COMMON DISEASES.power point presentation

health care support services

1. COMMON
DISEASES
1

2. ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN
BODY
2

3. •Read on
–anatomical structures.
–Body organs and their functions
3

4. ANATOMICAL POSITIONS,PLANES AND
DIRECTIONS
•In anatomy, the term "position" is often described using a
combination of directional and locational terms to precisely
identify where a particular anatomical structure is located
within the body or in relation to other structures.
4

5. Anterior:
Refers to the front or forward-facing side of the
body.

6. Posterior:
Referring to the back or rear-facing side of the
body.

7. Superior:
Referring to a structure being above or higher in
position.

8. Inferior:
Referring to a structure being below or lower in
position.

9. Proximal:
Referring to a structure being closer to the point of
reference or the trunk of the body.

10. Distal
Referring to a structure being farther away from the
point of reference or the trunk of the body.

11. Medial:
Referring to a structure being closer to the midline
or center of the body.

12. Lateral:
Referring to a structure being farther away from the
midline or toward the sides of the body.

13. Superficial:
Referring to a structure being closer to the surface
of the body.

14. Deep:
Referring to a structure being deeper within the
body, away from the surface

15. Dorsal:
Referring to the upper side or back of an organism.

16. Ventral:
Referring to the lower side or belly of an organism.

18. HUMAN CELL STRUCTURE
COMPONENTS
18

19. CELL: Structure and function

20. INTRODUCTION
•Basic unit of life.
•Self replicating structure
•The first cells were observed
and named by Robert Hooke in
1665 from slice of cork.
•Some organisms consist of a single cells = unicellular
organism, others are multi-cellular.
•Diameter- 2-120µm.

22. CELL THEORY
•Proposed by Matthais Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
in 1839:-
-All living things are made up of cells.
-Cells are the smallest working unit of all living things.
-All cells come from pre-existing
cells through cell division.

23. CONSTITUENTS
Different substances that make a cell are collectively called
Protoplasm.
Protoplasm is composed of :-
1)Water - 70-80% Water is present in cell.
2)Carbohydrates
3)Lipids
4)Proteins
5)Electrolyte - Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Calcium (Ca2+),
Phosphate , Chloride (Cl-), and Bicarbonate (HC03 - ).

24. Subcellular Structures
Major Structures Present in a cell are :-
•Cell Membrane
•Cytoplasm and its Organelles
•Nucleus

25. Cell Membrane
•Thin pliable elastic outermost
structure which envelops the cell.
•It consists of bi-lipid layer with
embedded proteins that are-
i)Integral Proteins
ii)Peripheral proteins

26. Functions of Cell Membrane
•Protective:- Forms outermost boundary of the cell organelles.
•Transport:- Takes in food and excretes waste products.
•Selective Permeability:- a)Non-Polar Molecules- Gases (like O
2 ,CO
2, N
2 ), Lipids ,
Steroid Hormones, Alcohols can dissolve in the non –polar regions of the membrane
and move rapidly across the membrane.
b)Polar molecules:- H
2O soluble ions , Glucose, urea etc. have much lower solubility
. Therefore Penetrate the membrane much more slowly.
•

27. •b)Chemical and Physical Properties of membrane control the
free passage of ions in and out of cell. This property helps in
maintaining components in ICF and ECF.

27

28. •Links adjacent cells together by junctional complexes to form tissues.

•Insulating Properties:- It acts as dielectric material of a charged
condenser, thus cell membrane have very high insulating value

29. CYTOPLASM
AND
ITS ORGANELLES

30. CYTOPLASM
•Thick, gel-like semitransparent fluid that is found in both plant and animal cell.
• The constituent parts of cytoplasm are
cytosol, cell organelles and cytoplasmic
inclusions.
•Bounded by the plasma membrane, and
contains many organelles in a eukaryotic
cell (cell containing
membrane bounded nucleus).

31. Cytosol
• The cytosol, the aqueous part of the cytoplasm outside all of the organelles, also
contains its own distinctive proteins.
•It accounts for almost 70% of the total cell volume.
•Gelatinous substance consisting mainly of cytoskeleton filaments, organic
molecules, salt and water.
• Chemically, the cytoplasmic matrix is composed of many chemical elements in the
form of atoms, ions and molecules.

32. Organelles
•Following organelles are present in the Cytoplasm:-
i)Mitochondria ii)Endoplasmic Reticulum
iii)Lysosomes iv)Golgi Apparatus
v)Peroxisomes vi)Vacuole
•Each organelle is bounded by a lipid membrane, and has specific functions.

33. Mitochondria
•The mitochondria were first observed by Kolliker in 1850 as granular structures in the striated muscles.
• Mitochondria are called the 'powerhouse of the cell'.
STRUCTURE-
•Length- 5-12µm Diameter- 0.5-1µm


•Filamentous or globular in shape.

34. •Components of Mitochondria are -


i)Outer Membrane
ii)Inner Membrane
iii)Intermediate Space- space between outer and inner membranes
iv)Cristae-Infoldings of inner membrane
v)Matrix- The space enclosed by inner membrane
•The membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins

35. •Outermost Membrane-
a)It contains large numbers of
 integral membrane proteins called 
Porins. These porins form channels
that allow molecules of 5000
 daltons or less to pass.
b)Studded with enzymes concerned with biological oxidation .
•Interior (Matrix) of the Mitochondria
contains enzymes concerned with ‘citric
acid cycle’ and ‘respiratory chain oxidation’.
•Major metabolic pathways involved in
oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids and part of special biosynthetic pathways
involving urea and heme synthesis are located in inner matrix.

36. •Inner Membrane :
It contains ATPase and other enzymes concerned with synthesis and
metabolism of ATP.
Contains enzymes of Electron Transport Chain.
•The ultimate purpose of these mechanisms is oxidative phosphorylation
and synthesis of ATP.
•Mitochondria has some protein synthesized by Mitochondrial DNA.

37. Functions

•Power generating units of the cells.
•Important to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within the various
compartments of the cell.
•Energy transduction through respiration.
•Responsible for thermogenesis.

38. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm.
•An extensive network of closed,
flattened membrane-bounded sacs
called cisternae .
•Space inside the tubules
is filled with Endoplasmic Matrix.

39. •TWO TYPES-
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Ribosomes absent
Site of synthesis of lipid and steroid
hormones.
Mainly present in lipid forming cells such
as adipocytes , interstitial cells of testis,
glycogen storing cells of liver, adrenal
cortex cells, muscle cells, leucocytes etc.
Contains ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis , processing and
packaging.
Mainly present in protein forming cells
such as pancreatic acinar cells ,Goblet cells
,antibody producing plasma cells, Nissl’s
granules of nerve cells etc.

40. Function
•Synthesis of proteins.
•Protein segregation.
•Unsaturation of fatty acid.
•Muscle contraction.ER is commomly known as Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in muscle
fibers.

41. Golgi Bodies
•Golgi Bodies is a collection of membrane enclosed sacs composed of four or more stacked
layers of thin, flat enclosed vessels lying near the side of the nucleus.
•Consist of multiple discrete
compartments.
•Consist of four functionally
distinct regions:
i)The cis Golgi network ii)Golgi stack –
which is divided into - a) The
medial and - b) Trans sub
compartments iii)The trans
Golgi network.

42. Function
•Wrapping and Packaging department of the cell.
•Produces secretion granules i.e. membrane enclosed complexes, which store hormones
and enzymes in the protein secreting cells, it packages proteins.
•Site of formation of lysosomes i.e. large irregular structures surrounded by membrane
which are present in the cytoplasm.
•It adds certain carbohydrates to form glycoproteins, which play an important role in the
association of the cells to form tissues

43. Lysosomes
•Diameter- 250 -750nm
•These are the irregular structures
surrounded by the unit membrane.

•More acidic than rest of the cytoplasm
and external bacteria
as well as worn out
cell
components
are digested in them.
•The interior is kept acidic(near pH 5.0) by the
action of proton pump or H
+
or ATPase.


• Lysosomes are cell hydrolases and they function best at the acidic pH.

44. Functions
•Acts as a form of digestive (lytic ) system or the cell, because enzymes present in it
can digest essentially all macromolecules.
•Engulf worn out components of the cells in which they are located.
•Engulf exogenous substances e.g. bacteria and degrade them.
•When a cell dies ,lysosomal enzymes causes autolysis of the remanant . Thats why
lysosomes are called as Suicidal Bags.

45. Peroxisomes
•Diameter- 0.5µm
•A lipid bilayer membrane surrounds
which regulates what enters or exits the
peroxisomes.
•Urate oxidase crystalline core.
•Structure is similar to that of the lysosomes but
with a different chemical composition .
•Peroxisomes can be formed by the budding of ER, or by division

46. Contd.
•Contains oxidases that produces H
2O
2.
•Catalases degrades hydrogen peroxide to yield water and oxygen
•Proteins are directed to the Peroxisomes by a unique signal sequence with the
help of protein chaperones, Peroxins.

47. Function
•H
2O
2 metabolism and detoxification
•Helps in Photorespiration in plants
•Biosynthesis of lipids .
•Cholesterol and dolichol are synthesized in animals.
•Synthesis of bile acids in liver.
•Synthesis of plasmalogens ( myelin sheath).

48. Cytoskeleton
•System of fibers that not only maintains the structure of the cell but also permit it to
change shape and move.
•The cytoskeleton is made up primarily of:-
i)Microtubules
ii)Intermediate Filaments
iii)Microfilaments
along with protein that anchor and tie
them together.

49. •Microtubules- These are long hollow structures approx. 25nm in diameter.
Determine shape of the cell, role in the contraction of the spindle and movement of
chromosomes and centrioles as well as in ciliary and flagellar motion.
•Microfilaments- They are long solid fibers 4-6 nm in diameter. They comprise the
contractile protein actin and are responsible for the cell motion.

50. •Intermediate Filaments- They are 8-14nm in diameter and are made up
of various subunits. They form a flexible scaffolding or cell and help it
resist external pressure.
In their absence cell ruptures more easily and when they are abnormal in
human, blistering in common.
•The proteins that makeup intermediate filament are cell types specific
and are thus frequently used as cellular markers.
50

51. Function
They are involved in the:-
•Movement of the chromosomes
•Cell movement
•Processes that move secretion granules in the cell
•Movement of proteins within the cell membrane.

52. NUCLEUS

53. The Nucleus
•The nucleus contains chromatin, RNAs, and nuclear proteins move freely in aqueous
solution.
•Nucleus has an internal structure that
organizes the genetic maaterial
and localizes nuclear functions.
• A loosely organized matrix of
nuclear lamins extends from the
nuclear lamina into the interior of
the nucleus.

54. Contd.
•These lamins serve as sites of chromatin attachment and
organize other proteins into functional nuclear bodies.
•Chromatin within the nucleus is organized into large loops of DNA, and specific
regions of these loops are bound to the lamin matrix by lamin-binding proteins in
the chromatin.

55. Nuclear Envelope
•Complex structure consisting of two nuclear membranes, an underlying nuclear lamina, and
nuclear pore complexes.
•Two concentric membranes, called the

inner and outer nuclear membranes .
•The outer membrane is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum, so the space between
the inner and outer nuclear membranes is
directly connected with the lumen of the
endoplasmic reticulum.

56. Contd.
•Nuclear membrane is permeable only to small nonpolar molecules.
•Underlying the inner nuclear membrane is the nuclear lamina, a fibrous
meshwork that provides structural support to the nucleus.

57. Function
•Serves both as the repository of genetic information and as the cell's control center.
•The presence of a nucleus thus allows gene expression to be regulated by
posttranscriptional mechanisms, such as alternative splicing.
•The nuclear envelope provides novel opportunities for the control of gene expression
at the level of transcription.

58. Summary
COMPARTMENTS
•Plasma Membrane
•Cytosol
•Mitochondria
•Endoplasmic Reticulum
•Golgi apparutus
•Lysosomes
•Peroxisomes
•Cyotoskeleton
•Nucleus
MAJOR FUNCTIONS
•Transport of ions and molecules
•Metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids and amino
acids
•Energy production
•Synthesis of proteins and lipids
•Modification and sorting of proteins
•Cellular digestion
•Utilization of H
2O
2
•Cell Morphology and cell motility
•DNA synthesis and Repair

59. COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
59

60. Introduction
•Communicable Diseases are the major causes of morbidity and
mortality.
•Main causes of morbidity and mortality in emergencies are
diarrheal diseases, acute respiratory infections, measles and in
areas where it is endemic malaria.

61. Introduction
•Other communicable diseases that have also in the past caused
epidemics amongst population affected by emergencies are
meningococcal disease, tuberculosis and typhus.
•Malnutrition and trauma are additional causes of illness and
death amongst populations affected by communicable diseases.

62. Definitions
•Communicable Disease is one that can transmitted from one
person to another and is caused by an infectious agent that is
transmitted from a source or reservoir to a susceptible host.
•Infectious diseases is one that caused by infectious agent.

63. •Outbreak
•occurrence of new cases of a disease clearly in excess of the
•baseline frequency of the disease in a defined community over
a
•given time period
•point source outbreak: an outbreak due to
•exposure of a group of people to a noxious influence that is
•common to the individuals in the group

64. •The exposure is brief and essentially simultaneous, resultant
cases all develop within 1 incubation period of the disease
propagated outbreak: an outbreak where there are multiple
exposures over a period of time, from host to host (directly or
indirectly), resulting in cases that are not within1 incubation
period
64

65. •Epidemic
•occurrence, in a community or region, of a group of illnesses of a
similar nature in excess of normal expectancy
•Endemic
•habitual presence of a disease or agent within a geographic area
based on the usual prevalence of a given disease within such an
area
•Pandemic
•an epidemic which is worldwide in distribution

66. •Host
•person/animal that affords subsistence to an infectious agent
under natural conditions
•Carrier
• person/animal that harbors a specific infectious agent in the
absence of discernible clinical disease and serves as a potential
source of infection
66

67. •Fomite
•contaminated substance (not necessarily a reservoir) serving as an
intermediate means of transport for an infectious agent
•Reservoir
•anything (living or inert) in which an infectious agent lives and
multiplies in such a manner that it can be transmitted to a susceptible
host

68. •Vector
•invertebrate animal capable of transmitting an infectious
agent to vertebrates.
•Virulence
•ability of an infectious agent to cause severe or fatal
infections
68

69. •IMMUNITY
•active
•• altered organism or its product induces a host to produce
antibodies (e.g. natural measles infection or live vaccine)
•Passive
•protective antibodies produced by another host which are
introduced into susceptible persons (e.g. natural transplacental
IgG from mother to infant)

70. Inherent
• Endogenous production of antibody
herd
•Expression used to describe immunity of a group or community resistance
of a group to an infectious agent based on the immunity of many
individuals in the group implies transmission interruption when < 100% of
group is immune due to separation of few susceptibles
70

71. Transmission of Infectious Agents
Transmission refers to any mechanism by which an
infectious agent is spread from a source or reservoir to a
person.
–Reservoir.
–Mode of infection.
–Susceptible host.

72. Six Factors furthering process
•Agent
•Reservoir
•Portal of exit
•Mode of transmission
•Portal of entry
•Susceptible host

73. •Term source and reservoir may be the same for many organisms but are not
always synonymous
For example
73
Infection Source Reservoir
Tetanus Soil Soil
Hookwor
m
Soil contaminated
with the larva of
hookworm
Man
Typhoid Contaminated food
and water
Case or carrier

74. •Reservoir (and/or source) may be of three types:
Human reservoir
Animal reservoir
Non-living things as reservoir
74

75. Human Reservoir
•Human sources may be either cases or carriers
•Cases or patients: Persons in a given population having a particular
disease
•Carrier: Persons who harbor the infectious agent in the absence of any
clinical symptoms and shed the organism from the body via contact, air
or secretions
•Carriers are less infectious than cases, but often go undetected and
continue to transmit the infection for a long period. Eg: Typhoid Mary
75

76. Types of Carriers
Incubatory carriers: Shed the organism during the incubation period of the
disease
•e.g. measles, mumps, polio, diphtheria, pertussis, hepatitis B, influenza, etc
Healthy carriers: Subclinical cases who develop into carriers without
suffering from overt disease
•e.g. polio, cholera, salmonellosis, diphtheria, meningococcal meningitis, etc
Convalescent carrier: Who has recovered from the disease and continues to
harbor and shed the pathogen from his body
76

77. Depending on the duration of carriage:
Temporary carriers: Shed the organisms for less than six months
•Incubatory, healthy and convalescent carriers are actually the types of
temporary carriers
Chronic carriers: Shed the organisms for indefinite period
•e.g. in hepatitis B, typhoid fever, malaria, gonorrhoea, etc.
77

78. Animal reservoir
•Disease and the infections which are transmitted to man from vertebrates
are called zoonoses
•Common examples include:
•From animals: Rabies (from dog), leptospirosis (from rodents), influenza
(from pigs)
•Birds: influenza, histoplasmosis
**Amplifying host: Vertebrate reservoir in which the organism
multiplies exponentially
e.g. pigs in Japanese B encephalitis
78

79. Non-living Things as Reservoir
•Soil and inanimate matter can also act as reservoir/source of infection
•for example, soil may harbor the agents of tetanus, anthrax and some
intestinal helminths such as Trichuris, hookworm and Ascaris
79

80. Mode of Transmission
1. Contact:
•most common mode of transmission
a. Direct contact: via skin and mucosa of an infected person, e.g. through an
unclean hand, kissing, or sexual contact
•Organisms transmitted by direct contact include agents of common cold, skin and
eye infections and agents of sexually transmitted infections
b. Indirect contact: through fomites
•contaminated by a pathogen and act as a vehicle for its transmission
•e.g. face towels shared by various persons may lead to spread of Trachoma
80

81. 2. Inhalation:
•Transmission through respiratory route occurs either
a. Droplet Transmission:
•Respiratory droplets are large-particles (>5 μm in size) generated during
coughing, sneezing or talking
•transmission via large droplets requires close contact (<3 feet)
•Agents transmitted through droplets include:
•Bacterial agents/diseases: Diphtheria, H. influenzae, meningococcus,
pertussis
•Viral agents/diseases: COVID-19, influenza, rubella
81

82. b. Aerosol Transmission:
•Aerosols are small-particles (<5 μm) generated by an infectious person
during coughing, sneezing, talking or while performing certain aerosol
generating procedures (e.g. intubation)
•smaller droplets remain suspended in air for long period of time and may
disperse to a distant place along the air current
•Infectious agents that are transmitted through aerosols include:
•Mycobacterium tuberculosis
•Measles virus
•Varicella virus
•Smallpox virus
82

83. 3. Ingestion:
•transmitted by ingestion, either through contaminated water or food
•Food-borne infections occur mostly through carriers engaged in handling or
preparation of food and contaminating the foodstuffs
•Examples:
•Intestinal infections: cholera, dysentery, diarrheagenic E. coli and intestinal
parasitic infections and viral agents of gastroenteritis
•Extraintestinal infections: Salmonella Typhi, hepatitis A and E viruses,
poliovirus, hydatid disease and cysticercosis
83

84. 4. Inoculation:
•Pathogens may be inoculated directly into the skin or tissues of the host
•Animal bite: rabies virus is inoculated directly by the bite of a rabid animal
•Inoculated directly into tissue: spores of Clostridium tetani present in the
soil, get deposited directly into the host tissues following severe wounds
leading to tetanus
84

85. 5. Blood-borne Transmission:
•Blood-borne infections, such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV may be
transmitted by:
Needle prick and other sharp injuries
Blood transfusion
Intravenous drug abuse (contaminated needles)
85

86. 6. Vector Borne transmission:
•Arthropod vectors, such as mosquitoes, flies, ticks, mite and lice are the
vectors that transmit many diseases
•Vectors may be of two types:
Mechanical vectors: carry the microorganisms
(do not multiply) and transmit them to the
eatables
Biological vectors: pathogen multiplies in the body of the vector, often
undergo part of a development cycle in it
•e.g. female Anopheles mosquito in malaria; Culex mosquito in filariasis
86

87. 7. Vertical Transmission:
Transplacental transmission: Infection transmitted via the placental barrier can
lead to abortion, miscarriage or stillbirth
•If babies are born, they suffer from congenital malformations (teratogenic
infections)
•Toxoplasma gondii
•Others (Treponema pallidum, varicella-zoster
virus, parvovirus, zika virus)
•Rubella virus
•Cytomegalovirus
•Herpes simplex virus
87

88. Transmission via the birth canal: without causing congenital
malformation in the baby
Examples:
•Group B Streptococcus
•Neisseria gonorrhoeae
•Chlamydia trachomatis
•Listeria
•Hepatitis B, C
•HIV
88

89. Host factors
89

90. •Host refers to the human who can get the disease
Age:
•Most viral infections are common at extremes of age, i.e. childhood and
old age
•STDs are common among young adults
Gender:
•Sex differences in infectious diseases in humans may be due to social,
behavioural, sexual practices and genetic factors
•Women are at greater risk of acquiring HIV and gonorrhea from sexual
intercourse with an infected partner, as compared to men
90

91. Pregnancy:
•Certain diseases are common in pregnancy such as transplacental
infections (e.g. CMV, rubella) or infection through birth canal such as S.
agalactiae infection
Host immune status:
•Low immunity predisposes to many infections, such as CMV
Prior immunity:
•Prior immunity to the agent due to vaccination or past infection can protect
the individual from further infection
91

92. Nutritional status:
•Malnutrition lowers the host immunity and thus predisposes to many viral
infections, e.g. measles
Underlying comorbid disease:
•People with diabetes, immunodeficiency disorders or receiving steroid
therapy
Occupational status:
•Sometimes, infectious diseases are more common in certain occupations;
example, zoonotic diseases such as anthrax are common among butchers
and farmers
92

93. Sexual practices:
•People with polygamous habit are more prone to develop various sexually-
transmitted infections such as HIV
Hygiene:
•Poor hygiene, poor sanitation, over-crowding, etc. predispose for several
diseases such as acute diarrheal illness and typhoid fever
Genetic makeup:
•Certain individuals are more prone to develop some microbial infections
This depends on the genetic makeup of the individual
93

94. Environmental factors
94

95. •Environmental factors play an important role in disease causation
Seasonality:
•Many diseases are common in winter such as influenza and meningococcal
meningitis
•Vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue are more common in rainy
season which parallels with mosquito breeding
Disinfectants:
•Organisms which are more resistant to the action of disinfectant can
survive in the environment for longer
•Important in hospital environment where the multidrug resistant organisms
such as Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and Klebsiella, etc. are widely
prevalent
95

96. Soil:
•Damp, sandy or friable soil with vegetation is suitable for certain soil-
transmitted helminths such as Hookworm, Ascaris and Trichuris
Moisture:
•Moisture is necessary for the survival of most microbes as dryness is
rapidly fatal
96

97. Emerging Infectious Diseases
Emerging infectious diseases are diseases that have appeared
for the first time or that have occurred before appeared in
populations where they have not previously been reported.

98. Reemerging Infectious Diseases
Reemerging infectious diseases are familiar diseases caused
by well-understood organisms that were once under control
or declining but now are resistant to common drugs or
gaining new footholds in the population and increasing in
incidence.

99. Fundamental principles of Control of Communicable Diseases
•Rapid Assessment
•Prevention
•Surveillance
•Outbreak Control
•Disease Management

100. Modern Conditions that Favor the Spread of
Infectious Diseases
1.Global travel
2.Globalization of food supply and centralization of food
processing
3.Population growth, increased urbanization and overcrowding
4.Migration due to wars, famines, and natural disasters

101. Modern Conditions that Favor the Spread of
Infectious Diseases
5.Irrigation, deforestation, and reforestation projects that alter
habitats
6.Human behaviors, such as IV drug use and risky sexual
behavior
7.Increased use of antimicrobial agents and pesticides
8.Increased human contact with wilderness habitats

102. Prevention of communicable diseases:-
Communicable diseases can be prevented by appropriate
preventive measures which include:
•Good site planning
•Provision of basic clinical services
•Provision of appropriate shelter
•Clean water supply
•Sanitation
•Mass vaccination against specific diseases
•Regular and sufficient food supply
•Control of vectors

103. Primary Prevention
•Increasing the resistance of the host
•Inactivating the agent
•Interrupt the chain of infection
•Restricting spread of infection
–isolation
–quarantine
–segregation
–personal surveillance

104. •Activities targeted at detecting disease at earliest possible
time to:
–begin treatment
–stop progression
–protect others in the community
•Examples of activities: case finding, health screening,
health education

105. Tertiary Prevention
•Limits the progression of
disability
•Treatment of symptoms and
rehabilitation vary with
each specific disease

106. Surveillance
•Surveillance is the ongoing systematic collection,analysis and
interpretation of data in order to plan, implement and evaluate
public health intervention.
Surveillance system should be simple, flexible, acceptable.

107. Outbreak Control
•An outbreak is occurrence of a number of cases of a disease that is
unusually large or unexpected for a given place and time.
Outbreaks and epidemics refer to the one and same thing.
Outbreaks in emergency situations can spread rapidly giving rise to
high morbidity and mortality rates.
Aim should be to detect and control the outbreak as early as
possible.

108. Steps in the management of a communicable Steps in the management of a communicable
disease outbreakdisease outbreak
•Preparation
•Detection
•Response
•Evaluation

109. Preparation for the outbreakPreparation for the outbreak
•Health coordination meetings
•Strong surveillance system
•Outbreak response plan for each disease
•Stocks of iv fluids, antibiotics and vaccines
•Plans for isolation wards
•Laboratory support

110. Detection of outbreakDetection of outbreak
•Surveillance system with early warning system for
epidemic prone diseases.
•Inform ministry of health and WHO in case of outbreaks of
specific diseases.
•Take appropriate specimens (stool, CSF or serum) for
laboratory confirmation.
•Include case in the weekly report.

111. Response to the outbreakResponse to the outbreak
•Confirm the outbreak
•Activate the outbreak control team
•Investigate the outbreak
•Control the outbreak

112. Evaluation Evaluation
•Assess appropriateness and effectiveness of
containment measures.
•Assess timelines of outbreak detection and response.
•Change public health policy if indicated.
•Write and disseminate outbreak report.

113. Global Disease Eradication Efforts
Methods to accomplish the goal of eradication of diseases
include:
–immunization and vaccination
–drug therapy
–community training
–health education
–national disease surveillance efforts

114. examples
7 diseases have been targeted
for eradication in early 21st
century:
–polio
–measles
–leprosy
–river blindness
–Chagas’ disease
–guinea worm disease
–lymphatic filariasis

115. Nurses’ Role
Community health nurses play an important role with regarded to all
population at risk for communicable disease
Nurses concerned with communicable disease control must
•Recognize who at risk
•Where the reservoirs and source of infectious disease agents are located
•What environmental factors promote the spread

116. •What comprise the characteristic of vulnerability of community
member and groups-particularly those subject to intervention
•Community health nurses must work collaboratively with other
public health professional to establish immunization and
educational programs , to improve community infection control
policies , and to develop abroad range of services to population
at risk

117. 117