China IGCSE O level Depth Study for History

China o level septh study

1. China Foreign Relations

2. Why China forged close relations with the USSR, 1949-57 a.  Soviet Communism The USSR was the world’s first communist state, and Mao always recognised its unique place in history, and in communism; in the early years of the PRC, the USSR was China’s model for development b.  China needed Soviet economic aid Mao had no experience of industrialisation, and no resources for it, so in 1949, he signed the Treaty of Friendship; the Soviets sent experts, aid and loans – though Mao was later to feel that he had been exploited c.  Fear of the USA Especially in the early years of the PRC, Mao feared a US invasion to re-establish Chiang Kai-shek, and he needed the support of the USSR as a deterrent d.  Support in the United Nations In the UN, the USA recognised Taiwan as the legitimate government of China – only the USSR supported the cause of the PRC e.  Korea, 1950 In the Korean War, China and the USSR both supported North Korea, though the

3. Treaty of Friendship, Dec 1949 a. $300m loans and aid Though 95% of the Soviet money was in the form of loans, at a high rate of interest, plus the PRC was forced to send a substantial portion of its bullion reserves to the USSR b. 20,000 experts Though the USSR did not supply its 20,000 economic experts free; the PRC had to pay for them. Also Soviet ‘experts’ did not give independent advice, they imposed Soviet ideology … some of their advice (e.g. Lysenkoism) was rubbish c. 80,000 students The Soviets agreed to receive and train Chinese students to study science and technology in Russia d. Dalian and Lushun ports China ceded to the USSR use of two ports – Dalian and Lushun – in Manchuria e. Xinjiang mineral rights China ceded mineral rights in Xinjiang to the USSR

4.    Korean War, 1950-53 a.  Kim Il Sung, Jun 1950 In 1949, Kim Il Sung asked permission of Stalin and Mao to attack South Korea, which he did in June 1950; the UN sent troops to defend South Korea b.  People’s Volunteers, Nov 1950 By November 1950, the UN/US army under MacArthur had almost reached the Chinese border; after two warnings, 200,000 Chinese troops ('People's Volunteers') attacked – they had modern weapons supplied by Russia c.  Human Wave tactics, Dec 1950 In December 1950, 500,000 more Chinese troops entered the war, drove the Americans back (using costly 'human wave tactics'); they advanced into South Korea, but the Americans fought back to the 38th parallel d.  Chinese losses and resentment The Chinese admitted to losing 390,000 men dead, modern sources put the figure at nearly a million casualties; Mao resented that the Soviets did not commit men and made the Chinese pay for all the weapons they supplied e.  Panmunjong Truce, 1953 Only Stalin's influence was keeping China in the war; within a month of his death in 1953, the Chinese had signed a truce to end the fighting

5. Why did China break with the USSR? a.  Mao’s Moscow visit, 1949 Stalin treated Mao badly on his first visit to Moscow, housing him in a poor villa with no facilities b.  Treaty of Friendship, 1950 Mao came to resent the high cost the Treaty of Friendship and came to believe that China had been exploited by the USSR c.  Korean War, 1950-53 Mao came to resent the high cost of the war to China and came to believe that China had been exploited by the USSR d.  Ideological differences, 1957 At the Moscow Conference in 1957, Mao disagreed forcefully with Khrushchev’s policy of peaceful coexistence; Khrushchev called the Great Leap Forward ‘harebrained’ e.  Khrushchev’s Beijing visit, 1958 When Khrushchev went to Beijing to try to repair relations, Mao put him in a poor hotel without air-conditioning, and humiliated him by insisting on holding the talks in a swimming pool (Khrushchev could not swim)

6. China’s relations with the USSR, 1959-69 a.  Taiwan, 1958 Mao prepared an invasion of Taiwan, but had to back down when the USSR refused to offer even moral support b.  Albania, 1961 When the Albanian government refused to obey Moscow, the USSR withdrew its financial support; Mao stepped in and gave the Albanians money and technical aid c.  Moscow Conference, 1961 The Chinese walked out of the Conference over Albania; Khrushchev called Mao an ‘Asian Hitler’, Mao called him ‘a useless old boot’ d.  Sino-Indian War, 1962 When a border war broke out between India and China, the USSR gave fighter-planes to the Indians e.  Sino-Soviet Confrontation, 1969 In 1969 there was a series of Sino-Soviet border clashes; China and the USSR reoriented their nuclear missiles away from the USA and at each other

7. Why China’s relations with the USA were poor a.  Taiwan After the communist victory in 1949, the US continued to say that Taiwan was the legitimate government of China, and the US fleet protected Taiwan against PRC invasion b.  Korea and Vietnam Chinese forces attacked UN/US troops in Korea, and China financed and provided weapons for the North Vietnamese c.  Foreign Claims Commission, 1967 The US set up a claims commission, which (unsuccessfully) demanded restitution for assets seized in 1949 of companies such as Esso and American Express d.  The Third Front Convinced that the US intended to invade China, the Chinese built a huge network of fortifications, capable of surviving a nuclear attack, in central China e.  Anti-American propaganda Mao mocked the Americans as ‘paper tigers’, and Chinese schoolchildren every day chanted ‘Death to the American imperialists and their running dogs’

8. Why did relations with the USA improve after 1970? a.  Sino-Soviet Confrontation, 1969 In 1969 there were a series of Sino-Soviet border clashes; China and the USSR reoriented their nuclear missiles at each other – the USSR, not the USA, became China’s greatest threat b.  Lin Biao Plot, 1971 In 1971, Lin Biao’s assassination plot had a profound effect on Mao, who ended the Cultural Revolution – this made detente possible c.  Stagflation in the USA Economic problems in the USA (a combination of high inflation and economic stagnation) meant that the USA no longer had unlimited resources to fight communism all over the world – it was necessary to try detente d.  US defeat in Vietnam The US problems in Vietnam convinced Nixon that he had to abandon the war there – reconciliation with China, North Vietnam’s greatest ally, would help e.  United Nations, 1971 Seeking detente with China, the US changed its policy and the PRC became the official representative of ‘China’ at the UN; this paved the way to detente between the USA and China   

9. Closer relations with the USA from 1970 a.  Ping-pong diplomacy, 1971 After a chance meeting of two competitors at the table tennis championships in Japan, an American table tennis team went to China; other symbolic gestures followed (e.g. the Chinese sent pandas to London zoo) b.  Nixon visit, Feb 1972 In February 1972, Present Nixon spent a week visiting China c.  Shanghai Communique, 28 Feb 1972 The Chinese and US governments promised not to seek hegemony in the Pacific, and to work towards the ‘normalisation’ of relations d.  Joint Communique, 1979 This marked the formal establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries e.  Strategic Economic Dialogue, 2006 By 2006, China was a trade and military superpower, and the Strategic Economic Dialogue talks meet regularly to discuss relations

10. China’s relations with Tibet a.  Invasion, 1950 In 1950 the PRC invaded Tibet ‘to expel imperialist aggressors’; the Tibetan army of 60,000 tried to resist, but was defeated in 6 months b.  17-Point Agreement, 1951 This ‘agreement’, published without the knowledge of the Tibetan government, removed Tibet’s independence; it promised, however, not to change the Tibetan political system, religion or customs c.  Tibetan Rebellion, 1959 A Tibetan rebellion was brutally suppressed; the Dalai Lama fled to India d.  Tibetan genocide, 1959-62 The Chinese imposed Mandarin, forbade the Tibetans to grow grain or move their yak herds, and persecuted the Tibetan religion; the resultant famine killed a quarter of the population – a secret report by the Panchen Lama in 1962 accused the PRC of genocide e.  Cultural Revolution, 1966 During the Cultural Revolution, hundreds of thousands of Tibetans were killed as 'class enemies' who opposed communism

11. China’s relations with India a.   Hindi-Chin bhai-bhai , 1954-59 At first, Indian policy was ‘Indians and Chinese are brothers’; the Indians signed the Panch Shila (five principles) peaceful coexistence agreement with China, and worked hard to promote cultural exchanges b.  Dalai Lama, 1959 When the Dalai Lama fled from Tibet, the Indian government allowed him to establish a permanent base in Sikkim, in northern India c.  Sino-Indian War, 1962 War broke out over the disputed Himalayan province of Aksayquin when the Chinese built roads there; the Indians were defeated, but border disputes continued into the 1980s d.  Soviet Alliance, 1971 In 1971, India made a Treaty of Friendship with the USSR; China denounced India as ‘a tool of Soviet expansionism’ e.  Nuclear testing, 1990s Relations reached a new low when India developed nuclear missiles in the 1990s; however, although border relations remain difficult, the two countries have established extensive trade relations

12. China’s relations with Vietnam a.  Vietnam War, 1954-75 The Chinese gave huge support to the North Vietnamese, but on condition that they refused all Soviet Aid b.  Gulf of Tonkin, 1970s When oil was discovered in the Gulf of Tonkin, China and Vietnam clashed over claims to various islands there c.  Sino-Vietnamese split, 1978 The Vietnamese attacked the ethnic-Chinese Hua minority, they invaded China’s ally Cambodia in 1976, and in 1978 they signed a treaty of friendship with the USSR; China ended its aid to Vietnam d.  Sino-Vietnamese War, 1979 The Chinese army invaded and devastated North Vietnam – both sides suffered heavy casualties in the two-week campaign; border clashes continued through the 1980s e.  Comprehensive Cooperation, 2000 After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, relations improved, and in 2000 China and Vietnam signed a ‘Joint Statement for Comprehensive Cooperation’ which led to extensive trade agreements

13. China’s relations with Taiwan a.  GMD Islamic insurgency, 1950-58 Throughout the ‘fifties, the GMD waged a guerrilla war against the PRC in northern China, supplied from Taiwan b.  Taiwan Strait Crises, 1954 & 1958 Twice, relations across the Strait broke out into fighting; only the US fleet protected Taiwan from Chinese invasion c.  United Nations, 1971 Seeking detente with China, the US changed its policy and the PRC became the official representative of ‘China’ at the UN d.  The ‘Three Noes’, 1979 Under President Chiang Ching-kuo, Taiwan's policy was ‘no contact, no compromise, and no negotiation’ e.  The 1992 Consensus In 1992, Taiwan dropped its ‘one China’ policy, and – talking through arms-length organisations (SEF and ARATs) – the two countries moved from non-recognition to non-denial

14. Hong Kong a.  Liberated, 1945 Hong Kong was liberated by the British and Chinese in 1945; the PRC did not attempt to invade in 1949 b.  Refugees, 1949-62 Hong Kong grew as refugees flooded in from China – businessmen from Shanghai in 1949, starving Chinese fleeing the Great Leap Forward; Hong Kong's industry and trade grew c.  Maoist Riots, 1967 During the Cultural Revolution, Mao encouraged Hong Kong communists and there were 6 months of strikes, rioting and terrorist bombings; Zhou Enlai, however, forbade an invasion, and Hong Kong survived d.  Joint Declaration, 1982 As the end of Britain’s lease neared, to prevent economic panic, the British government promised to return Hong Kong to China, on the assurance that China’s ‘one country, two systems’ policy would preserve Hong Kong’s business and freedom e.  Transfer, 1997 Last British Governor Chris Patten handed over Hong Kong peacefully to China; Hing Kong helped to stimulate China’s economic revolution

15. How far was China a superpower at Mao’s death? a.  UN Security Council, 1971 In 1971, China became a member of the UN security Council, giving it a veto on UN decisions b.  Military power The Chinese had had the hydrogen bomb since 1967 and were a major nuclear power c.  Detente with the USA The growing ‘normalisation’ of relations with the USA after the Shanghai Communique of 1972 greatly increased China’s prestige d.  Diplomatic influence Many countries depended on Chinese aid and support, notably Chile and a number of states in Africa, where Zhou Enlai made a ten-country tour in 1963; by 1980, China did $1billion trade with Africa e.  Economic power China was economically powerful, but income per head was still limited – compared to the western world, it was still economically less-developed

16. Relations with other countries since Mao’s death a.  USSR Relations remained hostile until the collapse of the USSR, after which China established trade and diplomatic relations with Russia, culminating in the Good-Neighbourliness Treaty of 2001 b.  India Relations reached a new low when India developed nuclear missiles in the 1990s; however, although border relations remain difficult, the two countries have established extensive trade relations c.  Vietnam After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, relations improved, and in 2000 China and Vietnam signed a ‘Joint Statement for Comprehensive Cooperation’ which led to extensive trade agreements d.  Taiwan In the ‘1992 Consensus’, Taiwan dropped its ‘one China’ policy, and – talking through arms-length organisations (SEF and ARATs) – the two countries moved from non-recognition to non-denial e.  USA The 1979 Joint Communique marked the formal establishment of diplomatic relations with the USA, and China now regularly holds Strategic Economic Dialogue talks with the US to discuss relations