Cbse class-10-social-science-geography-notes

Cbse class-10-social-science-geography-notes

1. CBSE Class 10
Social Notes
Geography

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1 CBSE Class 10 Social Notes Geography
Table of Contents
1. Resources and development ......................................................................................................... 2
Technical terms ............................................................................................................................ 2
Important points .......................................................................................................................... 2
2. Forest and Wildlife Resources .......................................................................................................7
Technical Terms ............................................................................................................................7
Important Points ...........................................................................................................................7
3. Water Resources ..........................................................................................................................10
Technical Terms ..........................................................................................................................10
Important Points ......................................................................................................................... 11
4. AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................... 14
Technical Terms .......................................................................................................................... 14
Important Points ......................................................................................................................... 15
5. Minerals and Energy Resources .................................................................................................. 18
Technical Terms .......................................................................................................................... 18
Important Points ......................................................................................................................... 19
6. Manufacturing Industries .......................................................................................................... 23
Technical Terms ......................................................................................................................... 23
Important Points ........................................................................................................................ 24
7. Lifelines of National Economy ................................................................................................ 29
Technical Terms ......................................................................................................................... 29
Important Points ........................................................................................................................ 30

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1. Resources and development
Technical terms
Natural Resources: Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and mineral are
termed as natural resources.
Human made Resources: Resources created by humans such as engineering technology,
machines, buildings, monuments, paintings, social institutions etc. are called human-made or
human or cultural resources.
Resource Planning: Technique or skill of proper utilization of resources is termed as resource
planning.
Growing Season: The period of the year in which crops are sown, grown and harvested, is
known as growing season.
Gully Erosion: The spectacular type of soil erosion in which gullies, occur in the soil surface
rendering it useless for cultivation is known as gully erosion.
Net Sown Area: Net sown area is the total area sown with crops in a country. Area sown more
than once is counted once only.
Cultivated Land: The land which is continuously under cultivation is termed as cultivated land.
Cultivable Waste: Cultivable waste is the land which has remained waste for years together
because it has become infertile and eroded, but can be brought under plough again by using
modem techniques.
Shelter belts: Planting trees to create shelter breaks up the force of the wind. Rows of such trees
are called shelter belts.
Pastures: Pastures are the portions of the land covered with grass, shrubs on which animals are
grazed freely in the natural environment.
Important points
Resources are everything available in the environment such as mineral, labor, livestock etc. that
can be used to satisfy our needs.
Types of Resources
(i) On the basis of origin:

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 Biotic: Resources obtained from biosphere and are living.
For example: flora, fauna, fisheries, livestock and humans.
 Abiotic: Non-living things in the environment.
For example: rocks and metals.
(ii) On the basis of exhaustibility:
 Renewable Resources: Resources which have ability to renew themselves and can be
reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical processes.
For example: Solar energy, wind energy, water, forests and wildlife.
 Non-Renewable Resources: The resources which formed after a very long geological
time (millions of years) are known as non-renewable resources. In other words,
resources which cannot be remade in the present-age.
For example:





(iii) On the basis of ownership:
 Individual Resources: The resources which are owned by people individually are
termed as individual resources.
For example: Houses, Plots, farm lands etc.
 Community owned Resources: These resources are accessible to all members of the
community.
For example: Village ponds, picnic spots, grazing grounds etc.
 National Resources: These resources are accessible to all citizens of nation.
For example: Roads, railways, canals etc.
 International Resources: These resources can be used by all nations of the world.
For example: Exclusive Economic Zone beyond 200 km (oceanic resources).
(iv) On the basis of status of development:
Minerals

Metals

Recyclable
Fossil Fuels

Non-recyclable

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 Potential Resources: These resources are available in a region, but have not been
utilized till yet.
For example: The western pa-t of India (Rajasthan and Gujarat) has great
potential for the development of wind and solar energy.
 Developed Resources: These resources are surveyed and their quality and quantity
have been determined for utilization.
 Stock: The resources which have potential to satisfy human needs but people do not
have the appropriate technology to access these.
 Reserves: The subset of stock which can be access with the help of existing
technology but their use has not been started. Probably they me for meeting future
requirements.
 Resources are vital for human survival and maintaining the quality of life.
 Excessive and indiscriminate use of resources has created major problems.
 Therefore resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life.
 Sustainable existence is a component of sustainable development.
 In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met for the first International Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro.
 In a country like India, it is very important to make and execute resource planning, where
there is a great diversity in the availability of resources.
 The states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya, Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal
deposits.
 Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural
development.
 The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water
resources.
 The cold desert of Ladakh has very rich cultural heritage but deficient in water
infrastructure and some vital minerals. In other words, it is relatively isolated from the rest
of country.
 Above diversity points out for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional
and local levels.
 Resource planning is a complex process which involves: identification and inventory of
resources across the regions of the country. It involves surveying, mapping and qualitative
and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.

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 Resource conservation at various levels is very vital to overcome the problems caused due to
irrational consumption and over utilization of resources.
 The club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in 1968.
 In 1974, Gandhian Philosophy was presented by Schumacher in his book ‘Small is Beautiful’.
 In 1987, the seminal contribution at the global level was made by the Brundtland,
Commission Report.
 Land is a vital natural resource which supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life,
economic activities, and transport and communication systems.
 Due to the finite magnitude of land, careful planning is necessary in using the available land.
 India had following land relief features:
- Plains (43%)
- Mountains (30%)
- Plateau region (27%).
Land Utilization
Utilization of land resources is in the following:
(i) Forests
(ii) Land not available for cultivation
- Barren and waste land
- Non-agricultural land, e.g., buildings, roads, factories etc.
(iii) Other cultivated land excluding fallow land
(iv) Fallow lands
(v) Net sown area
Land use is determined by the following factors:
(i) Physical factors: Topography, climate, soil types.
(ii) Human factors: Population density, technological capability and culture and
tradition.
Land use Pattern in India
 Total geographical area of India is 32.8 million sq. km.
- The land under pastures has decreased.
- Most of the land (other than the current fallow lands) is either of poor quality or
the cost of cultivation of such land is very high.
 NSA varies greatly from one state to another.
- Punjab and Haryana: NSA—80%

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- Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
NSA—10%.
 Forest area is less than the desired 33% of the geographical area.
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures
 Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking proper measures to
conserve and manage it, resulted in land degradation.
 Degraded land
- Forest degraded area (28 million hectares)
- Water eroded area (56 million hectares)
- Saline and alkaline deposits (116 million hectares)
Land is degraded by some human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing by cattles, mining
and quarrying.
1. Methods to Overcome the Problem of Land Degradation
2. Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
3. Planting shelter belts
4. Control on overgrazing
5. Stabilization of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes
6. Proper management of wastelands
7. Control on mining activities
8. Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents after treatment.
Soil as a Resource
Important factors in the formation of soil are:
(i) Relief, parent rock or bed rock
(ii) Climate
(iii) Vegetation and other forms of life
Other factors are change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of
decomposers and chemical and organic changes takes place in the soil.
Classification of Soils
Various relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types contribute in the
development of various types of soils.
1. Alluvial soils
2. Black soil
3. Red and yellow soil
4. Laterite soil
5. Arid soils
6. Forest soil

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Soil erosion and conservation
The removal of top fertile soil is called soil erosion.
Factors responsible for soil erosion:
(i) Natural factor: wind, glacier and water
(ii) Human factor: deforestation, over-grazing construction and mining.
(iii) Other factor: defective methods of farming, ploughing in a wrong way.
Effective measures to control soil erosions are:
1. Contour ploughing
2. Terrace cultivation
3. Strip cropping
4. Shelter belts

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources
Technical Terms

Flora: All types of flowering and non-flowering plants and grass, trees, scrubs and shrubs form
flora.
Fauna: All life forms from microbes bacteria to elephant constitute fauna.
Wildlife Sanctuaries: Wildlife sanctuaries are the portion of the natural forests where hunting
and poaching of wild animals and birds are prohibited. Example: Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur.
Zoological Parks: Zoological Parks are reserved gardens where wild animals are kept in man-
made surroundings according to their natural habits. Example: Delhi Zoo.
Critical Species: Species on the verge of extinction are termed as critical species. Example:
Cheetah, Mountain quail.
Important Points
 Our entire habitat has immense bio-diversity. Humans along with all living organisms form a
complex web of ecological system in which we are a mere part of it and very much dependent
on this system for our own existence.
 Bio-diversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species.
Flora and Fauna in India

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India is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of vast range of bio-diversity; It has about
8% of the total number of species in the world (estimated to the 1.8 million). India has 81000
species of fauna and 47000 species of flora. About 15000 species of flowering plant in fauna are
endemic (indigenous) to India, Species.
(i) Normal species
(ii) Endangered species
(iii) any Vulnerable species
(iv) Rare species
(v) Endemic species
(vi) Extinct species
Factors Responsible For Depletion of Flora and Fauna
Expansion of the railways, agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities
leads to depletion of our forests during cloning period.
Agricultural expansion: During 1951-1980 over 26,200 sq. km of finest area was converted into
agricultural land.
Enrichment Plantation: in which a single commercially valuable species was extensively
planted and other species eliminated. Example: Teak monoculture has damaged the natural
forest in South India.
Large Scale Development Projects: Clearing of forests is still continuing with projects like the
Narmada Sagar Project.
Mining: The Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the ongoing dolomite
mining.
Habitat destruction: hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning
and forest fire are factors led to decline in India’s biodiversity.
Necessity of Conservation of Forest and Wildlife
 Rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry has made conservation essential.
 Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support system—water, air and
soil.
 It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better species growth and
breeding.
Acts Implemented for Conservation of Wildlife
 The Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
 Notification under Wildlife Act 1980 and 1986.

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Project Tiger
“Project Tiger” was launched in 1973. At present there are 53 Tiger Reserves in the country (as on
21 June 2011).
Some of the major tiger reserves are:
 Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand
 Sundarban National Park, West Bengal
 Bhandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh
 Manas Tiger Reserve, Assam
 Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala
 Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources
Reserved Forests: These forests are regarded as the most valuable from the point of
conservation of forests and wildlife resources.
Protected Forests: These forests lands are protected from any further depletion.
Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands. They belong to both government
and private individuals and communities.
Distribution of Forests

 Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests.
 Unclassed forests are situated in the north-eastern states of India and Gujarat.
 Mangrove forests are found in Sundarban Delta and Deltas of east flowing rivers of the
peninsular plateau.
4. Community and Conservation

 Local communities are struggling to conserve forests along with government officials in
some places of India.
 In Sariska Tiger Reserve Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the
Wildlife Protection Act.
 The inhabitants of five villagers in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1200
hectares of forests as Bhairodev Dakav “Sonchuri” declaring their own set of rules and
regulations.
 Several virgin forests are preserved in pristine form named as Sacred Groves. These
forests have left untouched by the local people and any interference with- them is banned.
 Trees are preserved in the name of worship by many communities.
 Some animals are also an integral part of the community and nobody can harm them.
Examples of such animals are Monkeys, Blackbuck, Nilgai and Peacock etc.

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Involvement of Local Communities ‘Natural Resource’ Management

 Chipko Andolan in Himalayas successfully resisted deforestation and encourage
afforestation.
 Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya proved adequate levels of diversified crop
production without use of synthetic chemicals.
 In India Joint Forest Management (JFM) involves local communities in management and
restoration of degraded forests.
3. Water Resources
Technical Terms
Floods: Inundation of large areas beyond the bank of rivers is termed as floods.
Hydrological Cycle: Movement of water through lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere is
known as hydrological cycle.
Precipitation: Falling of moisture after condensation in the form of droplets, rain, snow and
hailstones is called as precipitation.
Scarcity of Water: Shortage of water to meet the basic requirements of the people is called
scarcity of water.
Ground Water: The portion of water which percolates into the ground and gets stored into the
aquifers is referred to as the ground water.
Hydroelectric Power: Power obtained through moving the turbines by the pressure of water
obtained due to the difference of height, is termed as hydroelectric power or hydel power.
Hydraulic Structures: Structures built for storing rainwater are termed as hydraulic structures.
Examples: Baoli, tanks, village, johads, etc.
Dams: Concrete structures which are built across rivers to impound water in reservoirs are
called dams.
Example: Sardar Sarovar Dam, Bhakra Dam.
Multi-purpose Projects: Projects which serve more than two purposes simultaneously are
called multi-purpose projects.
Example: Damodar valley corporation.

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Palar Pani: The rainwater collected in storage during rainfall is termed as palar pani, and is the
purest form of natural water.
Inundation Canal: It is meant to direct flood water during the rainy season.
Important Points

1. Some Facts and Figures About Water

 Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered with water. But only a small proportion of it
accounts for fresh water.
 96.5% of the total volume of water in the world is estimated to exist in oceans.
 Only 2.5% exists as fresh water. Nearby 70% of this fresh water is confined in ice sheets
and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and the mountainous regions of the world.
 A little less than 30% is stored as ground water in the world’s aquifers.
 So total % of total water available as ground water = 0.7425.



 India receives nearly 4% of the global precipitation. India ranks 133 in the world in terms
of water availability per person per annum.
 The total renewable water resources of India are estimated at 1191 cubic kilo-meter (in
2011) per annum.
 By 2025 large parts of India will face absolute water scarcity.
2. Water Scarcity and The Need for Water Conservation and Management

 Water scarcity is associated with regions having low rainfall or those that are drought
prone.
 Availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in
seasonal and annual precipitation.
Total water
(90% total)
96.5% in oceans 2.5% fresh water
70% of this
confined as snow
in different form
30% of this as
ground water

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Causes

Over Exploitation: Farmers having their own well and tube-well leads to a fall in ground water
level.
Industrialization and Urbanization:
(i) Causes heavy use of water.
(ii) Multiplying urban centres with large population and urban lifestyles aggravated this
problem.
Bad Quality of Water
Bad quality of water is due to the following:
(i) Domestic and industrial waste.
(ii) Chemicals and pesticides used in agriculture.
(iii) Sewage flow into rivers and canals.
(iv) Garbage dumping near water bodies.
Conservation of Water Resources

Conservation and management of water resources help in the following way:
(i) to safeguard ourselves from health hazard.
(ii) to ensure food security.
(iii) continuation of our livelihood and productive activities.
(iv) to prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.

3. Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management
 Sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes,
embankments and canals for irrigation have been constructed from ancient times in India
to conserve and manage water.
 Dams are a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
 Now dams were built for power generation, water supply for domestic and
industrial use, flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
 Hence dams are called multi-purpose projects.
Examples: Bhakra Bhakra Project, Hirakud Project.
Adverse Effects of Dams/Multi-Purpose Projects
(i) Regulating and damming of rivers affect the natural flow of water causing poor sediment flow and

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excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir. Dams also fragment rivers making it
difficult for aquatic fauna to Migrate, especially for spawning.
(ii) The reservoirs created on the flood plains also submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to
its decomposition over a period of time.
(iii) Large scale displacement of local communities, as a result of which movements like the Narmada
Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam Andolan etc., came into existence.
Narmada Bachao Andolan
 Narmada Bachao Andolan is non-government organization (NGO).
 It has mobilized tribal people, farmers; environmentalist against the Sardar Sarovar Dam
built across the Narmada river in Gujarat.
 It is originally focused on the environmental issues related to trees that would be
submerged under the dam water.
 Now it has re-focused the aim to enable the poor citizens (displaced people) to get full
rehabilitation facilities from the government.

4. Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is accumulating and storing of rainwater. It is a technique for
capturing and storing rainwater through hydro-structures.

Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
 It is the most common practice in Shillong, Meghalaya.
 Almost every household has a rooftop rainwater harvesting structure.
Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
 Water security
 Lower water supply cost
 Relief of strain on other water supply resources
 Reduce flood flow
Bamboo Drip Irrigation System

 In Meghalaya, a 200-year old system of tapping stream and spring water by using
bamboo pipes is very common.
 Nearly 18 - 20 litres of water enter the bamboo pipe system, get transported over
hundreds of metres and finally reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.
 Today, rooftop rainwater harvesting system is successfully adopted in Gendathur a village
of Mysore (Karnataka).
 Tamil Nadu is the first and the only state in India which has made rooftop rainwater
harvesting structure compulsory to all the houses across the state.

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4. AGRICULTURE
Technical Terms

Subsistence Agriculture: The agricultural practice which involves the farmer and his family to
produce and raise crops for home consumption is known as subsistence agriculture.
Shifting Agriculture: Shifting agriculture is that agriculture in which farmers go on shifting
from one land to another after a period of two to three years due to decrease in soil fertility.
Intensive Subsistence Farming : Intensive subsistence farming is that farming in which yield
per unit area is high due to use of irrigational facilities, use of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
improved seeds, high yielding varieties of seeds, use of machines and other implements. Farmers
produce enough for their own consumption and remaining produce is used for exchange against
to other goods.
Commercial Farming: Commercial farming is that type of farming in which higher doses of
modern technology like HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides and assured
irrigation are used to obtain higher productivity and production.
Green Revolution: Due to application of modem techniques and assured canal and tube well
irrigation, production of food grains has increased tremendously especially wheat in Punjab,
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh between 1965 to 1975. This is called green revolution.
Horticulture: Intensive cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers.
Sericulture: Sericulture is a labour intensive industry which involves rearing of silk worms and
producing silk.
White Revolution (Operation Flood): White revolution is the programme under which milk
production is augmented in order to raise the poor people above from the poverty line.
Biotechnology: Use of biological agents and process for beneficial purpose is known as
biotechnology.

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Important Points
1. Types of Farming

(i) Primitive Subsistence Farming: It is “slash and burn” agriculture.
 Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops to sustain
themselves.
 When soil fertility decreases, the farmer shift and clear a fresh patch of land to cultivate.
 This type of shifting allows the nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through the
natural processes.
(ii) Intensive Subsistence Farming: It is labour-intensive farming.
In this farming high dose of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher
production.
(iii) Commercial Farming: The main features of this type of farming are the use of higher dose
of modem inputs. Generally the degree of commercialization varies from one region to another.
Example: Rice is commercial crop in Punjab and Haryana. But subsistence crop in Odessa.
(iv) Plantation Farming: Plantation is a type of commercial farming. In this farming, a single
crop is grown on a large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. In
India tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, jute, apple,-orange, banana etc. are important plantation
crops.
2. Cropping Pattern
(i) Rabi: Crops are sown in winter from October to December and are harvested in summer
from April to June. Wheat, barley, etc. are important crop of this season.
(ii) Kharif: Crops are grown with the outset of monsoon in different parts of the country in
September-October. Important crop growing this season are paddy, maize, jowar, etc.
(iii) Zaid: Crops are short crop growing season between rabi and the kharif season during
summer months. Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops are
zaid crops.
3. Major Crops

Rice: India is the second largest producer of rice in the world. It is chiefy grown in north and
north-eastern India, coastal areas and deltaic region.
Wheat: India stands fifth among the wheat producing countries. It is largely grown in North-
India—U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the main millets grown in India. These are called as coarse
grains, but they have very high nutritional value.

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Maize: It grows well in old alluvial soil. Major maize producing states are Karnataka, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Pulses: India stands first both in respect of pulses production and their consumption. These are
grown in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Food Crops Other than Grains
(i) Sugarcane: India is a native place of sugarcane. It stands second after Brazil in the world in
respect of its production. It is a crop of tropical as well as a subtropical regions. Its production
states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab
and Haryana.
(ii) Oil Seeds: Principal oil seeds include groundnuts, rapeseeds and mustard seeds. Others are
sesanmm, linseeds, castor seeds, sunflower seeds, cotton seeds and copra (coconut).
(iii) Groundnut: It is a Kharif Crop. It accounts about half of the major oil seeds produced in the
country. Its largest producer is Gujarat followed by Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Beverage Crops
(i) Tea: India is the leading producer of tea after China. Warm and moist climate is ideal for its
cultivation. Tea plantation is found chiefly in Assam, Sikkim, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri
districts of West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Other producing states are Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, and Tripura.
(ii) Coffee: India produced about 4% of the world’s coffee production. Coffee cultivation is mainly
confined to Southern states like Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Horticulture Crops
Horticulture Crops
India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China.
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. India produces about 15% of the
world’s vegetables. It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, tomato,
brinjal and potato. Major fruits produced in India are apple, mango, banana, grapes, orange,
lichi, guava etc.
4. Non Food Crops
(i) Rubber: It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall above 200 cm. It is mainly grown
in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of
Meghalaya.
(ii) Fiber crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are four major fibre crops grown in India.
(iii) Cotton: It required high temperature, light rainfall, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine
for its growth. Major cotton producing states are—Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
(iv) Jute: It grows well on well-drained fertile soil in the flood plains. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam,
Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states.

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5. Technological and Institutional Reforms
After independence following technological and institutional reforms were introduced:
(i) Collective farming: In this method fields of several farmers are joined together and member-
owners engage jointly in farming activities.
(ii) Land holdings were consolidated: Fragmented land due to inheritance was again
consolidated into single unit to increase its economic liability.
(iii) Zamindari system was abolished.
(iv) The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and White Revolution
(Operation Flood) was initiated to improve Indian agriculture.
(v) In 1980s and 1990s a comprehensive land development programme was initiated which
include:
 Crop insurance
 Grameen banks, Cooperative societies and banks
 Kisan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS)
 Weather bulletins and agricultural programmes
 Minimum Support Price, remunerative and procurement.
(vi) Bhoodan Gramdan: Due to the efforts of Vinoba Bhave voluntary redistribution of farm lands
to poor landless farmers for their economic well-being was started. This is called Bhoodan
gramdan.
6. Contribution of Agriculture to The National Economy, Employment and Output
 Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy.
 It provides employment and livelihood to 52% population.
 Government establish Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural
universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centers, horticulture development,
research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast to modernize
agriculture.
 Though the GDP growth rate is increasing over the years, but it is not generating
 employment opportunities in the country.
 Indian farmers are facing a big challenge from international competition.
7. Food Security
 In order to ensure availability of food to all sections of society, our government designed a
national food security system.
 It comprises of two components:
(i) Buffer Stock
(ii) Public Distribution System (PDS)
8. Impact of Globalization on Agriculture
 Under globalization after 1990, Indian farmers are not able to compete with the
developed countries.

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 Today genetic engineering is recognized as a powerful supplement in inventing new
hybrid varieties of seeds.
 Organic farming is much in vogue today as it is environment friendly. Indian farmers
should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals to high value crops.



5. Minerals and Energy Resources
Technical Terms
Mineral: Mineral is a homogeneous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal
structure.
Mining: Mining is an economic activity of extracting minerals from the earth.
Examples: Mining of petroleum, iron, bauxite, etc. Ferro
Alloys: Ferro alloys are mixed metals with iron as the base.
Fossil Fuels: The fuels formed because of the decomposition of organism in the sedimentary
rocks are called fossil fuels.
Ferrous Minerals: Minerals having iron contents are known as ferrous minerals. Examples:
Iron, manganese.
Non-ferrous Minerals: Minerals which do not have iron contents are non-ferrous minerals.
Examples: Gold, silver, copper, lead. Off-shore
Drilling: Off-shore drilling is the process of drilling mineral oil from the sea bed, off from the
shore, by drilling at the bottom of the sea.
Metallic Minerals: Minerals comprising of metal contents are metallic minerals. Examples:
Iron-ore, bauxite, copper, gold, etc.
Non-metallic Minerals: Minerals which do not have metal contents are non-metallic minerals.
Examples: Limestone, potash, nitrate. Shaft-mines: Deep and tunnelled mines are called shaft
mines.

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Placer Deposits: Minerals occurring as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and at the base
of hills are called placer deposits.
Ore: Ore is the mineral mixed with other elements or impurities.
Example: Iron ore.
Mineral Deposit or Reserve: Known mineral concentration under the ground is called mineral
deposit or reserve.
Example: Petroleum deposits in Assam and Gujarat.
Important Points
 Earth’s crust is made up of different minerals embedded in the rocks. Rocks are combination
of homogenous substances called minerals.
 The properties on which classification of minerals depends are as follows:
(i) wide range of colours
(ii) hardness
(iii) crystal forms
(iv) lusture and
(v) density
Classification of Minerals


Minerals
Metallic
Ferrous
(containing iron)
e.g., iron ore,
manganese,
nickel,
cobalt,etc.
Non-ferrous
e.g., copper,
lead,
tin,
bauxite,etc.
Precious
e.g., gold,
silver,
platinum,etc.
Non-metallic
e.g., mica,
salt,
potash,
sulphur,
granite,
limestone,
marble,
sandstone etc.
Energy
minerals
e.g., coal,
petroleum,
natural gas.

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Mode Of Occurrence Of Minerals
Minerals generally occurred in these forms:
 Minerals occur in the veins and the lodes in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Examples:
Tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from these veins and lodes.
 Minerals occur in bed or layers in sedimentary rocks. Coal and some form of iron are
found in it.
 Bauxite is formed in the decomposed surface rocks.
 Generally the minerals not corroded by water are found in alluvial deposits. Examples:
Gold, silver, tin and platinum.
 The ocean water contains vast quantities of minerals. Examples: Common salt,
magnesium and bromine.
Ferrous minerals: provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries and
account for about three-fourth of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.
Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development. The major iron ore
belts in India are:
(i) Odisha—Jharkhand Belt
(ii) Durg—Bastar—Chandrapur Belt
(iii) Bellary—Chitradurga—Chikmaglur—Tumkur Belt.
(iv) Maharashtra—Goa Belt.
Manganese is mainly used in manufacturing of steel and Ferro-manganese alloy.
 Non-ferrous minerals include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold, which play a vital role in a
number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
Copper: Copper producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Rajasthan.
Bauxite is a clay like substance. Odisha is the largest bauxite producing state in India.
 Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. They are mica, limestone, salt, potash, sulphur,
granite, marble, etc.
Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves.
Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand is the leading producer.
In Rajasthan major mica producing area is around Ajmer.
Nellore mica belt in Andhra Pradesh is an important producer of Mica.
 Rock minerals: Limestone is found in sedimentary rocks. It is the basic raw material for the
cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.

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Conservation of Minerals
(i) Minerals are very less in quantity in the world (just 1 per cent of the earth’s crust).
(ii) We are rapidly consuming mineral resources that need millions of years to be created and
concentrated.
(iii) Mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.
(iv) India’s rich mineral deposits are short-lived possessions.
Energy Resources
Energy resources can be classified as
(i) Conventional source of energy
(ii) Non-conventional source of energy.
(i) Conventional Source of Energy
Coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. Coal is formed due to compression of
plant over millions of years. Various kinds of coal are:
(i) Peat
(ii) Lignite
(iii) Bituminous
(iv) Anthracite
In India coal occurs in Gondwana and Tertiary deposits. The major resources of Gondwana coal
are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal, Jharkhand), Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro are
important coalfields.
Petroleum: Petroleum refineries act as a ‘nodal industry’ for synthetic textile, fertilizer and
numerous chemical industries.
Nearly 63% of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai High, 18% from Gujarat and 16%
from Assam.
Natural Gas: Natural Gas is considered an environmental friendly fuel, the fuel for the present
country. It is used as a source of energy as well as industrial raw material for petrochemical
industry. Natural gas is found in Mumbai High, the Gulf of Cambay and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Electricity: Its per capita consumption is considered as an index of development. Electricity can
be generated in two ways:
(i) By running water (water falling from a height) which drives hydro turbines to generate
hydro electricity.
(ii) By burning fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to produce heat which drives
turbines to produce electricity.

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(ii) Non-conventional Source of Energy
Nuclear or Atomic Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
 Uranium and thorium are available in Jharkhand and the Aravali ranges of Rajasthan.
These are used for generating atomic or nuclear energy.
 Monazite sands of Kerala are also rich in thorium.
Solar Energy
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity. Major solar energy areas are:
Bhuj, Leh, Bikaner, Pokhran etc.
Wind Power
 The largest wind farm clusters are spread in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai.
 Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep also have
important wind farms.
 Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the country.
Biogas
 Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human wastes are used to produce biogas for domestic
use in villages of India.
 Biogas plants are set up at municipal, cooperative and individual levels.
 These plants provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and improved
quality of manure.
Tidal Energy
 Tides are used to generate electricity.
 In India, the gulf of Khambat, the gulf of Kuchchh in Gujarat and Sundarban delta of
West Bengal, provides ideal conditions of utilising tidal energy.
Geothermal Energy
 Geothermal energy is the heat and electricity produced by using the heat released from
the interior of the earth.
 Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy.
 One of them is located in Paravati valley near Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
 The other project is located in the Puga valley of Ladakh region in Jammu and Kashmir.
Conservation of Energy Resources
There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development. Promotion
of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks of
sustainable energy.

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6. Manufacturing Industries
Technical Terms
Manufacturing Industries: Manufacturing industries are the organized human efforts to
convert a primary product into secondary one and make it more useful and - value-added.
Examples: Iron and steel industries, textile industries.
Private Sector Industries : The industries which are controlled and owned by a few people or
firms or companies are known as Private Sector Industries.
Examples: Tata iron and steel industries.
Public Sector Industries : are the industries which are owned by the State government or
Centred government.
Examples: TISCO, HEC, BHEL.
Cooperative Sector Industries : Cooperative sector industries sue the undertakings which are
owned or organized by a group of people who are also the producers of the raw material and help
in running industries by cooperating one another.
Example: Sugar industry of Maharashtra.
Joint Sector Industries : Joint sector industry is owned both by the state and some private
industrialists/firms.
Example: Oil India Ltd.

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Basic Industries : Basic industries are those industries which serve as a base to many other
industries.
Examples: Iron and steel industries, aluminium smelting.
Large-scale Industries :The industries employing large number of persons in a unit and having
large production levels are called large-scale industries, and investing capital is more than one
crore rupees.
Examples: Cotton textile, iron and steel industries.
Small-scale Industries :The industries employing small number of persons and investing
capital is up to one crore, are called small-scale industries.
Example: Readymade garments, Cottage Industry.
Cottage industry : means sin industry in which artisans work on wood, tusk, cane, brass, gold,
silver and stone in the house itself.
Agro-based Industries : The industries converting the agricultural products into consumer
products are known as agro-based industries.
Examples: Sugar, cotton and textile industries.
Mineral-based Industries : The industries in which mined products are processed and turned
into finished goods are called mineral-based industries.
Example: Iron and steel industries, aluminium industries. Foreign Exchange.
Foreign exchange : is the media through which one country purchases goods from other
countries of the world.
Example: U.S. Dollar, Euro.
Chhota Nagpur Plateau : A plateau having some districts of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha
and Chhatisgarh.
1. Jharkhand: Almost all districts of Jharkhand.
2. West Bengal: Asansol, Medinapur, etc.
3. Odisha: Sundernagar, Jharsugda, Sambhalpur, etc.
4. Chhatisgarh: Jaspur, Raigarh, Ambikapur, Sarguja, etc.
Important Points
 Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more
valuable products is called manufacturing.

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 The economic strength of a country is measured by the development of manufacturing
industries.
Importance of Manufacturing
 Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture and reduce the heavy
dependence of people on agriculture income by providing them job in secondary and
tertiary sectors.
 Industrial development is a precondition for eradication of unemployment and poverty
from our country.
 Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce.
 India’s prosperity lies in increasing and diversifying its manufacturing industries as
quickly as possible.
Classification of Industries
On the basis of Source of Raw Material Used
(i) Agro-based industries. Examples: cotton, woollen industries etc.
(ii) Mineral-based industries. Examples: iron, steel, copper, cement, etc.
According to their Main Role
(i) Basic on key industries. Examples: iron and steel industry, sugar industry
On the basis of Capital Investment
(ii) Small-scale industry. Example: readymade garment.
(iii) Large-scale industry. Example: Textile industry.
On the basis of Ownership
(i) Public sector industries are owned and operated by government agencies— BHEL, SAIL.
(ii) Private sector industries owned and operated by private company—TISCO, Bajaj Auto
Ltd., Bhilwada Textiles.
(iii) Joint sector industries are jointly run by the state and individuals, combined or
individuals—Oil India Ltd. (OIL).
(iv) Cooperative sector industries are run by producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers
or both—Sugar industry in Maharashtra.
Based on the Bulk and Weight of Raw Material and Finished Goods
(i) Heavy industries such as iron and steel.
(ii) Light industries such as electrical industries.

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Agro Based Industries
Textile Industry: Textile industry (cotton, jute, silk, wodllen textiles) occupies unique position
in the Indian economy.
Cotton Textile: Cotton textiles industries in India are largely concentrated in and around
Mumbai, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Ahmedabad. Cotton textile industry is facing many problems
today due to irregular supply of electricity, obsolete machinery, low output of labours and stiff
competition with the synthetic fibre industry.
Jute Textiles: India stands at second place as an exporter after Bangladesh. There are about 80
jute mills in India. Most of these are located in West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli
River. The internal demand of jute has been increased due to the government policy of
mandatory use of jute packaging.
In 2005, National Jute Policy was formulated aiming:
(i) Increasing productivity
(ii) Improving quality
(iii) Ensuring good prices to the jute farmers and enhancing they yield per hectare.
Sugar Industry: India stands second as a producer of sugar in the world and first in the
production of gur and khandsari.
 This industry is also in cooperative sector and is seasonal in nature.
 There are 662 mills, in 2011, spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat along with Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
 In recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern
and western states especially in Maharashtra because of higher sucrose content and
favourable climate conditions.
Minerals Based Industries
 Iron and Steel Industry is the basic industry as it provides all types of machinery to run
other industries.
 Production and consumption of steel is regarded as the index of a country’s development.
 India ranks 4th among the world crude steel producers.
 It is the largest producer of sponge iron.
 Today, there are 10 primary integrated and many mini-steel plants in India.
 All public sector undertaking market their steel through Steel Authority of India Ltd.
(SAIL) while TISCO market its produce through Tata Steel.
 China is the largest producer as well as consumer in the world.
 Chhota Nagpur plateau has the maximum concentration of iron and steel industries.
 Bokaro, Tatanagar, Rourkela, Bumpur, etc.

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Aluminium Smelting
 It is the second largest metallurgical industry of India.
 It is universally accepted metal due to its use as a substitute of steel, copper and lead.
 Aluminium smelting plants are located near the availability of bauxite and power plants.
 At present smelting plants are located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, U.P., Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Chemical Industries of India
Chemical industry of India is the fast growing industry in modem times. Major features of
chemical industry:
 It contributes 3% of GDP.
 It is third largest in Asia.
Chemical industry has two sectors:
(i) Inorganic sector
(ii) Organic sector.
Fertilizer Industry: It is centered around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers, phosphate
fertilizers, ammonium phosphate and complex fertilizers.
 Complex fertilizers are a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and Potash (K).
 Potash is entirely imported. India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers.
 At present there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in cooperative sector at Hazira
in Gujarat.
 Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute about half of the
fertilizers production.
Cement Industry: It requires bulky and heavy raw material like limestone, silica, alumina and
gypsum.
 The first cement plant was located in Chennai in 1904.
 There are 128 large plants and 332 mini plants in the country.
Automobile Industry
 At present there are 15 manufacturers of passenger cars and multi-utility vehicles, 9 of
commercial vehicles, and 14 of the two and three-wheelers.
 The major centers are around Delhi (Faridabad, Gurgaon and Manesar), Mumbai, Pune,
Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bangalore. Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) has revolutionized the automobile industry in India.
Information Technology and Electronics Industry
 Bangaluru has emerged as the electronic capital of India.

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 Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore are the
other important centers for electronic goods.
 18 software technology parks provide single window service and high data
communication facility to software experts.
 A major impact of this industry has been on employment generation and foreign
exchange earner.
 This industry can be divided in two parts:
(i) Computer hardware and electronic items such as Computer parts, television,
telephone, radars, etc.
(ii) Software technology: Which is mainly known as Information Technology.
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation
Increase in pollution of land, water, air and noise result in degradation of environment
due to rapid industrialization.
Air pollution is caused due to the following:
 The presence of high proportion of undesirable gases like sulphur dioxide and carbon
monoxide.
 Smoke emitted by chemical and paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and smelting plants
and burning of fossils fuels in big and small factories.
Water pollution is caused due to the following:
 Organic and inorganic industrial wastes and affluents discharged into river such as paper,
pulp, chemical, etc.
 Thermal pollution is caused when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained
into rivers and ponds.
 Soil and water pollution are closely related.
Noise pollution is caused by industrial and construction activities, machinery, generators, electric
drills, etc.
 It can cause stress, irritation, anger, hearing impairment, increased increased heart beat
rate, blood pressure and physiological problems.
Control of Environmental Degradation
 To minimize use of water in industries.
 To reuse and recycle water in two or more successive stages.
 To harvest rain water for meeting water requirements in industries.
 To treat hot water and other industrial effluents before releasing them into rivers and
ponds in three phases.
 To regulate over drawing of ground water.

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 To fit smoke stacks in factories with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers
and inertial separators.
 To use oil and gas in place of coal in factories.
 To use of energy efficient machinery.
 To reduce noise.
 To use earplugs and earphones.











7. Lifelines of National Economy
Technical Terms
Golden Quadrilateral: National highway connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and
Delhi is termed as Golden Quadrilateral.
locomotives: Locomotives are all types of railway engines—Steam, diesel and electric engines.
Gauge : Gauge is the width between the two rails of the railway lines.
Harbour : The place where there is provision of loading and unloading the ships is termed as
Harbour.Example : Mumbai harbour.
Dock : By dock we mean the high pedestal built along the coastline for the purpose of loading
and unloading of the ships.

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Tidal Port : Tidal port is a sort of port which is operational during the tides. Example: Kandla
Port.
Riverine Port : The port, situated on the bank of a river far away from the sea and connected
through that river with the sea, is called riverine port.
Example: Kolkata Port.
Hinterland : Hinterland is the area which is served by a port by exporting and importing goods
and commodities through the port.
Examples: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh mainly form the hinterland of Mumbai Port.
Laud-locked Port : The port which is encircled by land from all sides with a water passage
towards sea or ocean is termed as land-locked port. Example: Visakhapatnam, the deepest land-
locked port.
Foreign or international Trade : Exchange of goods and services between two or more
countries is called foreign trade or international trade.
Balance of Trade : Difference between exports and imports of a country is termed as balance of
trade.
Mass Communication : The means of communication through which one can communicate
with one or severed people at the same time.
Favaourable Balance of Trade : When exports of a country exceed imports, the trade is called
favourable balance of trade.
Unfavaourable Balance of Trade : When the imports exceed exports the trade is said to be
unfavourable.
Important Points
Advantages of Transport
Railways, airways, waterways, newspapers, radio, television, cinema and internet, etc.
have been contributing to its socio-economic progress in many ways. Modem means of transport
and communication serve as life lines of our nation and its modem economy.
 These easily and quickly transport men and material from one place to another.
 These are helpful in supplying the consumer goods to the markets and consumers rapidly.
 These contribute in the formation of capital and development of industries.
 These provide immediate relief in times of war, natural calamity, famine and flood.
 These are equally important for the security and defence of the country.
 Improved means of transport have made travel convenient.

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 The developed means of transport have encouraged the sense of international
brotherhood and oneness.
Roadways
 India has one of the largest road networks in the world.
 India has a road network of over 4,689,842 kilometers in 2013.
 India has 79,116 km of National Highways (NH) connecting all the major cities and state
capitals as of July 2013.
 In India, roadways have preceded railways.
In India roads are classified in the following six classes:
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
 Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways link Delhi—Kolkata—Chennai, Mumbai by six lane
Super Highways.
 The North-South Corridor links Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil
Nadu).
 East-West Corridor links Silchar (Assam) and Porbandar (Gujarat).
National Highways:
 National Highways are primary road systems and are laid and are maintained by the
Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
 The historical Sher Shah Suri Marg is called the National Highway No. 1 between Delhi-
Amritsar.
 National Highway 2 is between Delhi—Kolkata.
 National Highway 3 is between Agra and Mumbai.
 National Highway 7 between Varanasi and Kanyakumari is the longest highway of India.
 National Highway 8 is between Delhi—Jaipur—Ahmedabad—Mumbai.
 National Highway 15 passes from Rajasthan.
State Highways:
Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are called State
Highways.
District Roads:
 These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the districts.
 These are maintained by Zila Parishad.
Other Roads:
Special provision is made under Pradhan Mantri Sadak Yojna so that every village in the
country may be linked to a major town by an all season motorable roads.

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Border Roads:
Border roads join the border areas with the other parts of the country, having links with
National Highways. Hence they integrate the country into a well- knit entity.
Roads can be classified on the basis of the type of material used for their construction,
(i) Metaled roads (ii) Unmetaled roads
Road density means the length of road per 100 sq. km of area. Distribution of roads is not
uniform in the country.
Railways
 In India, it is the prime mode of transportation for goods and passengers.
 The distribution patterns of the railway network have been largely influenced by
physiographic, economic and administrative factors.
Pipelines
 Pipelines transport network is a new approach in the transportation mode.
 Pipeline transport crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from oil and natural gas
fields to refineries, fertilizers factories and big thermal power plants.
 Three important network of pipeline transportation are:
(i) From oilfield in the upper Assam to Kanpur (U.P.), via Guwahati, Barauni and
Allahabad.
(ii) From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Sonipat.
(iii) Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in U.P., via Vijaypur in M.P.
Waterways
 Waterways are a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.
 It is the cheapest means of transport and best suited for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
 The following waterways are considered as the National waterways by the Government.
(i) The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km) N.W. No. 1.
(ii) The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km)—N.W. No. 2.
(iii) The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma—Komman—2, Udagmandal and
Champakkara Canals—205 km)—N.W. No. 3.
Major Seaport
 India is dotted with 12 major, 187 medium and minor ports with a long coastline of
7,516.6 km.
 These major ports handle 95% of India’s foreign trade.
 Kandla in Kuchchh was the first port developed after independence.
 Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
 Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port of the country.

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Airways
 Airways is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport.
 The air transport was nationalized in 1953. Domestic and International are two types of
airways.
 Air India provides international air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides
helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Commission in its off-shore operations; to the
inaccessible and difficult terrains of the north-eastern states; and interior parts of J & K,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
 For more than 20 years, private airlines were also allowed to operate in and outside the
country. For example: Jet Airlines, Indigo.
Communications
Communications refers to exchange of ideas, messages, and emotions, either written or
oral from one place to another. Two types of communication are:
1. Personal communication is done between two or more persons.
2. Mass communication plays a very important role in creating awareness among the people
about various national programmes and policies. Radio, television, newspapers,
magazines, books and films are major means of mass communication.
The two types of mails in India
1. First class mails are cards and envelopes. First class mails are airlifted between stations
covering both land and air.
2. Second class mails include book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. Surface
mail carries them through land and water transport.
Six mail channels have been introduced recently for quick delivery of mails in towns and cities.
Rajdhani channel, Metro channel and Green channel collect mails through specially made letter
boxes.
International Trade Of India
It has two components:
(i) Imports—Buy
(ii) Exports—Sale
The difference between the values of exports and imports is the balance of trade. The balance
of trade is said to be favourable when the value of exports exceeds that of imports. On the
converse, the balance of trade is unfavourable when the value of imports exceeds the value of
exports.
Tourism as an invisible trade
 It supports local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.

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 India earns a big amount of foreign exchange through tourism.
 Tourism industry has given employment to 1.5 crore people.