Classical & Operant Conditioning.pptx

classical conditioning

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING & OPERANT CONDITIONING Rani Martalisa Taorina (2216952) Rindi

2. LEARNING A B

3. WHAT IS LEARNING? Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. Involves acquiring skills/knowledge through experience. Involves conscious and unconscious processes. The behaviorist perspective explains learning in terms of observable (or inferred) stimulus and response events There are many approaches to learning. We will look at approaches that are part of behaviorism: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

4. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING What is classical conditioning? What are the components of classical conditioning? How does classical conditioning work? What are the key principles of classical conditioning?

5. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BASICS Classical conditioning – process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events. Classical conditioning involves attaching a reflexive response, originally elicited by an unconditioned stimulus to a neutral stimulus, which is then labeled conditioned Classical conditioning can be viewed as emotional conditioning: appetitive conditioning & defense conditioning Ivan Pavlov

6. COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING The Unconditioned Stimulus (US) >> is one that unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response The Unconditioned Response (UR) >> is unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned response The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) >> is previously natural stimulus that, after becoming associate with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response The Conditioned Response (CR) >> is the learned response to the previously natural stimulus

7. COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Example case: John has eaten curry for dinner. Later that evening with the curry aftertaste still remaining, he contracts stomach flu. From then on he avoids curry because it makes him queasy US : UR : CS : CR :

8. COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Example case: John has eaten curry for dinner. Later that evening with the curry aftertaste still remaining, he contracts stomach flu. From then on he avoids curry because it makes him queasy US : illness UR : nausea (disgust, dislike) CS : taste, smell, sight of curry CR : queasy feeling, disgust, dislike

9. COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Example case: Mary, a lifelong coffe drinker, gets a boost in arousal even when she drinks Sanka US : UR : CS : CR :

10. COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Example case: Mary, a lifelong coffe drinker, gets a boost in arousal even when she drinks Sanka US : ingestion of caffeine UR : arousal of nervous system CS : taste of coffee CR : arousal, pleasure

11. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BASICS Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and became intrigued with his observation that dogs deprived of food began to salivate then one of his assistants walked into the room

12. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BASICS Pavlov’s Experiment: He first observed whether the dog salivated in response to particular stimulus (such as ringing of bell) >> The dog did not salivate. Pavlov rang the bell again, bur this time he followed it with the presentation of some powdered meat >> The dog salivated. Pavlov rang the bell several more times, always presenting meat immediately afterward >> The dog salivated Pavlov rang the bell without presenting any meat >> The dog salivated The bell, to which the dog had been previously unresponsive, now led to a salivation response. That is because there had been a change of behavior, according to behaviorists, learning had taken place .

13. HOW CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WORKS Classical conditioning basically involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned response. There are three basic phases of this process:

14. HOW CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WORKS Before Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food). Unconditioned response –UCR) – a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food). Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (NS) – stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell – does not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning). The NS and UCS are paired repeatedly. Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) After Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) – stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR) – the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus. Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR)

15. KEY PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Acquisition – The initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus Example: imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell. You can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone Extinction – when the occurrences of a conditioned response decreases or disappears. This happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus Example: if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear

16. KEY PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Spontaneous recovery – the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response Example: imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the behavior and the response eventually becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, you suddenly ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the previously learned response

17. CURVE OF ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

18. DISTINGUISHING THE STIMULUS Stimulus Generalization – the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. The more similar the item, the stronger the reaction Example: Little Albert Experiment, Stimulus discrimination – the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus Example: if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. Because the subject is able to distinguish between these stimuli, he or she will only respond when the conditioned stimulus is presented.

19. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN CLASS These techniques are also useful for helping people cope with phobias or anxiety problems. Therapists might, for example, repeatedly pair something that provokes anxiety with relaxation techniques in order to create an association. Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm

20. Operant Coditioning 20

21. With his studies, Skinner designed an operant chamber, or Skinner box. To help his subjects/animals learn different behaviors, he started with shaping, which gradually guides the animal to the desired behavior The ultimate motivator in operant conditioning is a reinforcer

22. Operant conditioning is simply when organisms associate their behavior with consequences. Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called operant behavior B.F. Skinner was a pioneer in his work with operant conditioning, building off of Edward Thorndike’s law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to recur

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32. There are also two types of reinforcers: Primary reinforcer : innate stimulus, satisfying a biological need Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer : a stimulus that is learned to be positive; associated with a primary reinforcer

33. PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS Rewards to reinforce behavior can come in many forms (praise, stickers, money, toys etc ). Primary reinforcers - those that have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g. food, water, sleep, pleasure). The value of these reinforcers does not need to be learned. Secondary reinforcers – those that have no inherent value. There value is learnt and becomes reinforcing when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, a secondary reinforcer is linked with affection, a primary reinforcer. Money is only reinforcing when it can be used to buy other things such as things that satisfy basic needs (food) or other secondary reinforcers. Tokens are a secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged for other things. Token economies are used in many settings to encourage correct behavior such as prisons, schools and mental institutions.

34. REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES The best way to teach a behavior is with positive reinforcement. However, there are many ways that positive reinforcement can be administered. Continuous reinforcement – when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior. Quickest way to teach a behavior. E.g. a dog receives a treat every time it sits when told to. Timing is important - the treat must be presented immediately after sitting in order for the dog to associate the target behavior with the consequence. However, if the trainer suddenly stops providing treats, the dog will stop sitting so another type of reinforcement is then used once the behavior is learnt. Partial reinforcement – the organism does not get reinforced everytime they display the desired behavior (they are reinforced intermittently). There are several types of partial reinforcement schedules.

35. Reinforcement Schedules   There are several different ways a reinforcer can be administered Each technique offers a different reinforcement schedule: Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired behavior every time it happens Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing the behavior only part of the time (slower acquisition, but more likely to last longer than continuous reinforcement)

36. Fixed-Ratio schedule : reinforce behavior after a set number of responses Variable-Ratio : reinforces the behavior after an unpredictable number of responses Fixed-interval ratio : reinforces behavior after a set amount of time has gone by Variable: interval ratio : a schedule that reinforces behavior at unpredictable time intervals

37. PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCALES Fixed vs Variable Fixed – the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging. Variable – the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements varies or changes. Interval vs Ratio Interval – the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements. Ratio – the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements. Fixed interval – reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (patients take pain relief medication at set times). Variable interval – reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (checking facebook). Fixed ratio – reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (facotry workers being paid for every x number of items manufactured). Variable ratio – reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling).

38. PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES Variable interval schedule - unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., restaurant manager). Fixed interval schedule - yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., surgery patient). The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. Variable ratio schedule - unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambler). Fixed ratio schedule - predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass saleswoman).

39. CLASSICAL VS OPERANT CONDITIONING Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Conditioning approach An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation). The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future. Stimulus timing The stimulus occurs immediately before the response. The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.