Concept formation, construct and learning

This ppt deals with concept, concept formation, scheme pictures, mental representations, learning from real life experiences, learning from work experiences, factors affecting learning , learning styles, media and technology in learning, teaching strategies, community learning, professional traits of a teacher and so on.

1. CONCEPT BY Dr.S.JERSLIN

2. CONCEPT Concepts (e.g., faces and objects) are units of mental representation that assign certain perceptual features to spacing conceptual categories . Early in development, we learn to differentiate between living and nonliving objects, based on our ability to generate self motion . This process becomes more complex as we learn to differentiate sub categories within these categories of living and nonliving objects. Knowledge organized into such categories is encoded and stored in long-term memory and retrieved during action . https ://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/concept-formation

3. CONCEPT FORMATION Number : by the age 6 or 7, children’s understanding of one-to-one correspondence is complete. For example, school age children realize that six remains six whether it is represented as 5+1, 9-3 or six stars . Time : until age 8, children have difficulty placing events in their appropriate time sequence. Units of time (minutes, hours, years etc.) have little meaning to them. After age 8, children have a more precise understanding of time passage. They are usually able to classify past and future events according to how recently they occurred. Spatial( 3D) Operations : Children have difficulty understanding distance before they reach school age because they don’t comprehend the basic units of measurement (miles, feet, km etc.). The ability to navigate within a new environment develops slowly during the school years. Young school children lose their spatial sense easily in unfamiliar and complex spaces.

4. Con… Older children can draw a map of area if they have had the chance to thoroughly explore the space, but even 10 year olds have trouble creating a cognitive map of an environmental space in order to give directions or locate an object ( Siegal 1989 ) 2 . Classifications: Class inclusion or addition of classes is well developed in school age children. They are able to form class hierarchies and to understand that all things have multiple identities. By age 6 or 7 most children can understand multiplication of classes. A 7-8 year old child in the stage of concrete operations can sort cutouts in two shapes and two colors into appropriate groups. Seriation (arranging) : In addition to classifying and grouping objects, school-age children are capable of sequencing and ordering objects with respect to some measurable dimension, such as weight or size. This process is called seriation . chrome-extension:// efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj /https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20752/1/Unit-2.pdf

5. Concept Formation (Knowledge) Concept formation refers to a higher-order mental process that acts on information that has been perceived through our sensory organs and encoded and stored in memory. This process includes organization of the information into conceptual categories and the use of such knowledge in reasoning, problem solving, goal selection, and planning. Through the process of categorization, infants and young children begin to form concepts about objects, people, and actions. For instance, early in development, infants learn to categorize faces as familiar and unfamiliar. As discussed in an earlier section, infants are seen to spend more time attending to faces that are familiar, such as the mother (Bushnell et al., 1989). This indicates that infants have already begun to categorize faces according to their perceived familiarity.

6. KEY ELEMENTS OF CONCEPT FORMATION Key elements of concept formation are the processes of grouping and differentiation. Grouping involves the clustering of information into larger units, a process known as “chunking ” (Gentile, 2000). Chunking helps the system function more efficiently because the performer has to attend to groups of information rather than each piece of information separately. The benefits of chunking perhaps can be seen best through an example: Consider a child walking through his classroom to his teacher. In performing this task, he encounters numerous toys strewn across the floor, furniture placed all over the room and a few peers running around in the classroom. The process of chunking allows the grouping of all stimuli into stationary and moving objects ; this way the child can perceive the movement of his peers as a unit rather than attend to the movement of each child individually. Grouping reduces the attention demands of the task and allows the child to allocate his attention to additional stimuli (furniture) that are important.

7. Differentiation, Differentiation, on the other hand, refers to the process through which performers perceive more detail in an array of stimuli as they become more familiar with it.   As the child begins to learn to walk, he will likely not perceive the subtle(understand) differences in the speed of movement of the moving objects in the environment. With experience, he will learn to distinguish between stimuli related to other children either walking or running.

8. SCHEMA Piaget used several new terms drawn from his background as a biologist like- schemata, assimilation, accommodation, adaptation and equilibration. We will now try to understand the implications of each of these. The Schema : As children experience their world, they develop an understanding of it and how it appears to work. Piaget used the term 'schema' to refer to the comprehension that an infant, child, or adult may have about different aspects of his or her world. The word 'schema' is derived from a Greek word which means 'form'. A schema is like a map or an outline. Piaget believed that children develop schemata, or schematic outlines of what the world about them is like, and that these schemata are maintained in the memory. He believed that because of a child's lesser experience and because the child's brain is not fully developed biologically, the child's schema of the world will be qualitatively different from an adult's. Thus children are not merely adults who know less, and conversely, adults are not simply knowledgeable children.

9. Adaptation Adaptation: During cognitive growth, children develop their schemata and continue to adapt to their environments . Adaptation refers to adjustments to changes in the environment, or the ability to understand and fit in with one's surroundings. Chameleons 'adapt' to their environment when they change color to fade into the environment. We adapt to the coldness of winter by wearing cardigans(woolen jacket) to keep us warm . We change our mode and tone of speech according to the person to whom we talk. Adaptation is thus the basic process of all human activity. It consists of the twin processes of assimilation and accommodation.

10. Assimilation ( adaptation) Assimilation (integration) refers to the act of taking in information and perceptions in a way that is compatible with the person's current schema of the world . In other words, it means 'construing reality' . A baby assimilates when he or she reaches for a toy. In Piaget's language, he assimilates the toy to his reaching scheme. A child assimilates when he classifies a new object as a suitcase or a vase. Switching on the fan when it is very hot in order to cool-off is also an act of assimilation . Classifying a person as someone with leadership potential is also indicative of assimilation.

11. Accommodation Accommodation refers to the process by which a person adjusts or changes his or her schema to incorporate aspects of an experience not currently represented in his cognitive structure. In other words, it means modifying one's strategies or concepts as a result of assimilation of new experiences or information. So when the baby changes the way he holds his hand as he reaches for round objects as opposed to square ones, he has accommodated. Changing one's concept of leadership after talking to several people with leadership potential is also an act of accommodation.

12. Equilibration Equilibration: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation is known as 'equilibration'. By equilibration, Piaget meant a hypothesized drive to maintain an equilibrium between one's schema and the information one obtains from the world. A child shows equilibration when he gives up one learning strategy that may work fairly well for one that works better, such as, moving from rote memorization to conceptual learning while studying for exams. A researcher shows equilibration when he gives up -an old theory because the evidence refutes(disprove) it, and builds a new theory that handles the evidence better. Piaget believed, that there is an inner force that drives individuals to actively pursue cognitive adaptation which is referred to as equilibration. This force is what eventually propels an individual forward through the stages of cognitive development.

13. Concept Map               It is a great use having the concept map in explaining the general principles formed out of many related ideas.  Concept map is also used to explain the mutual relationships existing between the various general principles .  The relationship between various ideas put forth in a lesson and the way they lead to the general principles are understood with the help of concept map .

14. Con… C oncept map helps to understand how the different general principles are themselves related.  It is very useful in preparing a classified summary of the ideas learnt in a lesson. Here, in the concept map, starting from a general principle, every idea has to be put in a hierarchical order. ‘Linkage’ and Cross Linkage’ between the different general principles are to be indicated.   In preparing the lesson for his class, the teacher is helped to a large extent by this concept map. The students can be given concept map as a follow-up activity .  So that it forms stimulated home assignment .  The analytical thinking is students in promoted by it and their learning become comprehensive and meaningful.  Thus, concept map is a helpful tool in the learning process . UNIT 3

15. REAL LIFE EXPERIENCES-CONCEPT FORMATION The first stage in cognitive development , according to Piaget, is the sensory-motor period, which lasts till two years of age. During this period, the infant understands events and experiences using her senses and motor capacities. She is not able to think in terms of concepts . By the end of this period, the infant develops a fairly good understanding of her surroundings-she recognizes many people, understands that her actions can have an effect and develops an idea of what she is capable of doing. Memory grows, language develops and the infant is able to plan her actions. She learns why things happen the way they do and forms an idea about the world around her.

16. Con… The sensory-motor period is divided into six sub stages , four of which have been discussed here. During the first sub stage ( from birth to one month ) the infant is able to use her reflexes and an elementary form of learning begins through generalization and discrimination . During the second sub stage ( from one to four months ) the infant begins to show curiosity and visually explores the surroundings . She begins to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people. She also imitates some actions.

17. Con… During the third sub stage (4-8 months ) the infant seems to realize that her actions can have an effect on people and things . Her actions become intentional and she understands cause and effect relationships. The fourth sub stage (8-12 months ) is characterized by the infant's ability to perform goal-directed behavior . She now combines two or more actions purposefully to achieve a goal. chrome-extension:// efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj /https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/34013/1/Unit-8.pdf

18. Con… Cognitive developmental views of Piaget characterize the developmental stage of the child at 6 to 11 or 12 years as concrete operational. As the child grows physically and mentally, his behavior shows marked differences from the earlier stages. Socially, children of this age group like the company of their friends and peers more than their parents. They are busy in learning various skills which bring change in emotional expressions. Learning what is socially right and wrong goes along with the above dimensions of development. At this stage development is more affected by learning and training. This is where schooling becomes important.

19. USE OF MATERIAL ACTIVITIES

20. Piagetian Conservation Tasks Type of conservation Dimension Change in physical properties Conservation question Age at which the task can be solved Number No. of elements in a collection Rearranging or dislocating elements in a collection Which line has more marbles? Preconservative child will say longer line has more and conserving child will say both have the same number 6-7 years of age Substance Conserving child will say yes.. Amount of malleable(flexible) substance Altering its shape Do the two pieces have the same amount of clay? Preconserving child will say no. 7-8 year Length Two sticks of the same length Move one stick over Which stick is longer? Preconsrving child will say one is longer. Conserving child will say both are the same length 7-8 year

21. Area conserving child will say yes Two identical pieces of card board with same number of blocks Rearranging blocks on one cardboard. Do the two pieces of cardboard have the same amount of open space? preconserving child will say no. 8-9 years of age Weight Weight of an object Altering space Which object weighs more? Preconserving child will say vertical shape weighs more. Conserving child will say both weigh the same. 9-10 years of age Volume. Two identical balls of clay in two identical glasses Change the shape of one of the balls Do the pieces of clay displace the same amount of water? Preconseving child will say no. Conserving child will say yes 14-15 years of age

22. chrome-extension:// efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj /https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20752/1/Unit-2.pdf

23. CONSTRUCT A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building purpose. An abstraction like personality is much more difficult to visualize. Such abstract concepts are often called constructs. The Role of Constructs A construct is an abstract idea inferred from specific instances that are thought to be related. In the field of marketing based research constructs are brand loyalty, satisfaction, preference, awareness, knowledge. Research objectives typically invite for the measurement of constructs. There are some methods for defining and measuring constructs. EXAMPLES OF CONSTRUCTS Aggression Love Intelligence Life satisfaction UNIT II LESSON 4 CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS INTRODUCTION TO CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS VARIABLES

24. CONSTRUCT OF MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS OF EXTERNAL REALITY Mental representations are conceptualized (abstracted) as a special case of information processing in which correlational information is received, recorded, but also modified by a complex emergent process of associating new elements. In humans, the acquisition of information and creation of mental representations occurs in a two-step process.

25. Con… First, a sufficiently complex brain structure is necessary to establishing internal states capable to co-vary with external events . Second , the validity or meaning of these representations must be gradually achieved by confronting(challenging) them with the environment . This contextualization can be considered as part of the process of ascribing (assigning) meaning to information and representations. The hypothesis introduced here is that the sophisticated (advanced) psychological constructs classically associated with the concept of mental representation are essentially of the same nature of simple interactive behaviors.

26. Con… T he idea of representation discussed is related to the brain’s capacity of developing inner states, in the form of relatively stable patterns of neuronal activity, that keep some kind of relationship with events occurring in external world . In many cases, these representations start by simple reactions to external stimuli but, due to brain’s organizational characteristics, evolve by incorporating many other elements than those directly apprehensible from the direct contact with the environment.

27. Con… Although frequently studied separately, the concepts of information and representation can be described as having computational and semantic aspects. The term computational refers to the possibility of codification, quantification, manipulation(operation), and physical implementation of information and representations while the term semantic refers to the meaning of both concepts in different contexts(backgrounds).

28. Con… As we shall see although representations can be localized(contained) in the brain, their meaning does not reside exclusively(completely) in the neurobiological instance (case) being a characteristic of the dynamic interaction between brains and environment. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4165208/

29. MENTAL REPRESENTATION

30. PEERS Who are peers? Peers are equals, individuals who are usually of the same age, gender and social status and who share interests. Peer group has an important role, especially in the present modern society, in influencing choices and decisions about educational courses to be pursued and careers to be taken. Peers relations are characterized by important features during adolescence and youth : 1. Peer relations become more salient (outstanding) in adolescence 2. With the transition to adolescence , peer relations grow more complex. 3. Friendships are characterized by similarity, which is a product of both partner selection and influence . 4. Status or prestige is an important element of adolescent peer relations.

31. Socializing Mechanisms of the Peer Group The peer group is an important socializing agent contributing beyond the influence of the family and school. Peers socialize each other through certain mechanisms. They are: reinforcement, modeling, punishment and apprenticeship ( Berns , 2016 ). Reinforcement Modeling Punishment Apprenticeship

32. SIGNIFICANCE OF PEERS TO SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Peers are significant to human development because they satisfy basic social needs: the need to belong to a group and interact socially, and the need to develop a sense of self ( a personal identity ). Peers form an important group of belongingness for adolescents and youth besides family. They enable them to have experiences independent of parents or other adults. Peers ’ opinions are important for young people to develop their own identity.

33. Social Competence(capability/ability/skill) Engagement with peers teaches children the limitations that group places on their selves in return for providing opportunity to belong . As children develop, peer group experiences expand their understanding of what is acceptable and what is not . Peer groups give individuals the opportunity to try out roles and values learnt at home .

34. Con… To participate in peer activities, individuals have to weigh loyalty to peer norms against individual norms and parental norms. According to Hans Sebald (1989, 1992), adolescents turn to their parents with regard to scholastic or occupational goals – in general, future oriented decisions. For present oriented decisions related to clothing, dating, social activities and recreation, they turn to their peers. On moral issues, parental values dominate; on appearance, such as grooming, peer values dominate (Martino, Ellickson , & McCaffrey, 2009). file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/peer%20peer.pdf

35. COMMUNITY AND MEDIA The word ‘community’ gives us a sense of a big family . Everyone is associated with a common thread in a community. However, within the communities, members have varied issues and interests. But the community media binds them together by providing a platform to address all their issues . The word ‘media’ has its root in ‘medium’ meaning and referring to a communication channel. News, information, education and entertainment is spread through communication. The physical form includes newspapers, magazines, and journals while the online forms are television, radio, telephone and the internet. Each one is a medium of communication. When we talk about reaching a very large number of people it is called mass media. While community media refers to an exclusive type of media purely meant for a particular community.

36. Con… Characteristics of Community Media The following are the characteristics of community media: 1 . Community media is characterized by its user-centric approach . Participatory in nature to provide democratic space for all the stakeholders in decision making . 2. Community media enables the audience to be active and its content democratic . 3. It is characterized by its roots nature of existence in the local cultures and traditions .

37. Con… 4. The communication is participatory and every community member can participate in shaping the content. 5. It provides an alternative perspective on issues of the community whereas corporatized media houses provide limited focus . 6. Community media is linguistically sensitive and humane(kind) . 7. Storytelling and sharing of personal narratives about issues and concerns is one of the key characteristics 8 . The ownership and sustainability (maintain over time) is in the hands of the community.

38. Forms of Community Media Community media includes a variety of media aimed at community development. Initiatives are community-driven and mixed with alternative forms of media. It facilitates and helps to share the knowledge to ‘ conscientise ’ ( to educate about an issue)its members, which results in motivating the members of the community to take part in community development activities. Community media is not restricted to technological interventions but also exists in human and non-technological forms. Let us discuss the first examples of the non-technology based community media forms .

39. Con… Theatre Puppetry Community Games Grass root Comics Community Radio Community television Participatory Video

40. COMMUNITY MEDIA IN INDIA Khabar Lahariya Community Newspaper Community TV Delhi Agriculture Television (DATV) project (1967) Gram Vaani Mobile for Development Kalanjiam Community Radio Gaon Connection The Cybermohalla Project Video SEWA World Comics Network Radio Mewat file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/community%20and%20media.pdf

41. FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNIG

42. FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNIG Any one of several internal, external or unknown factors can influence learning . In this section, a classification of the factors influencing learning has been made under the broad headings psychological, socio-emotional and educational factors.

43. Psychological Factors Several psychological factors such as intelligence, personality, attitude, interest, and aptitude have considerable influence on the learning of a child . Apart from these, motivation, self-concept, readiness is a necessity , often learns to read with little instruction . Whereas, seriously retarded readers tend to be aggressive or to withdraw, to feel insecure and apprehensive(Worry ). A child's learning is influenced by his/her concept of himself/ herself . If he/she puts no value on himself/ herself or thinks of himself/ herself as a failure, he/she is generally not interested in learning . Ability to pay attention is also basic to learning. Children learn the habit of sustained attention by persisting at things that interest them. A child's attention cannot be demanded. It is said to be a by-product of interest and maturity .

44. Socio-emotional Factors The family the child belongs to has a considerable influence on the learning. Family factors such as child-rearing practices, reward and punishment, scope for freedom and independence in activities, play and study facilities, ambitiousnes s(strong desire to success) of the parents, disorganization and discord among members, degree of maturity e xpected of the boy or the girl child, birth position such as eldest, youngest or single child have their definite influence on learning. Regardless of basic motivation, the anxiety aroused by disturbed family background shows itself in thinking difficulties, viz , day dreaming, inattentiveness and difficulty in concentration.

45. Con… Working mothers who also experience marital discord are not only physically absent from their children, they are also emotionally absent . Learner from such a home is usually found self absorbed and inattentive. - Parental ambition, especially that of the mother, of acquiring status and upward mobility (move to higher social class) brings with it's a resistance on the part of the child to learn. Children in such families if unable to cope with the pressure for excellence, may show a passive resistance and may be excessively slow about things at home. A subtle(indirect) but powerful influence on the growing child arises from his/her position among the children in the family . The parents of the first-born expect the child to act like miniature adults and hence the first-born are found to encounter a variety of expectation and stress.

46. Con… Whereas , parents tend to be more relaxed in their "dos" and "don'ts" with the last-born. Factors like traumatic (shocking) events at home, separation or death can also precipitate learning problems in an otherwise normal child. A child who comes from a very poor family and never tasted any intellectual stimulation at home remains dull and unresponsive in the class. In some cultures, there is a strong sex role bias . Girls are directly or indirectly told that education is not meant for them. In a similar way, some caste groups in our country have hidden messages like 'education is not meant for us' or 'our children cannot study'. This apathy(indifference) to education may pose problems for the child in learning. The middle class depends for its survival on jobs, they value education highly, and frequently give their children a valued concept of education . The motivation to study is more for the child. file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Factors%20affecting%20learning.pdf

47. SCHOOL RELATED FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING Learning is also assumed to be greatly influenced by the school and the school environment in which students are imparted with different types of learning experiences. The term ‘school environment’ encompasses the terms ‘school culture’ and ‘school climate ’ that affect the behavior of teachers and students. School culture is the shared beliefs and attitudes that characterize the district wide organization and establish boundaries for its constituent units. School climate characterizes the organization at the school building and classroom level. It refers to the “feel” of a school and can very from school to school within the same region. While an individual school can develop a climate independently of the larger organization, changes in school culture at the regional or local level can positively or adversely affect school climate at the building level. School culture reflects the shared ideas-assumptions, values, and beliefs-that give an organization its identify and standard for expected behaviors.

48. Con… The characteristics of a school culture can be deduced from multiple layers : Artifacts (objects) and symbols : the way its buildings are decorated and maintained Ø Values: the manner in which administrators, principals and staff function and interact Ø Assumptions: the beliefs that are taken for granted about human nature

49. Con… On the other hand, school climate reflects the physical and psychological aspects of the school that are more susceptible(vulnerable) to change and that provide the preconditions necessary for teaching and learning to change and that provide the preconditions necessary for teaching and learning to take place. School climate, focuses on the feelings and attitudes about a school expressed by students, teachers, staff and parents – the way students and staff “feel” about being at school each day. School climate is a significant element in discussions about improving academic performance and school reform.

50. Con… The following eight areas comprise school climate : Ø Appearance and physical plant Ø Faculty relations Ø Student interactions Ø Leadership/decision making disciplined environment Ø Learning environment Ø Attitude and culture Ø School-community relations

51. Con… The comprehensive view used in this brief, and summarized below, defines school climate in terms of four aspects of the school environment: Ø A physical environment that is welcoming and conducive to learning; Ø A social environment that promotes communication and interaction; Ø An affective environment that promotes a sense of belonging and self-esteem; Ø An academic environment that promotes learning and self-fulfillment. . Collectively, the physical, social and affective environments contribute to, and are impacted by, the academic environment.

52. Con… In addition, a student is helped by the resources available in the school for bringing desirable changes in his/her behavior. The physical resources include availability of appropriate learning materials , facilities like teaching-learning aids, school building, classrooms, library, laboratory facilities, playground, sports equipment, electricity facility, drinking water facility, proper seating arrangements, and so on. The quality and management of these physical resource decide about the effectiveness of learning among students. Apart from this, school policies, the nature of school administration, distribution of responsibilities and accountability, leadership provided the institutional head, discipline among staff as well as students, etc , are also the deciding factors that influence learning among the students . file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/School%20Related%20factors.pdf

53. LEARNING STYLES Individual show preference for different learning conditions . These are called learning styles, or learning preferences. The learning style theories recognize that individuals learn in different ways and that each individual has a unique style of learning. You must have noticed that some students learn well in the morning while some others prefer to study at night . Some students like to sit in quiet places , while some others like to have music accompanying their learning. Many students report optimal learning while sitting on the dining table and also eating snacks along with their studies . Students who live in joint families actually develop styles of learning which are set in public spaces . Learning styles can thus range from straightforward preference for physical surroundings to more fundamental differences that may be rooted in culture or personality .

54. Con… Some individuals take a ‘deep-processing approach ’, seeking the underlying concepts and meanings of what they are attempting to learn. Others take a surface – processing approach , focusing on memorization rather than analysis and understanding. It is generally observed that individuals who adopt a surface approach are motivated by getting good marks and other external rewards , whereas those who take a deep approach enjoy learning for the sake of learning and are less concerned with external evaluations . There are many more differences in learning styles which educational psychologists have studied. For example, think about how you learn the names of people you meet.

55. Con… Do you learn a name better, if you see it written down? If so, you may be a visual learner, one who learns best by seeing or reading . If you learn better by hearing, you may be an auditory learner . Another pattern of learning styles is field dependence versus field independence . Field dependent individuals tend to see patterns as a whole , and have difficulty separating out specific aspects of a situation or pattern, while field independent persons are more able to see the parts that make up a large pattern. Another important learning style on which individuals differ is ‘impulsivity’ versus ‘reflectivity’. Impulsive (act suddenly) individuals tend to work and make decisions quickly , while reflective types are likely to take a longer time considering all alternatives. file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/School%20Related%20factors.pdf

56. Influence of Media on Learning These days, children are born, grow up and live in a media dominated world. Media have been considered as an important component of transmitting information . All media are basically delivery media because they deliver i.e. communicate information from the sender-end to the receiver-end. The learner is a receiver and consumer of the information conveyed through the media. Media can be broadly divided into two categories: print and non-print media . Print media refers to text or printed materials. It is economical and has traditionally been used for pedagogical resources. But, it may not be the only or the perfect medium to impart education. Non-print media , also known as modern electronic media have certain unique qualities which, in certain cases facilitate learning much faster than the print medium .

57. Con… These excite the students psychologically and motivate them to participate in teaching-learning process . So, it is well clear that media are advantageous in enhancing learning among students, but proper use of the media requires the use of well-developed media-specific skills . If these skills are not well developed, the message may be misinterpreted or uncritically received, accepted and responded to. For using media constructively, learners need to learn how to critically interpret combinations of words, pictures, maps, diagrams and specialized symbolic expressions .

58. Con… Critical (able to judge) learners can use different media for attaining various educational objectives, chief of which are the following: As a means of entertainment or infotainment i.e. information-cum-entertainment; • As a means of enriching classroom learning ; • As a major learning resource • As a means of developing and refining creative expression ; • As a means of further development of media-specific sensory skills and higher order cognitive skills .

59. Con… A constructive use of various media can enable the learners to transform their understanding of their society and themselves, and thus help formal education become more meaningful for every learner. Media can provide a glimpse (sight) of alternative possibilities and help learners to reconstruct a new map of knowledge, with greater focus on powers of synthesis and intellectual analysis . file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/School%20Related%20factors.pdf

60. Teaching strategies Teaching strategies are methods of imparting skills, knowledge or concepts to a learner. Task analysis is a commonly used teaching strategy. It involves dividing or breaking up of a task into simple steps ( its sub-tasks) and arranging the sub-tasks in a sequential order as they occur, from the first to the last step. The teaching sequence, after breaking up the task into sub-tasks, has to be developed keeping the child as the focus. Modeling is ‘teaching by demonstration’ . Here you show the child what you want the child to do and he performs the task.

61. Con… ‘Shaping ’, where you reinforce (strengthen) the child even if he shows a part of the behavior, is also a useful strategy for teaching. Prompting and fading i s another teaching strategy. ‘ Prompt ’ (swift) refers to giving help and ‘fading’ refers to gradually withdrawing help . The types of prompts you can use are verbal prompt, gestural prompt and physical prompt. Study skills training helps the children to learn ‘‘how to learn ’’. It enables children to systematically plan, organize, record, access and use information on their own.

62. Con… Co-operative learning is a group teaching strategy where the students work together to help each other learn. Scaffolding (platform/supporting) is a strategy in which the parent or the teacher combines new information with what the child already knows to produce a more general, higher order skill. Reinforcement is another strategy that is used during teaching. It can be used to teach new skills and behaviors or increase the frequency of desirable behaviors. The reinforce selected must be appropriate for the child and must be given keeping certain principles in mind. You need to give continuous reinforcement when teaching a new behavior or skill. Once the child has learnt it sufficiently, give intermittent (irregular) reinforcement. http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/35134

63. Instructional Tools E-learning Tools: Adapt, Adobe Presenter, Easygenerator , eXe , Geobra , Learn Bubble, Sway, TEDEd , Vyond , Xerte , PowToon , Lectora , ISpring , isEazy , HiHAHo,Evolve Authoring, EDPuzzle , Camtasia , Brachtrack , Articulate, Adopbe captivate • Quizzing and Testing Tools: Quizlet , ClassMarker , Easy Test Maker, Exam Buddy, Hot Potatoes, MyGradeBook , Online Exam Builder, Respondus , Test maker Technology Integration in Teaching-Learning Processes • Learning platforms& LMS: Axonify , aNewspring , Blackboard, Canvas, Curatr , D2L, Degreed, Edmodo , Google Calssroom , Mahara , me:time , Moodle, PebblePad , Schoology , Thinkific , Totara Learn

64. Content Development Tools- Documentation Tools: Apple Pages, Bean, Google Docs, Libre Office, Open Office, Publisher, Word, Wordle , Zoho Docs, Writer, AbiWord , Dark Copy, Desktop Author, Scribus , Visme , Writer • PDF & Flipping Book Tools: Sumnotes , Adobe Acrobat Pro, Adobe inDesign , Booklet Creator, FlippingBook , Google Docs, LibreOffice , PDFCreator , PDF Pro, Uniflip , ZonePDF • Presentation Tools: Apple Keynote, Google Slides, Haiku Deck, LibreOffice , OpenOffice , PowerPoint, Prezi , SlideShare , Sway, VoiceThread • Spreadsheet Tools: Excel, Google Sheets,LibreOffice , NeoOffice , OpenOffice , ThinkFree , Abiltiy Office, SoftMaker Office, Glide, FluSuite , Ability Office

65. Con… • Clip Art, Image and Phot Sharing platforms: Flickr, Free Foto , iStock , Pixabay,Shutterstock , Unspalsh , Absolutely Free Clipart • Graphic & Infographic Tools: Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Spark, Canva , Easel.ly, GIMP, Infogram , OmniGraffle , Piktochart , SimpleDigrams , Typorama • Screen Capture and Screen Casting Tools: BB Falshback , CamStudio , Camtasia , DemoBuilder , Geenshot , Jing, Monosnap , ScreenCastle , Screencast-O- matic , ScreenFlow , Snagit , Webinaria . • Audio & Podcasting Tools: Adobe Audition, Audacity, Chirbit , EasyPodcast , GoldWave , Hipcast , iPadio , PodAdmin , SoundCoud , SpokenText , Vocaroo

66. Audio & Podcasting Tools Audio & Podcasting Tools: Adobe Audition, Audacity, Chirbit , EasyPodcast , GoldWave , Hipcast , iPadio , PodAdmin , SoundCoud , SpokenText , Vocaroo • Video & Animation Tools: Adobe After Effects, Adobe Animate, Adobe Premiere, Animoto , Apple iMovie, Genial.ly, H5P, HiHAHo , Kaltura , Knovio , Moovly , PowToon , TED Ed, ThingLink , Vimeo , Vynod , WeVideo , YouTube • Augmented and Virtual Reality Tools: Aurasma , ENTitTi , Experizer Studio • Blogging Tools: 21classes, b2evolution, Blogger, Edublogs , Medium, Pebble, Serendipity, Tumblr , WordPress , Soup, Penzu , Blog.com.

67. Web Pages/Site Tools : Adobe Coldfusion , Arachnophilia , Drupal, Firebug, Google Sites, Homestaed , Mozello , PmWiki , Serendipity, Strikingly, Wix , • Form, Polling & Survey Tools: 2ask, addpoll , Epic Poll, Fo Space, Google Forms, Key Survey, Microsoft Forms, Orbeon Forms, Pollhost , SISSurvey , SurveyMonkey , Typeform , Web Online Surveys, Zoho Survey

68. Personal & Professional tools • Digital Notebooks & Personal Information Systems: aNotepad , Breakdown Notes, Evernote , Google Keep, KnowledgeNotebook , List.It , MyInfo , OneNote, Privnote , QuickLyst , Todoist , Workflowy , • Search & Research Tools: 43marks, BibMe , Bing, Cite This For Me, DeeperWeb , Duckduckgo , Google Search, Google Scholar, Kartoo , Mahalo, Mendeley , Quora , SimilarSites , Wikipeadia , Wolfram Alpha, Zotero • News, Curation & Bookmarking Tools: Anders Pink, Diigo , Flipboard , Google Alerts, Nuzzel , Paper.Li , Pinterest , Pocket, Scoopit , Zeef , Wakelet , TagTeam , Pluggio , MyCurator , BibSonomy , • Mind Mapping Tools: Bubbl.us, Cmap , FreeMind , iMindMap , MapMyself , MindManager , MindMaper , MindMiester , Popplet , WiseMapping , XMind • Journaling Apps: Day One, Diaro , Flava , Momento , Penzu , Writr

69. • Personal Productivity Tools Bit.ly , DeepL Translator, Google Calendar, Google Earth, Google Maps, Grammarly , Google News, Google Translate, IFTTT, LibraryThing , Office Lens, Plaxo, Wunderlist , Zapier • Personal & Social Media Dashboards: Buffer, Hootsuite , Middlespot , Pobb , Start.me, TweetDeck , Symbaloo , Protopage , Only2Clicks • Digital Notebooks, Personal Learning Systems & Digital Portfolios: aNotepad , ClassMint , Evrnote , Google Keep, Knowledge Notebook, Mural, Notability, OneNote, PebblePad,SNIPPit

70. Con… • Players & Readers for the Web: Adobe Reader, Awasu , Castro, Feedly , Feedreader , Foxit Reader, GoodReader , Inoreader , iTunes, Kindle App, Miro , Overcast, Quick Scan, Shrook • Web Browsers: Browzar , Firefox, Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Opera, Safari, SeaMonkey , SlimBrowser , SwiftFox , Vivaldi • Personal Smart Devices: Android Phones, Tablet, Apple iPad, Apple iPhone, Apple Watch, Kindle chrome-extension:// efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj /https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/71939/1/Unit-5.pdf

71. TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION INTEACHING “Technology integration is the application of technology to facilitate learning through different mediums, provide opportunities for student-centric learning, engage learners, and allow for differentiation and learning preferences” ( Yemothy , 2012). Davies & West (2013) defines technology integration “as the effective implementation of educational technology to accomplish (achieve) intended(planned) learning outcomes . We consider educational technology to be any tool, piece of equipment, or device-electronic or mechanical-that can be used to help students accomplish specified learning goal”. Educational technology includes instructional technologies that teachers use for instructional delivery and learning technologies that students use for accomplishing learning objectives. Thus, technology integration is nothing but the use of technologies or medias in the teaching-learning process.

72. Con… For example, when a teacher uses ‘computer’ to show an ‘online video programme ’ during the teaching-learning process, this is one of the applications of technology. When presentation software like, PowerPoint is shown to present a topic, then technology is being utilized. Similarly, a teacher uses ‘mobile phone’ to video record an incident and that is used to teach any concept is also an application of technology. If the teacher directs the students to search ‘internet ’ and explore the latest information about the topic being taught, technology is part of the teaching-learning process. Here you can see that, ‘computer’, ‘PowerPoint’, ‘mobile phone’, ‘online video programme ’, and ‘internet’ are technologies. These technologies are integrated in the teaching-learning process while transacting the topic.

73. Con… The use of such technologies (digital devices and application software (tools) helps teachers to effectively transact the topic and achieve the desired learning objectives . Thus, whenever technology is utilized in the teaching-learning process, it implies technology integration . Even though there are differences, in the context of education, the terms’ ‘technology’ and ‘media are interchangeably used. file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/technology%20for%20teaching.pdf

74. ICT Interventions and Initiatives in India In India, individual states have significant ICT-related interventions in their education systems . However, some of the major initiatives operating at a national level in educational institutions in India are as follows: The Consortium (grouping) for Educational Communication (CEC) is one of the interuniversity centres set up by the University Grants Commission (UGC). The main objective of the centre was to address the needs of Higher Education through the use of powerful medium of television along with the appropriate Information Communication Technology (ICT).

75. Con… The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT ), makes its textbooks available online through its website to ensure easy and free access by teachers and learners. Similarly, NSDL, an initiative of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ( CSIR) , provides free access to supplementary curriculum based content . Project Ekalavya is an open source educational initiative by the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, for content development in Indian languages . It is an endeavour to provide an interactive platform for the creation, absorption, dissemination and usage of knowledge. The project attempts to bridge the gap between the seekers and givers of knowledge by creating innovative channels of communication. National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL ), a joint effort of the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Institute of Science ( IISc ), has created lectures aimed at students and faculty in private engineering colleges.

76. Con… VASAT, a wing of the International Crops Research Institute for the SemiArid Tropics (ICRISAT), has created open access learning materials on agricultural practices, aimed to promote natural resource literacy. Under a Creative Commons licence enabling reuse, these materials are presented as PowerPoint slides, Flash videos and HTML. Media Lab Asia ( MLAsia ), set up by the Department of Information Technology, Government of India, is a not-for-profit Research and Development organization . MLAsia works with academic and R&D institutions, industries, NGOs, and the Government to develop relevant technology and culturally appropriate solutions in the areas of ICT for healthcare, education, empowerment of the disabled and rural connectivity . Some of the education-related projects undertaken are Gyanpedia and Virtual Laboratories for Life Science Experiments

77. Con… Towering(high) over these initiatives is the NME-ICT, launched in 2009, and its Web portal — Sakshat — that provides access to e-content, e-journals and e-books. In addition, the National Educational Foundation, under the aegis of the National Knowledge Commission, seeks to develop web-based open resources. The Mission has two major components - (a) content generation and (b) connectivity along with provision for access devices for institutions and learners. The ICT @ Schools scheme was launched in 2004 with a view to provide opportunities to students to develop their ICT skills as well as use ICTs to aid the teaching learning process . Under this scheme, support is provided for procurement of computers, peripherals, software, connectivity, and so on. The scheme is currently being implemented in all states and union territories of India in government and government-aided secondary and higher secondary schools.

78. Con… Almost all the states in the country are implementing central schemes such as ICT @ Schools, SSA Mission on Education through ICT and have significant number of students enrolled in open learning systems at the school and college levels (Kelly, 2010). These initiatives span different levels of education (primary, secondary, and tertiary) and different types of providers (government, public, private). However, they converge in their attempts to provide access to quality teaching and learning resources ( Harishankar , Balaji & Ganapuram , 2013). There is a strong need for proper coordination of these initiatives using ICT for education with the help of a clear framework and guidelines to enable seamless integration of ICTs in education . file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/Media%20and%20Technology%20in%20Teaching%20Learning%20Process.pdf

79. PROFESSIONAL TRAITS OF A. TEACHER Professionally, a teacher should possess the following traits: Mastery over content Knowledge of teaching skills Other attributes

80. Mastery over content: Unless one has mastery over content of a subject one can not become an effective teacher. Content mastery can be achieved through various ways like reading books, magazines, periodicals, dictionaries, encyclopedias, newspapers etc., attending seminars, workshops, symposia, conferences, public meetings ; discussing with colleagues, experts, authorities; meeting leaders and other professionals , observing the happenings in and around the environment; and so on

81. Knowledge of teaching skills The knowledge and use of a set of skills facilitates teaching- learning process. These skills are known as instructional skills. Instructional skill is defined as the cluster of behavior manifested by a teacher which can be acquired through practice. The list of instructional skills that help a teacher to carry out instructional process effectively is given below: Introduction Questioning Probing (investigative) Reinforcement Explanation Illustrating with examples Recognizing attending behavior of students Using audio-visual aids Using blackboard Silence and non-verbal cues (signals) Stimulus variation Achieving closure

82. Other attributes Along with content mastery and knowledge of instructional skills, the other effective attributes of a teacher are sense of responsibility, showing concern for students, acknowledging and appreciating the effort of students, accepting each student as a distinct individual, loving and caring etc . These help a teacher to understand students as they are. Over and above the aforementioned three essential personality traits i.e. content mastery knowledge of instructional skills and other attributes, a teacher needs to be guided by professional ethics since he/she is a member of a professional group. chrome-extension:// efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj /https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/46999/1/Unit-5.pdf