 1%), ognisms
49% of dry weigh), occas (71% disolved exon. I
regule he amount of atmosphere CO), fs ul

= Carbon eyeling occus through atmoipere, ocean and
‘through ving and dead organisms.

= 410" ky of carbon i fixed in the biosphere though
pocos anual

= A major amount of carbon returns 1 the amosphere as
CO: lt respiration

= Processing of wastes & dead organic mater by
composers alo release COs

Some amount ofthe xed carbon i st to sodiments and
removed fom cron,

~ Bing of wood, fret re ad combustion of organ
mat, fei fl and volcan ac ar fhe sous
For eeasing CO in the atmosphere

= Rote of human activites in carbon cycle Dorsten,
Benin of fos fete, hs inetd thereof lease of
COrinto the amener.

Phosphorus Cycle

+ Phosphor a consent of biological membranes,
lic acids & cellar energy runter systems. Many
“animas use phaphoru to make sel nes and teeth

+ The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock inthe fort
phosphates.

= When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of phosphates
¿liso in soi soliton and ae absebod by the plans,
Herbivore and other animals obtain this fom plants. The
‘wane products andthe dead onanism are decompose by
hosplotsolbilsing haces ring phosphors

Gun | non ]
=
rs
EZ
u
Dierences between carbon & phosphorous eye
Carbon ae Phonporwur ele
mosphere pat highs Much small
Theringmeouscnchunge Gascoes exchanges
"og & envionment | egighte

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES.

The product of eoogtem posses ar alledecsystem
series

= Ep. forest coogstems puri sr and war, mitigate
«rough and Moods, cycle nue, generat ei sols
provide wilde hab, maintain biodiversity, plate
ops provide storage sie for cañon und provide
asset, cla e pin values.

Robert Costanza and his collagues have wed put price
tags on nature ie suppor sence.

= Rosarchen have pu an avenge price lag of US 5 33

Aion year on fundamental ecosystems services, Tis is
sue ofthe global gros atonal product

on).

= Out his tot cos, ol ort sous for about 50%.

© Contbutons of otr sendos ike weteaton & niet
ying are less a 10% each

= The cos o climate regulation and habitat für wide ro
shout 6% ch

18. MODEL QUESTIONS

1. Fllintheblanksby noticing therelationshipofthegven pair
1 Producer pant Consumer.
& Carbon usensephe Phosphorus eye: -
2. Analyzethefollowingfod chain
Pally decomposed organic mater — Earthworm — Hen — Fox
4. Nametheabove mentioned food han.
E. How dothemembersinthisoodchainmeettheirenegyandnutrentrequirements?
“pyramid of urbersabwaysupright” Commentonths statement
Innatareanespeciescanaceupy more Uinonetrophiclevelstispossbe? Comment
venthoughbislpcalpyramidsareelpulinstdyingtoodchai.theyhavecertanlintations Accoustthem.
\Wtewstingtheforesturingastady tou teacher toldihestudentsthatoncetisareawasabarrenrocjarea
2, Nametheccolgialsuccesiononaharerok.
E. Whichwasthepioncerspeciesinthatsucesion?
©. Wetethechangesthatledtotheformatinoffoestfrombarrenrockplace
1. Difrentsagesofan coloplsuccessonaregivenbelow.
Marsh -mendowstage
+ Reed swampstage
+ Scrubstage
+ Phytoplanktonstage
+ Submerged ee Tatin tage
+ Foreststage
2. Arrangethem nthe correct sequence.
E. Namethetypeofecolgiasuccessionandmeniontheplonerandcimaxcomnuntiesinhssuccession
3. Givenbelowisthepyramidofnumberofanecosstem,

ee /

à Mnttychenatureofpyramid.
E. Giereaonforthisnatureofpyramid
+ Observethergurepvenbelow andanswerthefolowingquestions

PR ee

2 lenftheecologealconceptennvergedthrough te given gues.
À Namethegroupaforganismsaspioncercommunityandclimaxcommunty ins ccoopcal process.

19. 15. BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

Biodiversity ihe diversity of Biological organisation
rangin rom celular macromolecules o bimes
Far Wilson popular he em “iodvesy

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Gene diversity: Diversity son by a single species at
gene level Es. Ra votre (Himalaya shows
pecto variation in the poteney & concentration of te
hemicl reserpine nis has mure than $0,000 int
Stn of cea 100 varieties mango.

2 Species diversi: Diver aveces level, Eg, Western
(Gas ave reser amphibian specks tna Eastern Ghats.

3 Ecological diversity Divers at eonptem evel,

Eg. In Ida, deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral
reel wet land, estuares& alpine meadows ar sen.
NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH
{GLOBAL SPECIES DIVERSITY) _
According to IUCN (204) more than LA milion species

‘deceit a.

+ Accorting to Robert May's Global estimate, about 7
rilion species would have on ea, (He considered he
‘species tbe discovered nthe ropies Leon 22% ofthe
toa spies have ben oa a)

6 Animals are more diverse (above 70%) than plants
inching Panta and Fung (22%)

Among aia, ness ae most socios rich group (70%,
Le. out of every 10 animal, ar insets)

Number of ung species more than the combined tl oF |
‘the species fis, amphibians reptiles & mammal.

0) Ce

«fp

0 nds only 24% of work and rs, ut has 81% 07
‘the species diver di sone ofthe 12 mega diversity
‘counties of the world. Nearly 48,000 plant specs and
ves many o animals have been recorded rm Ind.

© Applying May global estimates, nda woul have more
than Tak plant species and ath anima species

© Biologia not sure about total number of prokaryotic
species ease
"Conventional uxonomie methods are not sah for

ent mirbial pci
+ ray, many species cannot be lud.

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
À Latitudinal gradients
+ Spies dient donas fom the equator to the pols
2 Tropes latitudinal range 013. N o 23.5) have mare
species han temperate polar areas.
"Eg. Number of bird species in diferent tudes:
© Colombia (ner ua: st 1400 species.
India Gin opis)» 1200 species.
9 New York (IN): LOS species.
© Greenland (71°N):S6speces.
+= Tropical forest region ke Equador hs up 1 10 times of
vascular plant species us compared 10 a temperate fers
region like te Midwest of USA.
+ Tropical Amazonian rain forest (South Ami) isthe
gro iin on at xmas
> > AOD species of plants
3000 species Fes
1300 species of bids
427 secs of mamas
27 sess ofamphiians
STS species of eps
> 12500 spcis nenes
irn (ec ches) is highest in piece
+ Tropic ad mor evolutionary ine.
© Relnively conan environment ii season).
© They receive more solar energy which contribute o
rater prod
i. Species: Area relationship
According tothe study Alexander von Humboldt in Sout
“American jungles, within a elon species icnes increases
with inereasing explored te, bt oly up 1 mit,
Relation between saves nes and area gives a
‘rectangular hyperbola

son

ner,
82 Soc nes
eh
Ceara

Ze op cf he ine
(rogession co.
‘tent

y

‘On logarithmic sae, he tions a right lino
describe the equation Lag = og C + ZI À
Generali, or small ras, eZ vale is 11002.

But for ago res (e et cominons), slope of he ine
issisper (Zale: 06 1012).

Eg or rgivoros ins and mamas in he topical
forests of diferent continents, the Z value 1.18,

‘IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY —
According to David Tilman, pls with more species
shows os yearso-year variation tu biomas

Tnereased diversity contribute to higher product. is
essential or ecosystem halt and survival um ace

20. "Rivet popper hypotheses It is an analogy wed o
understand the importance of biodiversity.
eis propose by Stanford solgit Pal Ehrlich.
In an ine (cote al part ar juin with many
rives (species. I pasenges pop à vet (extincion o.
Species) may nota Might say Cunetining ofthe
conste), lts mor and mare rta ems, the
plane becomes dangerously weak. Los of vets on the
‘wings (key specs ha ve major ecosystem functions)
Is more dangerous than los ofa few reis onthe sets or
windows,

2 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

STUGN Red List (2009) says that 784 species CR
verte, 389 insertos & 87 plans) were exit in
eat 00 years. 2 Dodo (Mauri) Qu (Aca)
“Thylcine (Ausra), Stars sea com (Rusia) and 3
subspecies (Ball, Javan, Caspian of tiger

= 21 species have been disappeared in th st 20 yeas

= More tha 15540 species ae fing thet of extinction.

= 12% birds, 23% mammals, 32% amphibians, 31%
ymnosperm speles cs the rar o extinction.

Th amet extincion rts 10 - 1000 timos fs than
inthe pr-human mess rend conincs, ney 0%
pics mig be extn! wii ext 100 can

Impacts of Loss of biodiversity

© Deen in plant production.

© Environmental perturbations such as drug.

«Increased varsity in eosytem proces uch a plant
produc water wc and pest & ne eels,

Causes of Biodiversity losses (‘The Evil
Quartet)
1. Habits os and fragmentation: Most important aus.
= Eg Tropical in forest loss from 14961060,
Thousands o hectares ai et ar being lost
vin our
= The Amazon rain Foresti being cut fr culsating soya
beans or or conversion grs ads Fr at.
- Fragmentation bly acts animals equi largo
tetris and migratory animal.
2. Overzexpoltatin:Stlar's se com, Passenger pigeon
ste exit dueto over explotan.
3. Alen species invasions: Alen pocos cause decline or
extincion o indigenous species.
1 Nil Per noch in Lake Vitoria (East Arica)
(used extincion o mor han 200 pocos eed Ms
= Invasive wee species like Parthenlum (cart gras),
Lantana and Eicchoria (water hyacinth) caused
mas o our ative species.
= legal introduction of the African Cat (Claris
ripio) for aquacalure a tet othe indienoas
Exit in overs.
4. Cosstieion: When a spocks comes ein. the
specs asocia with alo eine.
Extinction ofthe parasites when the ost sexi.
In cocvolved plant-pllinator mutual, extinction
fan causes the extinction ofthe oe,

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

“There re 3 catego of reasons for conservation

a. Narrowiy utilitarian arguments
Human drive economic beefs rm nature such as fd,
frewood, hr, coin mar, dial prods
(Grin bias, dyes esi, prime) and medicine.

+ More than 25% ofthe ds re derived Tom plas,

1 28,000 species o plants ave mace valo

Brandy atitaran arguments

Biodiversity has many ecosystem series. E.

+ Amazon foes fe planet reduces 20 of tl
sin the cantar

+ Pliation tough bess, bambsbes, bids apd bats

+ Aes pleasures.

Ethical arguments

+ Every species ha anintinic value, We aw mor day
Lo cr Roth lin

Biodiversity conservation is 2 types: Im lu (on ite)

conseaton and si (fT ste conservation

a. Imsitu conservation (on site)

tis the conservation of genetic resources within natural or

human-made ccosstems in which they occur. Protected

arcas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere

eserves, ultra landscapes, natural monuments te,

+ Natlona Park Ste resened for the welhre ofthe
willie where private ores, cukvaion grange

A pri eg Eraväulam National Park in Kerala

‘Sanctuary: Hers, proto sv ony to the animals

Collision of timber, minor foret products and private

‘ownership are allowed so long as they do not ham be

animals. E 2 Peripar will sanctuary in Kerala

+ Biophere Reserves: Aras o ad or cst conte
For conservation nd sustainable se

+ Sacred forests (Sacred groves): Forest Fragments which
ar communal protect based on rigole Eg.
1 Sacred goves in Khas & Jimi Hills in Moghalya
© Araval ll of Rajash
1 Western Ghat pons of Kamatka & Maharshi,
© Saga, Chanda & Bastar aes (Mad Pads.

India as 14 Biosphere Reserves, 90 National Parks and

448 wilde sanctuaries,

D. Ex situ conservation (offsite)

Ati the conservation of organisms outside tir habas

Genet cas cen, ote pat, wie sf pars

boancal gardens gen barks, eyopreservation ee

Hotspots

+ Those tthe eons wih very high specs snes igh
degree of endemism (species coated aly to a speiie
region) but most raten.

1 There are 34 hotspots in tbe worl

+3 hotspot cover Ind’ biodiversity regione Western
‘Ghats & Sri Lanka, ndo-Burma and Himalaya.

21. ~All opus together cover only < 2% ofthe cat's and | a. Conservation obio
ara. Bu the speioricmess is extremely high. Postion |. Sustainable se of biodiversity.

‘of hotspots reduced the ongoing cxticins by 30%. ©. Sharing of Beefs ring From gent resources.
International Efforts for conserving + The World Summit on Sustainable Development
biodiversity lobannesburg, South Africa, 2002) 190 countries
+ The Earth Summit or Convention on Biological | Pl re the cumen rat fade los

Diversity (Ri de Jeciro, 1992)- 3 objectives:

MODEL QUESTIONS

1. There are about 20,000 species of ants 300.000 species bee and 28000 species o she nthe word
"2 Which organizations dealing with the populatin organims in the world?
5. Wat are he causes of biodiversity loses?
2. Anllsad:-Mosqltoes are harmful Snakes re olsonous, and Insects damage cops ts high time to destroy al these
‘organi forthe welfare ofhuman binge
a. Can you agree with his statement?
1. Asa biology student how can you convince this person about the Importance ofeach organism in the
3 Amazonia rain forests have the greatest biodiversity on earth, Give 3 hypotheses o explain the reason fotis.
4. "The biologie wealth four planet has heen delning rapidly and the acusing Ringers clearly pointing to human
activities”
‘Mention any two human activites leading o th loss of biodiversity.
o. Mention the eiferentwaysto conserve biodiversty.
5. Introduction af exotiespeciesisone fthe major threats of dversty. Cite any two examples
{6 The given bar diagram shows the population of Aste leopard and iger forthe lst 50 yeas iind

3. Analyse the gure, whether the population of tiger and leopard increasing or decreasing Pndreaon.
3. Doesthe decreasing population the organisms let the tabi ofthe ecosystem yes tae how?
€. Suggest measures fr protecting population of hese organisms

7. Css he folie words nto two categories and ive suitable ie.

Genetic resource centres Nationa pars, Botanical gardens, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, Gene banks, Cultura
landscapes, Zoologia pars, Natural monument, Sacred forests,

{Distinguish between National park and Sanctuary ging one example for ch.

9. isis board seen in font of national park.

Evaluate the quotation nthe board and state your opinion.
Wet any fou reasons for exineion animal.

Name thro animals extinct emt.

ati the signieance of UH red ist?

22. 7. EVOLUTION

isan order change rom one form tape
mary Biology isthe study o evolution history o

fe forms.

ORIGIN OF LIFE

EE
Vil years ago by a singular huge explosion

= The cat was fomed abot 4 bin cars ago.
‘Ther as no aumenpher on eal ah. Water vapour Cl
CO: Nits lene rom men mu covered the face
‘The UV ray from the on bake up wate ito Hand O

2 Oxygen combined wit Nit Clio form wat, CO: ls

{The ezone layer was formed. Asitcooed. the water vapor
(alas int form acca.

{Life appeared anos four il year ago,
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

Theory of spontaneous. generation (Ablogenelo:

states tha, fe came out of deaying and ating matter

like sta, mde

Louis Pasteur disproved this theory. He demons

that if comes aly rom pre-existing ie

He showed that ied ns come fo il

nl yest ina
closed prete Mas Dt in an opened Mask, ie
(esertes appeared.

Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Rel, Spallazanl
‘Lous Pasteur. sates ta, ie crginats ram pr
xing ie, But it doesnot espai org of i ie
Coni theory (Theory of Panspermia): sites,
the uni fife spores) were arsed to dile sugar
‘lanes icludig earth

‘Theory of special creation: I ates da, ing things
vee creat y same supemuural power (God)

3 Tony of ceed volts Propel OPA E
Haldane. lett that. theft form of fe was rat
from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such a6
(Cis. Nh O. sugars proteins: ci cis te

bigness ist, bt bones ever since

Urey-Miller experiment

ET. =
—f DA

reducing umosphere wi Cs, Nil HDs) =r
- They made electric discharge in closed Mask containing
Ha. Ny He and water vapour at 800°C. Asa rl, some
sino agde are formed,
In similar experiments, or observed formation of
sitrogen bases, pigment and a
toner forms ofiferiginated 3 lion years go.
y were selfeplcating metabolic capsule containing
RNA. protein, Polysaccharides te

EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION

1, Paleontological evidences
Patcontology isthe study of fo

Fossil are ermano if forms found in rocks (ah rth
They are writen document of evolution

Significance of fossils:

To study phlegeny (evolutionary history or os histo.

Eg, Hone evolution.

To sly the connecting link betucen two groups of
organisms. Ex, Archacopens

+. Tostody aboot extne animals, E, Dinosaurs

To study about poloical period by anaysing fox a
lernt sedimentary rock layers. The study showed ist

Iie foms varied over tise and certain fe fomns re

rested cen geoogia time spans.

2. Morphological & Anatomical evidences
Forms of animals have some common strctra feature. This
‘an be explained lows

a. Homologous organs
Homologous organs ar the organs having fondamentaly

“ina nur and rm ar feet Torco TE
henomenon scale Homology.

Es; Haan and, Wales pps Bats wing & Cheeta’
foot. These focos have diferent functions but similar
anatomie sutures such as bones (eg. menos ais
la, cas, metcapas & phalanges)

Homology iso seen in bee, ri et.
Homology in plants: Eg. Thoms of Bowgainilen and
tends of Cucurbita,
‘The win of homologous organ is due to Divergent
croton. Wis the evolution by which related species
‘come less similar to survive and adapt in diferent
environmental conto,
+ Homology indicts common cest.
b. Analogous organs
‘These ae the organ having iia function but ferent
structure & origin. This phenomenon is called Analogy.
Wings of insets (formed of thin lapofchlin) and wings
ot birds (modifie forms.
= Eyes of Octopus (tia fom shin) and mammals (tins
from embyonic brain).