Contribution of Kautilya , Confucius, Ibn Khaldun and Max Weber on State , Administration and Governance : relevance and Contrast with the modern concepts
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About This Presentation
Kautilya looked at the country like a person surrounded by problems. He worked at the total annihilation of problems by the roots. His foresight and wide knowledge coupled with politics of expediency founded the mighty Mauryan Empire in India. He was a great laureate of economics with a glittering ...
Slide Content
1
Sociology of Public Administration
Sociology of Public Administration
2
Sociology of Public Administration
Table of Content
Introduction_______________________________________________________________________1
Kautilya
About Kautilya____________________________________________________________________ 2
About Arthashastra_________________________________________________________________ 2
Kautilya About State _______________________________________________________________ 3-4
State elements and Role of the King ; Diplomacy
The secret service (gudapurusha) ; Justice
Kautilya’s view about Administration_________________________________________________ 4-5
Administrative accountability , Tax Administration
Kautilya’s Governance concept______________________________________________________ 5
Relevance with Modern Concept_____________________________________________________ 6
Statecraft and Kautilya; Administration and Kautilya; Governance and Kautilya
Contrast With Modern Concepts_____________________________________________________ 7
Confucius
About Confucius and his activities____________________________________________________ 7
Confucius About State and Society___________________________________________________ 7-9
Knowledge ; Moral Education
Social relations
Confucianism and Administration____________________________________________________ 9
Governance and Confucianism ______________________________________________________ 10
Relevance with Modern Concept____________________________________________________ 10-11
Modern statecraft and Confucius
Modern administration and Confucius ; Modern governance and Confucius
Contrast with Modern Concept______________________________________________________ 11
Ibn Khaldun
About Ibn Khaldun________________________________________________________________ 12
About Al-Muqaddimah__________________________________________________________ 12-13
Ibn Khaldun’s Idea About State____________________________________________________ 13-14
Concept of the emergence of the state; Causes behind state formation; State Cycle
Types of state ; State Activities
Ibn Khaldun’s view regarding Administration________________________________________ 14-15
Khaldun’s concept of Governance__________________________________________________ 15-16
Justice and Rule of Law
Accountability and transparency
Relevance with Modern concept_____________________________________________________ 16
Statecraft and Khaldun ; Administration and Khaldun; Governance and Khaldun
Contrast with the Modern concepts____________________________________________________ 16
Max Weber
About Max Weber and his contribution_________________________________________________ 17
Max Weber’s view about State_____________________________________________________ 17-20
Modernization theory ; Social Action
Social relationship ; Legitimacy , power and authority
Weberian Administration____________________________________________________________ 20
Weber’s thoughts on Governance______________________________________________________ 20
Promotion of democracy and people’s participation
Rule of Law ; Economic and Sustain able development
Relevance with Modern Concept ______________________________________________________ 21
Statecraft and Weber; Administration and Weber; Governance and Weber
Contrast with modern Concept_________________________________________________________21
Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________21
References and bibliography__________________________________________________________ 22
Sociology of Public Administration
Table of Content
Introduction_______________________________________________________________________1
Kautilya
About Kautilya____________________________________________________________________ 2
About Arthashastra_________________________________________________________________ 2
Kautilya About State _______________________________________________________________ 3-4
State elements and Role of the King ; Diplomacy
The secret service (gudapurusha) ; Justice
Kautilya’s view about Administration_________________________________________________ 4-5
Administrative accountability , Tax Administration
Kautilya’s Governance concept______________________________________________________ 5
Relevance with Modern Concept_____________________________________________________ 6
Statecraft and Kautilya; Administration and Kautilya; Governance and Kautilya
Contrast With Modern Concepts_____________________________________________________ 7
Confucius
About Confucius and his activities____________________________________________________ 7
Confucius About State and Society___________________________________________________ 7-9
Knowledge ; Moral Education
Social relations
Confucianism and Administration____________________________________________________ 9
Governance and Confucianism ______________________________________________________ 10
Relevance with Modern Concept____________________________________________________ 10-11
Modern statecraft and Confucius
Modern administration and Confucius ; Modern governance and Confucius
Contrast with Modern Concept______________________________________________________ 11
Ibn Khaldun
About Ibn Khaldun________________________________________________________________ 12
About Al-Muqaddimah__________________________________________________________ 12-13
Ibn Khaldun’s Idea About State____________________________________________________ 13-14
Concept of the emergence of the state; Causes behind state formation; State Cycle
Types of state ; State Activities
Ibn Khaldun’s view regarding Administration________________________________________ 14-15
Khaldun’s concept of Governance__________________________________________________ 15-16
Justice and Rule of Law
Accountability and transparency
Relevance with Modern concept_____________________________________________________ 16
Statecraft and Khaldun ; Administration and Khaldun; Governance and Khaldun
Contrast with the Modern concepts____________________________________________________ 16
Max Weber
About Max Weber and his contribution_________________________________________________ 17
Max Weber’s view about State_____________________________________________________ 17-20
Modernization theory ; Social Action
Social relationship ; Legitimacy , power and authority
Weberian Administration____________________________________________________________ 20
Weber’s thoughts on Governance______________________________________________________ 20
Promotion of democracy and people’s participation
Rule of Law ; Economic and Sustain able development
Relevance with Modern Concept ______________________________________________________ 21
Statecraft and Weber; Administration and Weber; Governance and Weber
Contrast with modern Concept_________________________________________________________21
Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________21
References and bibliography__________________________________________________________ 22
3
Sociology of Public Administration
Introduction
For centuries to come and the centuries that went by, which recorded in history talking of the great men
and legendary characters who shaped time through their vision and exemplary actions. In the journey of
Administration sociology beside others we have to recognize the contribution of such four great
scholars who are worthy of getting respect and recognition of pioneering prestige in the field og
administrative sociology . Their contribution regarding state formation , idea regaring administration
and governance still attaining great attention by all political economic and administrative academicians .
Kautilya looked at the country like a person surrounded by problems. He worked at the total
annihilation of problems by the roots. The re-appearance of troubles only shows its growth. His
contribution to foreign policy in the present day world is immense. Universities teach his principles to
aspiring foreign policy experts showing the infallability of his principles. Celebrated as a shrewd
statesman and a ruthless administrator, he comes across as the greatest of diplomats of the world. His
foresight and wide knowledge coupled with politics of expediency founded the mighty Mauryan Empire
in India. He was a great laureate of economics with a glittering intellect to perceive the intricate
dynamics of the various economic activities and principles.
Confucius sought to explain the decay of society in terms of the deterioration of morals. According to
Confucius, all social problems had their roots in the morals of the members of the society. He saw the
possible restoration of a peaceful and fiduciary society through the ethical cultivation of every member
of society. Confucius' vision was based on this belief in the good nature of people. He claimed: "Man is
born for uprightness." Confucian society was necessarily bureaucratic and hierarchical, with the state
being stronger than civil society. Obviously, under these conditions, capitalism could not appear.
Ibn Khaldun discussed a variety of topics like History and Historiography. His discussion of Tribal
societies and social forces would be the most interesting part of his thesis. He illuminated the world
with deep insight into the workings and makings of kingdoms and civilizations. His thesis that the
conquered race will always emulate the conqueror in every way. His theory about Asbyiah (group
feeling and solidarity ) and the role that it plays in Bedouin societies is insightful. His theories of the
science of Umran (sociology) are all pearls of wisdom. His Introduction is his greatest legacy that he
left for all of humanity and the generations to come .
While Max Weber, a German social scientist, who had contributed regarding the formulation of “liberal
imperialism” in 1895, his widely discussed thesis on Protestantism and capitalism, and his extensive
attack on German foreign and domestic policies during World War I in the pages of the Frankfurter
Zeitung, which stimulated liberal sentiment against the government's war aims and led General Erich
Ludendorff to view Weber as a traitor. Weber created a methodology and a body of literature dealing
with the sociology of religion, political parties, and the economy, as well as studies of formal
organizations, small-group behaviour, and the philosophy of history. His work continues to stimulate
scholarship.
This assignment contains their biography , their contributions in brief , relationship of their
contributions with modern state , administration and governance process and the contrast of those
features with modern ones .
Sociology of Public Administration
Introduction
For centuries to come and the centuries that went by, which recorded in history talking of the great men
and legendary characters who shaped time through their vision and exemplary actions. In the journey of
Administration sociology beside others we have to recognize the contribution of such four great
scholars who are worthy of getting respect and recognition of pioneering prestige in the field og
administrative sociology . Their contribution regarding state formation , idea regaring administration
and governance still attaining great attention by all political economic and administrative academicians .
Kautilya looked at the country like a person surrounded by problems. He worked at the total
annihilation of problems by the roots. The re-appearance of troubles only shows its growth. His
contribution to foreign policy in the present day world is immense. Universities teach his principles to
aspiring foreign policy experts showing the infallability of his principles. Celebrated as a shrewd
statesman and a ruthless administrator, he comes across as the greatest of diplomats of the world. His
foresight and wide knowledge coupled with politics of expediency founded the mighty Mauryan Empire
in India. He was a great laureate of economics with a glittering intellect to perceive the intricate
dynamics of the various economic activities and principles.
Confucius sought to explain the decay of society in terms of the deterioration of morals. According to
Confucius, all social problems had their roots in the morals of the members of the society. He saw the
possible restoration of a peaceful and fiduciary society through the ethical cultivation of every member
of society. Confucius' vision was based on this belief in the good nature of people. He claimed: "Man is
born for uprightness." Confucian society was necessarily bureaucratic and hierarchical, with the state
being stronger than civil society. Obviously, under these conditions, capitalism could not appear.
Ibn Khaldun discussed a variety of topics like History and Historiography. His discussion of Tribal
societies and social forces would be the most interesting part of his thesis. He illuminated the world
with deep insight into the workings and makings of kingdoms and civilizations. His thesis that the
conquered race will always emulate the conqueror in every way. His theory about Asbyiah (group
feeling and solidarity ) and the role that it plays in Bedouin societies is insightful. His theories of the
science of Umran (sociology) are all pearls of wisdom. His Introduction is his greatest legacy that he
left for all of humanity and the generations to come .
While Max Weber, a German social scientist, who had contributed regarding the formulation of “liberal
imperialism” in 1895, his widely discussed thesis on Protestantism and capitalism, and his extensive
attack on German foreign and domestic policies during World War I in the pages of the Frankfurter
Zeitung, which stimulated liberal sentiment against the government's war aims and led General Erich
Ludendorff to view Weber as a traitor. Weber created a methodology and a body of literature dealing
with the sociology of religion, political parties, and the economy, as well as studies of formal
organizations, small-group behaviour, and the philosophy of history. His work continues to stimulate
scholarship.
This assignment contains their biography , their contributions in brief , relationship of their
contributions with modern state , administration and governance process and the contrast of those
features with modern ones .
4
Sociology of Public Administration
Kautilya (324 – 248 BC)
About Kautilya : Kautilya was born in 324 BC at Chanaka and his father's
name was also Chanaka, he came to be known as Chanakya (Rao, 1958:3).
He was from 'kutil gotra', hence the name Kautilya. Besides Chanakya
Kautilya . he was also known as Vishnugupta. He died in 248 BC at the age
of 76.
As a person, Kautilya has been described variously, as a saint, as a ‘ruthless
administrator’, as the ‘king maker’, a devoted nationalist, a selfless ascetic
and a person devoid of all morals. Kautilya was a professor of Political
Science in the famous Gurukul (university) of Takshashila. He was also the
teacher (and subsequently the Chief Minister) of Chandragupta Maurya, the
founder of the Mauryan Empire. Kautilya was the minister in the Kingdom
of Chandragupta Maurya during 317 – 293 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya
founded the Mauryan empire in 321 B.C. With the active and technocratic
supervision of Kautilya , he had defeated the two greatest powers of the era - Alexander of Macedonia
and King Nanda of Magadh - the largest Indian empire. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka's empire was
probably the truest manifestation of Kautilya's conception of an ideal empire.
He created controversy by saying ‘The ends justify the means’ and the ruler should use any means to
attain his goals and his actions required no moral sanctions. Having looked at Kautilya’s approach to
war, diplomacy and ethics, it is but important to compare him with Plato and Machiavelli. All his
written works namely, ‘Arthashastra’, ‘Nitishastra’ and ‘Chanakyaniti’ were unique because of their
rational approach and an unabashed advocacy of real politic.
About Arthasastra : Arthasastra means the science (sastra) of wealth/earth/polity (artha).
Kauilya’s definition of Arthshastra is as follows: Artha means the science which explains the means
of acquiring and maintaining wealth and Shastra means the ways to protect this wealth and territory
hence in total Arthashastra means the science of Polity.
Arthasastra is a book of science of politics , encyclopedia of administration , government and
sociology, and a unique guideline of macro economics .
The Arthashastra was written in Sanskrit but now its translations in English are available. The
interpretations, to a large extent, are based on L. N. Rangarajan’s translation of The Arthashastra but in
a few cases are based on R. P Kangle’s translation and only these are explicitly indicated. Kautilya's
Arthasastra is a compendium of and commentary on the then existing texts on polity and statecraft. The
Arthashastra is divided into 15 books , 32 divisions and 150 chapters . The first 6 books deals with
“Centralized bureaucracy” and other nine books of the treaty was discussed on war , diplomacy and
international relations .
In Arthashastra , The basis of state governance is knowledge and it is classified into four categories :
1. Anvikasi (philosophy). This is considered to be the "lamp of all sciences".
2. Trayi (the three Vedas - Sama, Rig and Yajur). These texts establish the four
classes (varnas) 15 and the four orders (ashrams).
3. Varta (economics, specifically agriculture, cattle breeding, and trade).
4. Dandanfti (science of government and politics).
Sociology of Public Administration
Kautilya (324 – 248 BC)
About Kautilya : Kautilya was born in 324 BC at Chanaka and his father's
name was also Chanaka, he came to be known as Chanakya (Rao, 1958:3).
He was from 'kutil gotra', hence the name Kautilya. Besides Chanakya
Kautilya . he was also known as Vishnugupta. He died in 248 BC at the age
of 76.
As a person, Kautilya has been described variously, as a saint, as a ‘ruthless
administrator’, as the ‘king maker’, a devoted nationalist, a selfless ascetic
and a person devoid of all morals. Kautilya was a professor of Political
Science in the famous Gurukul (university) of Takshashila. He was also the
teacher (and subsequently the Chief Minister) of Chandragupta Maurya, the
founder of the Mauryan Empire. Kautilya was the minister in the Kingdom
of Chandragupta Maurya during 317 – 293 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya
founded the Mauryan empire in 321 B.C. With the active and technocratic
supervision of Kautilya , he had defeated the two greatest powers of the era - Alexander of Macedonia
and King Nanda of Magadh - the largest Indian empire. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka's empire was
probably the truest manifestation of Kautilya's conception of an ideal empire.
He created controversy by saying ‘The ends justify the means’ and the ruler should use any means to
attain his goals and his actions required no moral sanctions. Having looked at Kautilya’s approach to
war, diplomacy and ethics, it is but important to compare him with Plato and Machiavelli. All his
written works namely, ‘Arthashastra’, ‘Nitishastra’ and ‘Chanakyaniti’ were unique because of their
rational approach and an unabashed advocacy of real politic.
About Arthasastra : Arthasastra means the science (sastra) of wealth/earth/polity (artha).
Kauilya’s definition of Arthshastra is as follows: Artha means the science which explains the means
of acquiring and maintaining wealth and Shastra means the ways to protect this wealth and territory
hence in total Arthashastra means the science of Polity.
Arthasastra is a book of science of politics , encyclopedia of administration , government and
sociology, and a unique guideline of macro economics .
The Arthashastra was written in Sanskrit but now its translations in English are available. The
interpretations, to a large extent, are based on L. N. Rangarajan’s translation of The Arthashastra but in
a few cases are based on R. P Kangle’s translation and only these are explicitly indicated. Kautilya's
Arthasastra is a compendium of and commentary on the then existing texts on polity and statecraft. The
Arthashastra is divided into 15 books , 32 divisions and 150 chapters . The first 6 books deals with
“Centralized bureaucracy” and other nine books of the treaty was discussed on war , diplomacy and
international relations .
In Arthashastra , The basis of state governance is knowledge and it is classified into four categories :
1. Anvikasi (philosophy). This is considered to be the "lamp of all sciences".
2. Trayi (the three Vedas - Sama, Rig and Yajur). These texts establish the four
classes (varnas) 15 and the four orders (ashrams).
3. Varta (economics, specifically agriculture, cattle breeding, and trade).
4. Dandanfti (science of government and politics).
5
Sociology of Public Administration
Kautilya About State : Kautilya did not subscribe to the theory of 'Divine Origin of the Monarch'.
King was not the vicar of the god. Monarchy, in his view, was a human institution and therefore
manned by a human being. However the king was expected to be more than a mere human being since
he was the protector of the dharma of the whole society. He had to observe an exemplary conduct
himself. He had no private life and all his actions were subject to public scrutiny .
The institution of state is created to enable the individual to practice his/her dharma and thus move
towards the emancipation from the cycle of death-rebirth. The condition of arajat (lawlessness) was
viewed with distaste as it militated against the practicing of dharma. dharma has been interpreted in
terms of law, justice and duty. the state enables two things - the practice of dharma and the bhog
(enjoyment) of private property rights.
State elements and Role of the King :Arthasastra told that the state to have 7 elements(saptanga,):
1. Swami (Monarch)
2. Amatya (Officials)
3. Janapada (Population and Territory)
4. Durga (Fort)
5. Kosa (Treasury)
6. Bala (Military)
7. Surhit (Ally)
King derived his power from three sources - Prabhushakti (the power of the army and the treasury),
Mantashakti (advice of wise men, specifically the Council of Ministers) and Utsahshakti (charisma).
Mantashakti was rated as the most potent source followed by the prabhushakti and utsahshakti Clearly
Kautilya believed in the importance of institutions (Council of Ministers) and not of an individual
(King) in influencing the destiny of the state. Next to the King came the Mantri Parishad (Council of
Minister).
Diplomacy : Kautilya believed that nations acted in their political, economic and military self-interest.
He thought that foreign policy or diplomacy will be practiced as long as the sell-interest of the state is
served because every state acts in a way to maximize the power and self interest. Regarding diplomacy
Kautilya suggested for six fold foreign policy . Kautilya’s six fold policy components are, Sandhi
(Peace) , Vigraha (War) , Asana (Neutrality) . Yana (Marching) , Samsarya (Alliance) and
Dvaidhibhava (Double Policy) .
Sandhi (Peace) : This means accommodation, which means that kings seek to accommodate the
each other and does not resolve to hostile means. These Sandhis could be temporary or
permanent and it depends on the environment and relative powers of the kings.
Vigraha (War) : This means hostility shown to neighbor or a state. Kautilya strongly believed
that the states are always at war and seek power hence it is necessary to have hostile foreign
policy towards few states which are either equal in power or subordinate in power.
Asana (Neutrality) : Kautilya believed that an indifferent foreign policy works well in the case
of equal power.
Yana (Marching) : This policy is to attack. Kautilya does mention that peace and stability in a
Sociology of Public Administration
Kautilya About State : Kautilya did not subscribe to the theory of 'Divine Origin of the Monarch'.
King was not the vicar of the god. Monarchy, in his view, was a human institution and therefore
manned by a human being. However the king was expected to be more than a mere human being since
he was the protector of the dharma of the whole society. He had to observe an exemplary conduct
himself. He had no private life and all his actions were subject to public scrutiny .
The institution of state is created to enable the individual to practice his/her dharma and thus move
towards the emancipation from the cycle of death-rebirth. The condition of arajat (lawlessness) was
viewed with distaste as it militated against the practicing of dharma. dharma has been interpreted in
terms of law, justice and duty. the state enables two things - the practice of dharma and the bhog
(enjoyment) of private property rights.
State elements and Role of the King :Arthasastra told that the state to have 7 elements(saptanga,):
1. Swami (Monarch)
2. Amatya (Officials)
3. Janapada (Population and Territory)
4. Durga (Fort)
5. Kosa (Treasury)
6. Bala (Military)
7. Surhit (Ally)
King derived his power from three sources - Prabhushakti (the power of the army and the treasury),
Mantashakti (advice of wise men, specifically the Council of Ministers) and Utsahshakti (charisma).
Mantashakti was rated as the most potent source followed by the prabhushakti and utsahshakti Clearly
Kautilya believed in the importance of institutions (Council of Ministers) and not of an individual
(King) in influencing the destiny of the state. Next to the King came the Mantri Parishad (Council of
Minister).
Diplomacy : Kautilya believed that nations acted in their political, economic and military self-interest.
He thought that foreign policy or diplomacy will be practiced as long as the sell-interest of the state is
served because every state acts in a way to maximize the power and self interest. Regarding diplomacy
Kautilya suggested for six fold foreign policy . Kautilya’s six fold policy components are, Sandhi
(Peace) , Vigraha (War) , Asana (Neutrality) . Yana (Marching) , Samsarya (Alliance) and
Dvaidhibhava (Double Policy) .
Sandhi (Peace) : This means accommodation, which means that kings seek to accommodate the
each other and does not resolve to hostile means. These Sandhis could be temporary or
permanent and it depends on the environment and relative powers of the kings.
Vigraha (War) : This means hostility shown to neighbor or a state. Kautilya strongly believed
that the states are always at war and seek power hence it is necessary to have hostile foreign
policy towards few states which are either equal in power or subordinate in power.
Asana (Neutrality) : Kautilya believed that an indifferent foreign policy works well in the case
of equal power.
Yana (Marching) : This policy is to attack. Kautilya does mention that peace and stability in a
6
Sociology of Public Administration
state makes the state even powerful but never shies away from attacking the weak and unjust
king.
Samsarya (Alliance) : Kautilya advocates this policy when a stronger state needs a shield to
protect itself from an equal power it is good to use this policy of protection for a third state and
use this alliance to defend against the potential enemy.
Dvaidhibhava (Double Policy) : This means double policy which was very well practiced by
Bismarck. Kautilya advocates this foreign policy for states which are superior militarily.
The secret service (gudapurusha) : The secret service (gudapurusha) of the Arthashastra state had
three principal strategic objectives :
it kept the ruler and his trusted servants informed of developments within and without the
empire.
the secret service conducted covert operations aimed at undermining both internal and external
enemies.
the secret service was mandated with the maintenance of the internal discipline and loyalty of
the bureaucracy and military.
Stationed agents constituted the heart of the intelligence machine and comprised all those operatives
who stayed in more or less one location and reported to the well-paid and highly trained intelligence
officers (kapatikas).41 Mobile agents comprising the secret operative (sattri), the assassin (tikshana),
poison specialist (rasada) and wandering nuns (pariuvajrika) stood at hand to execute covert action and
also report on happenings within their zone of movement.
Justice : “Unprotected, the small fish will be swallowed up by the big fish. In the presence of a king
maintaining just law, the weak can resist the powerful .”
Above statement of Kautilya reflects his view regarding rule of law . Kautilya’s Judicial System called
“Dandaniti,” “the science of law enforcement” is an important part of The Arthashastra. sovereignty -
the authority to make laws, did not vest with citizens. Laws were derived from four sources - dharma
(scared law), vyavhara (evidence), charita (history and custom), and rajasasana (edicts of the King). In
case of conflict amongst the various laws, dharma was supreme. The ordering of the other laws was
case specific . Kautilya’s Insistence on Honest Enforcers as a Prerequisite for Effective Law
Enforcement .
According to Kautilya, judicial fairness depended on the amount of evidence and its reliability.
Kautilya’s view about Administration: “A king can reign only with the help of others; one
wheel alone does not move a chariot. Therefore, a king should appoint advisers as councilors and
ministers and listen to their advice.” -Kautilya
Administration, as perceived in Arthashastra, begins with theory of the recruitment and selection of
officials. The king is advised to appoint trusted people, those who share king’s virtues and vices and
those who are gifted with the qualities of high birth, wisdom, purity, heroism and loyalty.
Kautilya advocated for state bureaucracy . He had visualized the necessity of state provision of public
goods which strengthened trade and commerce. The bureaucracy was involved in the provision of three
of such goods - the 'quality control machinery', the system of currency, and the system of 'weights and
measures'. What is remarkable about the state apparatus described by Kautilya is its vastness and
Sociology of Public Administration
state makes the state even powerful but never shies away from attacking the weak and unjust
king.
Samsarya (Alliance) : Kautilya advocates this policy when a stronger state needs a shield to
protect itself from an equal power it is good to use this policy of protection for a third state and
use this alliance to defend against the potential enemy.
Dvaidhibhava (Double Policy) : This means double policy which was very well practiced by
Bismarck. Kautilya advocates this foreign policy for states which are superior militarily.
The secret service (gudapurusha) : The secret service (gudapurusha) of the Arthashastra state had
three principal strategic objectives :
it kept the ruler and his trusted servants informed of developments within and without the
empire.
the secret service conducted covert operations aimed at undermining both internal and external
enemies.
the secret service was mandated with the maintenance of the internal discipline and loyalty of
the bureaucracy and military.
Stationed agents constituted the heart of the intelligence machine and comprised all those operatives
who stayed in more or less one location and reported to the well-paid and highly trained intelligence
officers (kapatikas).41 Mobile agents comprising the secret operative (sattri), the assassin (tikshana),
poison specialist (rasada) and wandering nuns (pariuvajrika) stood at hand to execute covert action and
also report on happenings within their zone of movement.
Justice : “Unprotected, the small fish will be swallowed up by the big fish. In the presence of a king
maintaining just law, the weak can resist the powerful .”
Above statement of Kautilya reflects his view regarding rule of law . Kautilya’s Judicial System called
“Dandaniti,” “the science of law enforcement” is an important part of The Arthashastra. sovereignty -
the authority to make laws, did not vest with citizens. Laws were derived from four sources - dharma
(scared law), vyavhara (evidence), charita (history and custom), and rajasasana (edicts of the King). In
case of conflict amongst the various laws, dharma was supreme. The ordering of the other laws was
case specific . Kautilya’s Insistence on Honest Enforcers as a Prerequisite for Effective Law
Enforcement .
According to Kautilya, judicial fairness depended on the amount of evidence and its reliability.
Kautilya’s view about Administration: “A king can reign only with the help of others; one
wheel alone does not move a chariot. Therefore, a king should appoint advisers as councilors and
ministers and listen to their advice.” -Kautilya
Administration, as perceived in Arthashastra, begins with theory of the recruitment and selection of
officials. The king is advised to appoint trusted people, those who share king’s virtues and vices and
those who are gifted with the qualities of high birth, wisdom, purity, heroism and loyalty.
Kautilya advocated for state bureaucracy . He had visualized the necessity of state provision of public
goods which strengthened trade and commerce. The bureaucracy was involved in the provision of three
of such goods - the 'quality control machinery', the system of currency, and the system of 'weights and
measures'. What is remarkable about the state apparatus described by Kautilya is its vastness and
7
Sociology of Public Administration
complexity. Kautilya’s Bureaucracy had thirty divisions each headed by Adhyakshas (Chiefs).
Characteristics of Kautilya’s bureaucracy involved :
Hierarchical , huge and intricate network
Centralized in nature
Reporting to superior official (s)
Rule bound (mentioned in Dharma)
Accountability
Fixed pay and state subsidized housing
Reward and Punishment
Administrative accountability : Kautilya suggested, “Any official who incurs the displeasure of the
people shall either be removed from his post or transferred to a dangerous region.”
The ruler’s servants had to be made to fear their master’s omniscience. The internecine rivalries ignited
by the secret service had the added benefit of preventing the royal servants from uniting against their
master. It also guaranteed that with a competent ruler his servants would have a powerful incentive to
do his bidding and so enable the royal will to bring relative order to the state apparatus. Order within the
state apparatus secured the writ of the ruler and made it effective. Kautilya advises the ruler to reward
upright financial administrators who increase the revenues without resorting to heavy-handed or
arbitrary measures.
Tax Administration : Kautilya realized the critical role of the tax system for ensuring the economic
wellbeing of the society. Farmers (household as the unit of assessment) had to pay one sixth of the
produce as the land tax. There was a land census at periodic intervals and land records were
scrupulously maintained. This data base enabled the assessment of the taxable capacity of the
household. Traders had to pay one tenth the value of the merchandize as tax. There was an entry tax to
enter the fort, tax on use of roads and waterways, and for getting a passport. Even the hermits living in
the forest had to part with one sixth of the grain gleaned by them as they too needed the protection of
the King. Service industry was also taxed - actors, dancers, soothsayers, prostitutes, and auctioneers
were subjected to taxation. Pilgrims had to pay a Yatra Vetna (pilgrimage tax). Citizens had to pay a tax
(Pranaya Kriya) for the acts of benevolence .
Kautilya’s Governance concept: Rajasasana ordered the relationship between the three major
social groupings – the citizen, the association, and the state.
Kautilya considered it as the bounden duty of the government to act in a manner that realizes the
material, mental, moral and cultural well being of the people. It is in this context that the study of good
governance has become very important in the study of political science. Kautilya identified 10
indicators of Good Governance , these are :
King’s individuality with duty must be merged ( King has structured duty from dawn to dusk)
Avoiding hardness to achieve the goal of education
Code of conduct in society and disciplined life
Fixed salaries and allowances
Rules of Law and order
Punishment for corrupt officials
Skill and component masters and officials
Quality administration with transparency
Give importance to thinkers
Accountable and transparent administration
Sociology of Public Administration
complexity. Kautilya’s Bureaucracy had thirty divisions each headed by Adhyakshas (Chiefs).
Characteristics of Kautilya’s bureaucracy involved :
Hierarchical , huge and intricate network
Centralized in nature
Reporting to superior official (s)
Rule bound (mentioned in Dharma)
Accountability
Fixed pay and state subsidized housing
Reward and Punishment
Administrative accountability : Kautilya suggested, “Any official who incurs the displeasure of the
people shall either be removed from his post or transferred to a dangerous region.”
The ruler’s servants had to be made to fear their master’s omniscience. The internecine rivalries ignited
by the secret service had the added benefit of preventing the royal servants from uniting against their
master. It also guaranteed that with a competent ruler his servants would have a powerful incentive to
do his bidding and so enable the royal will to bring relative order to the state apparatus. Order within the
state apparatus secured the writ of the ruler and made it effective. Kautilya advises the ruler to reward
upright financial administrators who increase the revenues without resorting to heavy-handed or
arbitrary measures.
Tax Administration : Kautilya realized the critical role of the tax system for ensuring the economic
wellbeing of the society. Farmers (household as the unit of assessment) had to pay one sixth of the
produce as the land tax. There was a land census at periodic intervals and land records were
scrupulously maintained. This data base enabled the assessment of the taxable capacity of the
household. Traders had to pay one tenth the value of the merchandize as tax. There was an entry tax to
enter the fort, tax on use of roads and waterways, and for getting a passport. Even the hermits living in
the forest had to part with one sixth of the grain gleaned by them as they too needed the protection of
the King. Service industry was also taxed - actors, dancers, soothsayers, prostitutes, and auctioneers
were subjected to taxation. Pilgrims had to pay a Yatra Vetna (pilgrimage tax). Citizens had to pay a tax
(Pranaya Kriya) for the acts of benevolence .
Kautilya’s Governance concept: Rajasasana ordered the relationship between the three major
social groupings – the citizen, the association, and the state.
Kautilya considered it as the bounden duty of the government to act in a manner that realizes the
material, mental, moral and cultural well being of the people. It is in this context that the study of good
governance has become very important in the study of political science. Kautilya identified 10
indicators of Good Governance , these are :
King’s individuality with duty must be merged ( King has structured duty from dawn to dusk)
Avoiding hardness to achieve the goal of education
Code of conduct in society and disciplined life
Fixed salaries and allowances
Rules of Law and order
Punishment for corrupt officials
Skill and component masters and officials
Quality administration with transparency
Give importance to thinkers
Accountable and transparent administration
8
Sociology of Public Administration
Relevance with Modern Concept :
Modern statecraft and Kautilya : If we compare statesman on the four dimension framework of: War
& Peace, Human Rights, International Economic Justice and World Order Kautilya had a strong opinion
on all the four aspects. In fact people like Bismarck and Woodrow Wilson in recent history had been
able to demonstrate their views only on two of the four dimensions. Kautilya’s work is so deep rooted in
realism that he goes to describe the gory and brutal means a King must adopt to be in power.
Kautilya though did not state this explicitly but we can infer that he did presume to be at war is natural
for a state. On the other hand he like Thomas Hobbes believed the goal of science was power. He said
that, “Power is strength and strength changes the minds”, He also believed that it is the King’s duty to
seek material gain, spiritual good and pleasures. Kautilya thinks that for a King to attain these three
goals must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his
state.
If we give our glance at the elements of States , according to Lord Bryce , which are Definite territory ,
Population , the government and sovereignty . In Kautilya’s 7 elements of state , which are comparable
with modern state elements , i.e. Janapada referes to the territory and population of Bryce ; while
Swami , Amatya and kusha are the elements which can be seen as government in modern state ; and
finally in order to maintain state sovereignty state must for Bala (Military) and Surhit ( Ally with other
states )
Regardign diplomacy he did talk about violating treaties and creating dissension between states so that
his kingdom might benefit which directly is similar to Bismarck’s strategies of treaties. In fact Kautilya
can be compared to Bismarck that both of them though of extremely complex network of treaties and
relationships without any successor in either case.
Kautilya’s concept regarding state’s secret service is applied in almost all the modern states . Now
governments feel the necessity of keeping secret agencies with a view to gather information regarding
internal crimes , foreign conspiracy and other such hidden offences .
Kautilya’s judicial view is also very much related to the modern judicial practice . Four sources of law
formation , mentioned by Kautilya which are dharma (scared law), vyavhara (evidence), charita
(history and custom), and rajasasana (edicts of the King , now the legislature law formulation
procedure) are still consider as the sources of Legal forms .
Modern administration and Kautilya : The characteristics of Kautilyan bureaucracy are very much
similar with the bureaucracy of Max Weber or modern administrative practice . Kautilyan Amatyas
were appointed , state paid and rule bound which are the main scenario of modern public
administration. Besides hierarchy and reporting system are also prevailing here .
Modern governance and Kautilya : The World Bank in its reports of 1989 and 1992, the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Commission on Global Governance
(1995).United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 1997 have all dealt with the attributes of
good governance extensively. If we give our glace at these indicators of good governance , we can see
that all the elements of modern good governance including accountability , transparency , rule of law
are present here .
Sociology of Public Administration
Relevance with Modern Concept :
Modern statecraft and Kautilya : If we compare statesman on the four dimension framework of: War
& Peace, Human Rights, International Economic Justice and World Order Kautilya had a strong opinion
on all the four aspects. In fact people like Bismarck and Woodrow Wilson in recent history had been
able to demonstrate their views only on two of the four dimensions. Kautilya’s work is so deep rooted in
realism that he goes to describe the gory and brutal means a King must adopt to be in power.
Kautilya though did not state this explicitly but we can infer that he did presume to be at war is natural
for a state. On the other hand he like Thomas Hobbes believed the goal of science was power. He said
that, “Power is strength and strength changes the minds”, He also believed that it is the King’s duty to
seek material gain, spiritual good and pleasures. Kautilya thinks that for a King to attain these three
goals must create wealth, have armies and should conquer the kingdoms and enlarge the size of his
state.
If we give our glance at the elements of States , according to Lord Bryce , which are Definite territory ,
Population , the government and sovereignty . In Kautilya’s 7 elements of state , which are comparable
with modern state elements , i.e. Janapada referes to the territory and population of Bryce ; while
Swami , Amatya and kusha are the elements which can be seen as government in modern state ; and
finally in order to maintain state sovereignty state must for Bala (Military) and Surhit ( Ally with other
states )
Regardign diplomacy he did talk about violating treaties and creating dissension between states so that
his kingdom might benefit which directly is similar to Bismarck’s strategies of treaties. In fact Kautilya
can be compared to Bismarck that both of them though of extremely complex network of treaties and
relationships without any successor in either case.
Kautilya’s concept regarding state’s secret service is applied in almost all the modern states . Now
governments feel the necessity of keeping secret agencies with a view to gather information regarding
internal crimes , foreign conspiracy and other such hidden offences .
Kautilya’s judicial view is also very much related to the modern judicial practice . Four sources of law
formation , mentioned by Kautilya which are dharma (scared law), vyavhara (evidence), charita
(history and custom), and rajasasana (edicts of the King , now the legislature law formulation
procedure) are still consider as the sources of Legal forms .
Modern administration and Kautilya : The characteristics of Kautilyan bureaucracy are very much
similar with the bureaucracy of Max Weber or modern administrative practice . Kautilyan Amatyas
were appointed , state paid and rule bound which are the main scenario of modern public
administration. Besides hierarchy and reporting system are also prevailing here .
Modern governance and Kautilya : The World Bank in its reports of 1989 and 1992, the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Commission on Global Governance
(1995).United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 1997 have all dealt with the attributes of
good governance extensively. If we give our glace at these indicators of good governance , we can see
that all the elements of modern good governance including accountability , transparency , rule of law
are present here .
9
Sociology of Public Administration
He shows a deep understanding of criminal justice and war justice. Surprisingly, for a harsh and realist
man like Kautilya he shows mercy towards the people defeated in a war and recommends humanity and
justice towards them. He thinks that this important to preserve the mandala structure of war and peace.
He advocated judicial accountability and promoted rule of law.
Contrast With Modern Concepts :
In kautilya’s state , which is monarch , the ruler (prince) is the centre of all activities while in modern
governments with democratic practice , …government of the people , by the people and for the people ,
as cited by Abraham Lincoln .
He believed that the structure and peace is preserved in a society by effective jurisprudence. In today’s
context some of this ideas might be irrelevant.
Confucius (551-479 BC)
About Confucius and his activities : Confucius is the Latinized name of
K'ung Fu-tzu (Great Master K'ung). His original name was K'ung Ch'iu; he
is also known as K'ung Chung-ni. Confucius was the remote offspring of
the royal clans of the Shang dynasty (1600-1100 BC). He learned well the
six classic arts: rites or propriety, music, archery, driving, writing, and
arithmetic.
According to the Records of the Historian, Confucius was a descendant of
a branch of the royal house of Shang, the dynasty (a family of rulers) that
ruled China prior to the Chou, and a dynasty which ruled China from
around 1122 B.C.E. to 221 B.C.E. His family, the K'ung, moved to the
small state of Lu, located in the modern province of Shantung in
northeastern China.
He spent most of his time studying and teaching, gathering a large number of students around him.
Although one can only guess about the school's exact course work, it undoubtedly included instruction
in ritual, music, history, and poetry.
Confucius died in 479 B.C.E.
Shortly after his death his disciples compiled a work known as the Lun yü, commonly translated as the
Analects but more accurately rendered as the Edited Conversations . This work consists of
conversations between Confucius, his students, and an occasional ruler. The primary emphasis of the
Lun yü is on political philosophy. Confucius taught that the primary task of the ruler was to achieve the
welfare (well-being) and happiness of the people of his state. To accomplish this aim, the ruler first had
to set a moral (good character) example by his own conduct. This example would in turn influence the
people's behavior.
Confucius set up the first private school in Chinese history around 525 BC when he was 26 year old.
started to take young disciples and teach them the six arts.
Confucius About State and Society : “a government which is consented to by the people is also
consented to by Heaven, and it is a government that is legitimate.” - Confucius
Sociology of Public Administration
He shows a deep understanding of criminal justice and war justice. Surprisingly, for a harsh and realist
man like Kautilya he shows mercy towards the people defeated in a war and recommends humanity and
justice towards them. He thinks that this important to preserve the mandala structure of war and peace.
He advocated judicial accountability and promoted rule of law.
Contrast With Modern Concepts :
In kautilya’s state , which is monarch , the ruler (prince) is the centre of all activities while in modern
governments with democratic practice , …government of the people , by the people and for the people ,
as cited by Abraham Lincoln .
He believed that the structure and peace is preserved in a society by effective jurisprudence. In today’s
context some of this ideas might be irrelevant.
Confucius (551-479 BC)
About Confucius and his activities : Confucius is the Latinized name of
K'ung Fu-tzu (Great Master K'ung). His original name was K'ung Ch'iu; he
is also known as K'ung Chung-ni. Confucius was the remote offspring of
the royal clans of the Shang dynasty (1600-1100 BC). He learned well the
six classic arts: rites or propriety, music, archery, driving, writing, and
arithmetic.
According to the Records of the Historian, Confucius was a descendant of
a branch of the royal house of Shang, the dynasty (a family of rulers) that
ruled China prior to the Chou, and a dynasty which ruled China from
around 1122 B.C.E. to 221 B.C.E. His family, the K'ung, moved to the
small state of Lu, located in the modern province of Shantung in
northeastern China.
He spent most of his time studying and teaching, gathering a large number of students around him.
Although one can only guess about the school's exact course work, it undoubtedly included instruction
in ritual, music, history, and poetry.
Confucius died in 479 B.C.E.
Shortly after his death his disciples compiled a work known as the Lun yü, commonly translated as the
Analects but more accurately rendered as the Edited Conversations . This work consists of
conversations between Confucius, his students, and an occasional ruler. The primary emphasis of the
Lun yü is on political philosophy. Confucius taught that the primary task of the ruler was to achieve the
welfare (well-being) and happiness of the people of his state. To accomplish this aim, the ruler first had
to set a moral (good character) example by his own conduct. This example would in turn influence the
people's behavior.
Confucius set up the first private school in Chinese history around 525 BC when he was 26 year old.
started to take young disciples and teach them the six arts.
Confucius About State and Society : “a government which is consented to by the people is also
consented to by Heaven, and it is a government that is legitimate.” - Confucius
10
Sociology of Public Administration
Confucian philosophy dictates that the Universe is governed by Heaven's will. In a more concrete way,
this can be understood as natural laws, which exist everywhere in the Universe. The Universe is orderly,
united, harmonious, nourishing, and sustainable. The government is a sub-system in the Universe and
should follow the natural laws.
To achieve universal harmony, Confucians believe that human beings are the principal agents. But only
the learned and the wise - those who achieve moral excellence through humane and benevolent lives
and who cultivate empathy for their fellow beings - can make the universe , the state and the society
harmonious . Thus , in order to illustrate the concept of Confucian state and society , it is necessary to
go through his views regarding a good Mandarin ( Chinese citizen) and ideal society which include
knowledge , moral education and social relationship .
Knowledge : According to Confucius , “He who learns but doesn’t think , is lost ! He who thinks but
doesn’t learn , is in great danger ”. In Confucian education , three things must be taught in order to
make a good citizen which are : History , Poetry and Discipline .
Confucius further asserted that those who are born with knowledge are the best and those who learn
after industrious study are the second best . He thus suggested for eight methods of Education ; these are
: 1) Self Cultivation , 2) Purification , 3) Search Knowledge , 4) Motive of Thinking , 5) Motive of idea
, 6) Motive of family planning , 7) Motive of state satisfaction , and 8) Motive of knowledge .
Moral Education : Confucian view regarding moral education includes 3 philosophies ; Jen , Lee and
Tao .
Jen : The idea of Jen is the essence of all teachings of Confucius . The nearest equivalent to this
word is “Social value”. All the virtues which help to maintain social harmony and peace like
benevolence , charity , magnanimity , sincerity , respectfulness . diligence , loving , kindness etc.
are included in Jen concept . He said that a virtuous man has 3 awes , which are
Awe for heaven’s decree
Awe for Great men
Self Cultivation
Purification
Search Knowledge
Motive of Thinking
Motive of idea
Motive of family planning
Motive of state satisfaction
Motive of knowledge
Sociology of Public Administration
Confucian philosophy dictates that the Universe is governed by Heaven's will. In a more concrete way,
this can be understood as natural laws, which exist everywhere in the Universe. The Universe is orderly,
united, harmonious, nourishing, and sustainable. The government is a sub-system in the Universe and
should follow the natural laws.
To achieve universal harmony, Confucians believe that human beings are the principal agents. But only
the learned and the wise - those who achieve moral excellence through humane and benevolent lives
and who cultivate empathy for their fellow beings - can make the universe , the state and the society
harmonious . Thus , in order to illustrate the concept of Confucian state and society , it is necessary to
go through his views regarding a good Mandarin ( Chinese citizen) and ideal society which include
knowledge , moral education and social relationship .
Knowledge : According to Confucius , “He who learns but doesn’t think , is lost ! He who thinks but
doesn’t learn , is in great danger ”. In Confucian education , three things must be taught in order to
make a good citizen which are : History , Poetry and Discipline .
Confucius further asserted that those who are born with knowledge are the best and those who learn
after industrious study are the second best . He thus suggested for eight methods of Education ; these are
: 1) Self Cultivation , 2) Purification , 3) Search Knowledge , 4) Motive of Thinking , 5) Motive of idea
, 6) Motive of family planning , 7) Motive of state satisfaction , and 8) Motive of knowledge .
Moral Education : Confucian view regarding moral education includes 3 philosophies ; Jen , Lee and
Tao .
Jen : The idea of Jen is the essence of all teachings of Confucius . The nearest equivalent to this
word is “Social value”. All the virtues which help to maintain social harmony and peace like
benevolence , charity , magnanimity , sincerity , respectfulness . diligence , loving , kindness etc.
are included in Jen concept . He said that a virtuous man has 3 awes , which are
Awe for heaven’s decree
Awe for Great men
Self Cultivation
Purification
Search Knowledge
Motive of Thinking
Motive of idea
Motive of family planning
Motive of state satisfaction
Motive of knowledge
11
Sociology of Public Administration
Awe for Saint’s word
Lee : The term “Lee” means the “role of propriety ” includes the qualities like rites, propriety ,
good manners , politeness , ceremony , worship etc.. The direct expression of one’s own nature
will have to restrain by Lee in order to establish the principle of “Jen”.
Tao : “Tao” is the way to an ideal governance . It is not a religious philosophy but natural order
of things .Taoism is a technique to develop the inner spirit and balance the “Yin” and “Yang”
through meditation and contemplation to find perfect happiness .
Social relations : In Confucianism , six relations are supposed to be the basis of all social relations .
These are :
Superior Subordinate
Parent Children
Husband Wife
Elder brother Younger brother
Ruler Subject
Teacher Student
Friend Friend
The superior has the duty of benevolence and care for the subordinates and subordinates have the duty
of obedience . Confucian idea regarding state and society can be summarized in following manner :
Philosophy Message
Moral Cooperation among men , society and within community
Political King must maintain peace and order in society
Religious King people must do worship and perform religious activities
Society Society for ensuring peace
In Confucianism, "a State is a group of people inhabiting a certain territory with a government."
According to Confucius, the most important factor for a state is political unity. Political unity is needed
for two reasons: first, to protect the state from external danger and, second, to govern the country
effectively and efficiently. Confucius said: "There are not two suns in the sky, nor two sovereigns over
the people."
Confucianism and Administration : According to Confucianism, "the administration of one's
family and the State are different only in degree."
According to the Confucian view, the Universe is a hierarchical and unitary system with concentration
of all universal power in Heaven. Hence the Confucian bureaucracy of government should be unitary
and hierarchical. The idea of pluralism has no place in Confucianism. Community-orientation would
inevitably override individualism and private property; and rule by virtue was preferred to rule by law.
The core principle of public administration in Confucianism is the government should be orderly,
united, harmonious, nourishing, and sustainable and it determines the way in which government is
organized and operated.
Confucian philosophy regarding administration can be cited from following table :
Instrument of government Human Judgement
Process Moral Cultivation
Rules Must be clear
Sociology of Public Administration
Awe for Saint’s word
Lee : The term “Lee” means the “role of propriety ” includes the qualities like rites, propriety ,
good manners , politeness , ceremony , worship etc.. The direct expression of one’s own nature
will have to restrain by Lee in order to establish the principle of “Jen”.
Tao : “Tao” is the way to an ideal governance . It is not a religious philosophy but natural order
of things .Taoism is a technique to develop the inner spirit and balance the “Yin” and “Yang”
through meditation and contemplation to find perfect happiness .
Social relations : In Confucianism , six relations are supposed to be the basis of all social relations .
These are :
Superior Subordinate
Parent Children
Husband Wife
Elder brother Younger brother
Ruler Subject
Teacher Student
Friend Friend
The superior has the duty of benevolence and care for the subordinates and subordinates have the duty
of obedience . Confucian idea regarding state and society can be summarized in following manner :
Philosophy Message
Moral Cooperation among men , society and within community
Political King must maintain peace and order in society
Religious King people must do worship and perform religious activities
Society Society for ensuring peace
In Confucianism, "a State is a group of people inhabiting a certain territory with a government."
According to Confucius, the most important factor for a state is political unity. Political unity is needed
for two reasons: first, to protect the state from external danger and, second, to govern the country
effectively and efficiently. Confucius said: "There are not two suns in the sky, nor two sovereigns over
the people."
Confucianism and Administration : According to Confucianism, "the administration of one's
family and the State are different only in degree."
According to the Confucian view, the Universe is a hierarchical and unitary system with concentration
of all universal power in Heaven. Hence the Confucian bureaucracy of government should be unitary
and hierarchical. The idea of pluralism has no place in Confucianism. Community-orientation would
inevitably override individualism and private property; and rule by virtue was preferred to rule by law.
The core principle of public administration in Confucianism is the government should be orderly,
united, harmonious, nourishing, and sustainable and it determines the way in which government is
organized and operated.
Confucian philosophy regarding administration can be cited from following table :
Instrument of government Human Judgement
Process Moral Cultivation
Rules Must be clear
12
Sociology of Public Administration
Purpose Create understanding
Structure Hierarchy
Aspiration To do good
Value Virtue
Governance and Confucianism : Confucianism proposes six arts of governance: rectification,
Chung Yung or the Doctrine of the Mean, rule by virtue, instruction of people, enrichment of people,
and taking public opinion into account.
Rectification is giving to things names which truthfully describe them in order to distinguish between
right and wrong and to set up the universal standard that will distinguish the true from the untrue, the
right from the wrong, the beneficial from the harmful, the logical from the illogical, the just from
the unjust, and the proper from the improper. This standard will be the standard of rational judgment in
collective achievement and social control.
Chung Yung or the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean begins with the assertion that
society is composed of different individuals and groups with different preferences and feelings. There
are six principles for the realization of the Doctrine of the Mean in the practice of government
operation:
i. masses should be governed according to their nature and what is proper for them
ii. reciprocal sympathy and mutual faith must exist between ruler and ruled,
iii. there should be concord of word and action,
iv. the ruler should act properly according to the conditions of the situation in which he finds
himself
v. a proper knowledge and practice of the duties of religion and filial piety would amply equip a
ruler for all the duties of his government
vi. love is foundation of human civilization and through it man is man.
Rule by virtue : The third art of governance is the rule of virtue instead of the rule of law. According to
Confucius, people's behavior depends upon their minds. The most effective way to prevent people from
misconduct is to develop their moral discipline. This enables people to exercise self-control. It is an
inward way which suits the good nature of people and could prevent crimes from their root.
Instruction of people : This art is a corollary of rule by virtue. A government which follows rule by
virtue should consider the instruction of people as its main activity. Instruction in Confucian spirit is
instruction in moral discipline.
Enrichment of people : There is a whole theory about the role of government in economic
development. Confucianism considers that the most important government regulation is regulation of
social wealth. The government should control all the economic resources of society such as "water, fire,
wood, metal, and earth" and distribute them equitably among the people. Confucianism proposes a
policy of nationalization of all land. Individuals have only the right to use the land and land should be
distributed equitably according to the size and the needs of individual families.
Taking public opinion into account : "Heaven is compassionate to the people. What the people desire,
Heaven will effect." Confucianism believe that people's desire is reflected in public opinion, so
understanding public opinion means understanding Heaven's will. According to modern interpretation,
public opinion is feedback from the people and helps a government improve its policies or actions.
Relevance with Modern Concept
Sociology of Public Administration
Purpose Create understanding
Structure Hierarchy
Aspiration To do good
Value Virtue
Governance and Confucianism : Confucianism proposes six arts of governance: rectification,
Chung Yung or the Doctrine of the Mean, rule by virtue, instruction of people, enrichment of people,
and taking public opinion into account.
Rectification is giving to things names which truthfully describe them in order to distinguish between
right and wrong and to set up the universal standard that will distinguish the true from the untrue, the
right from the wrong, the beneficial from the harmful, the logical from the illogical, the just from
the unjust, and the proper from the improper. This standard will be the standard of rational judgment in
collective achievement and social control.
Chung Yung or the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean begins with the assertion that
society is composed of different individuals and groups with different preferences and feelings. There
are six principles for the realization of the Doctrine of the Mean in the practice of government
operation:
i. masses should be governed according to their nature and what is proper for them
ii. reciprocal sympathy and mutual faith must exist between ruler and ruled,
iii. there should be concord of word and action,
iv. the ruler should act properly according to the conditions of the situation in which he finds
himself
v. a proper knowledge and practice of the duties of religion and filial piety would amply equip a
ruler for all the duties of his government
vi. love is foundation of human civilization and through it man is man.
Rule by virtue : The third art of governance is the rule of virtue instead of the rule of law. According to
Confucius, people's behavior depends upon their minds. The most effective way to prevent people from
misconduct is to develop their moral discipline. This enables people to exercise self-control. It is an
inward way which suits the good nature of people and could prevent crimes from their root.
Instruction of people : This art is a corollary of rule by virtue. A government which follows rule by
virtue should consider the instruction of people as its main activity. Instruction in Confucian spirit is
instruction in moral discipline.
Enrichment of people : There is a whole theory about the role of government in economic
development. Confucianism considers that the most important government regulation is regulation of
social wealth. The government should control all the economic resources of society such as "water, fire,
wood, metal, and earth" and distribute them equitably among the people. Confucianism proposes a
policy of nationalization of all land. Individuals have only the right to use the land and land should be
distributed equitably according to the size and the needs of individual families.
Taking public opinion into account : "Heaven is compassionate to the people. What the people desire,
Heaven will effect." Confucianism believe that people's desire is reflected in public opinion, so
understanding public opinion means understanding Heaven's will. According to modern interpretation,
public opinion is feedback from the people and helps a government improve its policies or actions.
Relevance with Modern Concept
13
Sociology of Public Administration
Modern statecraft and Confucius : Confucian order identifies a person by their role in their family
and community in a manner that is uncommon in the contemporary West with its focus on the
individual. The quality of responsibility and excellence associated with education, administration and
technology in Confucian societies contrasts with a steady erosion in Anglo- American ‘universal’
values, institutional authority, financial viability and productive competitiveness. Contrasts in historical
and contemporary achievement are likely to make Confucian norms a benchmark for the 21st Century
global economy.
Education and moral teaching which give a unique order to Confucian philosophy are consider vital
elements of making human resources and good citizen.
Modern administration and Confucius : The Confucian administrator’s ability to operate with equal
efficiency within both capitalist and socialist ideological structures has surprised Western thinkers. The
success of diverse East Asian economies has revealed the false character of many Western theories,
rationalities and values. It has also highlighted the importance of having administrative decisions made
by educated, informed and competent people who are concerned with community welfare, and not
manipulated by private groups, with hidden privileges, superior information and unlimited finance. The
performance of Confucian financial systems in preserving and allocating capital for projects that
advantage the whole community speaks for itself when compared with Western financial systems that
increasingly dysfunction due to manipulation for private benefit.
Confucian administration as overly bureaucratic and Confucian technology as imitative. However, these
qualities equip the Confucian world with unique strengths in managing the challenges ahead.
The conditions for a perfect administration are unitary authority, uniformity of norms or rules in the
system, and perfect obedience. Hierarchical and centralized nature of Confucian bureaucracy make it
synonymous to Weberian and modern public administrative concept .
Modern governance and Confucius : Confucian concept regarding accountability which is a
precondition to establish modern good governance concept is practiced in modern governments widely
as indicated by multi-national donors . Rule by virtue and rule of law also a vital issue in Confucianism.
Modern governance is a governing procedure to ensure welfare and peoples participation, which highly
practiced in Confucianism. A doctrine in Confucianism is the assertion that society is composed of
different individuals and groups with different preferences and feelings which is important in peoples
empowerment .
Contrast with Modern Concept : The Western notion of an individual ’self’ is less evident in
Confucian societies because these place emphasis on the importance of a person’s role and identity in
their family and community. This leads to a pervasive sense of paternal and maternal responsibility.
This has not only become unfashionable but has almost become politically incorrect in the egalitarian
West.
Social and political thinkers like Max Weber addressed Confucian state ineffective and hindrance for
social and economic development .
Ideal type of King which explained by Confucius is nothing but a utopian idea . This type of ruler yet
not sustainable in the modern context .
He further suggested to rule the country by universal law and laws of nature by which he denied rational
and logical legal procedures . Besides the characteristics of good citizen (mandarin ) mentioned by
Confucius is suitable for the then Chinese people not for modern universal citizenship concept .
Sociology of Public Administration
Modern statecraft and Confucius : Confucian order identifies a person by their role in their family
and community in a manner that is uncommon in the contemporary West with its focus on the
individual. The quality of responsibility and excellence associated with education, administration and
technology in Confucian societies contrasts with a steady erosion in Anglo- American ‘universal’
values, institutional authority, financial viability and productive competitiveness. Contrasts in historical
and contemporary achievement are likely to make Confucian norms a benchmark for the 21st Century
global economy.
Education and moral teaching which give a unique order to Confucian philosophy are consider vital
elements of making human resources and good citizen.
Modern administration and Confucius : The Confucian administrator’s ability to operate with equal
efficiency within both capitalist and socialist ideological structures has surprised Western thinkers. The
success of diverse East Asian economies has revealed the false character of many Western theories,
rationalities and values. It has also highlighted the importance of having administrative decisions made
by educated, informed and competent people who are concerned with community welfare, and not
manipulated by private groups, with hidden privileges, superior information and unlimited finance. The
performance of Confucian financial systems in preserving and allocating capital for projects that
advantage the whole community speaks for itself when compared with Western financial systems that
increasingly dysfunction due to manipulation for private benefit.
Confucian administration as overly bureaucratic and Confucian technology as imitative. However, these
qualities equip the Confucian world with unique strengths in managing the challenges ahead.
The conditions for a perfect administration are unitary authority, uniformity of norms or rules in the
system, and perfect obedience. Hierarchical and centralized nature of Confucian bureaucracy make it
synonymous to Weberian and modern public administrative concept .
Modern governance and Confucius : Confucian concept regarding accountability which is a
precondition to establish modern good governance concept is practiced in modern governments widely
as indicated by multi-national donors . Rule by virtue and rule of law also a vital issue in Confucianism.
Modern governance is a governing procedure to ensure welfare and peoples participation, which highly
practiced in Confucianism. A doctrine in Confucianism is the assertion that society is composed of
different individuals and groups with different preferences and feelings which is important in peoples
empowerment .
Contrast with Modern Concept : The Western notion of an individual ’self’ is less evident in
Confucian societies because these place emphasis on the importance of a person’s role and identity in
their family and community. This leads to a pervasive sense of paternal and maternal responsibility.
This has not only become unfashionable but has almost become politically incorrect in the egalitarian
West.
Social and political thinkers like Max Weber addressed Confucian state ineffective and hindrance for
social and economic development .
Ideal type of King which explained by Confucius is nothing but a utopian idea . This type of ruler yet
not sustainable in the modern context .
He further suggested to rule the country by universal law and laws of nature by which he denied rational
and logical legal procedures . Besides the characteristics of good citizen (mandarin ) mentioned by
Confucius is suitable for the then Chinese people not for modern universal citizenship concept .
14
Sociology of Public Administration
Moreover, hardly he suggested for foreign policy and peoples participatory democratic practice which is
very important characteristic of modern government procedures .
Ibn Khaldun (1336-1406 AD)
About Ibn Khaldun : Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun wh
was born in Tunisia on May 27, 1332 (732 A.H.) into an upper-class
Andalusian family , was an Arab famous Muslim polymath: an historian,
historiographer, demographer, economist, philosopher, political theorist,
sociologist and statesman . He has also been called "the father of social
science"and "the founder of 'positive' or 'historical' or 'truly scientific'
social science" in the Islamic world.
Growing up in Tunis, Ibn Khaldun studied the traditional religious sciences
including law according to the Maliki school as well as the rational
sciences. His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with the best
North African teachers of the time. He received a classical Arabic
education, studying the Qur'an and Arabic linguistics, the basis for an understanding of the Qur'an,
hadith, and fiqh. The mystic, mathematician and philosopher Al-Abili introduced him to mathematics,
logic and philosophy, where he above all studied the works of Averroes, Avicenna, Razi and al-Tusi.
He also was trained in the arts necessary for a career in government. Among his teachers, he was most
impressed by al-Abili, who came to Tunis in 1347 and introduced him to philosophy
At the age of 20, he began his political career at the Chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with
the position of Kātib al-'Alāmah, which consisted of writing in fine calligraphy the typical introductory
notes of official documents. His thirst for advanced know- ledge and a better academic setting soon
made him leave this service and migrate to Fez. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by
contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period also included a three year
refuge in a small village Qalat Ibn Salama in Algeria, which provided him with the opportunity to write
Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history that won him an immortal place among historians,
sociolo- gists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career still continued, with Egypt becoming his
final abode where he spent his last 24 years. Here he lived a life of fame and respect, marked by his
appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and lecturing at the Al-Azhar University, but envy caused his
removal from his high judicial office as many as five times. He died on 17 March 1406 .
Apart from the Muqaddimah that became an important independent book even during the lifetime of the
author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I'bar. The last volume deals largely with the
events of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also written in a scientific manner and
initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing autobio- graphy. A book on mathematics written
by him is not extant.
About Al-Muqaddimah : Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology.
He sought to write a world history preamble by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events.
This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena', was based on Ibn Khaldun's unique
approach and original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and
Sociology of Public Administration
Moreover, hardly he suggested for foreign policy and peoples participatory democratic practice which is
very important characteristic of modern government procedures .
Ibn Khaldun (1336-1406 AD)
About Ibn Khaldun : Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun wh
was born in Tunisia on May 27, 1332 (732 A.H.) into an upper-class
Andalusian family , was an Arab famous Muslim polymath: an historian,
historiographer, demographer, economist, philosopher, political theorist,
sociologist and statesman . He has also been called "the father of social
science"and "the founder of 'positive' or 'historical' or 'truly scientific'
social science" in the Islamic world.
Growing up in Tunis, Ibn Khaldun studied the traditional religious sciences
including law according to the Maliki school as well as the rational
sciences. His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with the best
North African teachers of the time. He received a classical Arabic
education, studying the Qur'an and Arabic linguistics, the basis for an understanding of the Qur'an,
hadith, and fiqh. The mystic, mathematician and philosopher Al-Abili introduced him to mathematics,
logic and philosophy, where he above all studied the works of Averroes, Avicenna, Razi and al-Tusi.
He also was trained in the arts necessary for a career in government. Among his teachers, he was most
impressed by al-Abili, who came to Tunis in 1347 and introduced him to philosophy
At the age of 20, he began his political career at the Chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with
the position of Kātib al-'Alāmah, which consisted of writing in fine calligraphy the typical introductory
notes of official documents. His thirst for advanced know- ledge and a better academic setting soon
made him leave this service and migrate to Fez. This was followed by a long period of unrest marked by
contemporary political rivalries affecting his career. This turbulent period also included a three year
refuge in a small village Qalat Ibn Salama in Algeria, which provided him with the opportunity to write
Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history that won him an immortal place among historians,
sociolo- gists and philosophers. The uncertainty of his career still continued, with Egypt becoming his
final abode where he spent his last 24 years. Here he lived a life of fame and respect, marked by his
appointment as the Chief Malakite Judge and lecturing at the Al-Azhar University, but envy caused his
removal from his high judicial office as many as five times. He died on 17 March 1406 .
Apart from the Muqaddimah that became an important independent book even during the lifetime of the
author, the other volumes of his world history Kitab al-I'bar. The last volume deals largely with the
events of his own life and is known as Al-Tasrif. This was also written in a scientific manner and
initiated a new analytical tradition in the art of writing autobio- graphy. A book on mathematics written
by him is not extant.
About Al-Muqaddimah : Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology.
He sought to write a world history preamble by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events.
This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena', was based on Ibn Khaldun's unique
approach and original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and
15
Sociology of Public Administration
sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic,
environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents
of history. In this context, he analysed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-
feelings, al-'Asabiyya, give rise to the ascent of a new civilisation and political power and how, later on,
its diffusion into a more general civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pristine
form.
He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analysed factors
contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike earlier writers
interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasised environmental, sociological,
psychological and economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionized the science of
history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology)
Ibn Khaldun’s Idea About State : Ibn Khaldun’s contribution regarding statecraft include:
concept and reasons of the emergence of the state , State cycle , types of the state and activities of the
state .
Concept of the emergence of the state : said that State emerged from the normal requirement of life .
Cooperation of People needed for maintaining Law and order . Khaldun mentioned this cooperation as
an important element of state emergence . He further said that the religion is the main reason for the
emergence of the state .
Causes behind state formation : According to Ibn Khaldun there are for reasons of state formation .
These are :
a) Formal Cause
b) Material Cause
c) Efficient Cause ; and
d) Final Cause
a ) Formal Cause : At the beginning , people started to live together and created family ,
organizations , society , town , villages etc..These societies and organizations gradually creates state.
b ) Material Cause : In order to full fill the basic needs ,people introduced agriculture and industry.
Those economic system creates the options of politics which lead them to state formation .
c ) Efficient Cause : After social and economic development , people develop their status by
political activities which lead them towards administrative system operation . The creation of
administrative mechanism also a reason for state formation .
d ) Final cause : Ibn Khaldun told about a cycle of rise and fall of the state which include four
stages. A state can go through the whole cycle within the span of three or four generations of rulers.
After declining one regime of state another is emerged.
Khaldun’s State Cycle : Ibn Khaldun‘s state cycle involve four stages . According to him every
state goes through this cyclic process . lasts for four generations before it is overthrown or supplanted
and replaced by a new one .
Public
Administration
Efficiency
Effectiveness
Sociology of Public Administration
sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic,
environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents
of history. In this context, he analysed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-
feelings, al-'Asabiyya, give rise to the ascent of a new civilisation and political power and how, later on,
its diffusion into a more general civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pristine
form.
He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analysed factors
contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike earlier writers
interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasised environmental, sociological,
psychological and economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionized the science of
history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology)
Ibn Khaldun’s Idea About State : Ibn Khaldun’s contribution regarding statecraft include:
concept and reasons of the emergence of the state , State cycle , types of the state and activities of the
state .
Concept of the emergence of the state : said that State emerged from the normal requirement of life .
Cooperation of People needed for maintaining Law and order . Khaldun mentioned this cooperation as
an important element of state emergence . He further said that the religion is the main reason for the
emergence of the state .
Causes behind state formation : According to Ibn Khaldun there are for reasons of state formation .
These are :
a) Formal Cause
b) Material Cause
c) Efficient Cause ; and
d) Final Cause
a ) Formal Cause : At the beginning , people started to live together and created family ,
organizations , society , town , villages etc..These societies and organizations gradually creates state.
b ) Material Cause : In order to full fill the basic needs ,people introduced agriculture and industry.
Those economic system creates the options of politics which lead them to state formation .
c ) Efficient Cause : After social and economic development , people develop their status by
political activities which lead them towards administrative system operation . The creation of
administrative mechanism also a reason for state formation .
d ) Final cause : Ibn Khaldun told about a cycle of rise and fall of the state which include four
stages. A state can go through the whole cycle within the span of three or four generations of rulers.
After declining one regime of state another is emerged.
Khaldun’s State Cycle : Ibn Khaldun‘s state cycle involve four stages . According to him every
state goes through this cyclic process . lasts for four generations before it is overthrown or supplanted
and replaced by a new one .
Public
Administration
Efficiency
Effectiveness
16
Sociology of Public Administration
The first stage: It is the period of establishment. Group solidarity here is based on ties of family
and on religion and is essential for the preservation of the state. The ruler is more a chief than a lord or a
king. He himself has to follow the rules of religion.
The second stage: the ruler succeeds in monopolizing power. He becomes an absolute master.
This monopoly of power by the ruler is the natural and necessary end of the rule that began on the basis
of natural group solidarity. The ruler can now build a well-ordered state.
The third stage : This stage is one of luxury and leisure when the ruler uses his authority to
satisfy his personal needs.
The fourth stage : This is a stage of contentment, satiation, and complacency. Luxury and
comfort have become a habit. Ruler and ruled are confident that they will last forever. And they may
indeed last for quite some time, as the length of this period depends upon the power and the solidity of
the achievements of the founders of the state. But during this stage, the state is already, imperceptibly,
starting to decline and to disintegrate, and the fifth and last stage of prodigality and waste begins.
Figure : State cycle of Ibn Khaldun
Types of state : In acco5rdance with Khaldun , states are of three in types :
i. Religious State : In this type of state , “Allah (God) is the main source of power ” of the rulers
to rule the country . With this belief , rulers rule the country in order to maintain social solidarity
and meet the needs of citizens .
ii. Logical State : Where the state operates it’s activities on the basis of logic where rule of law ,
transparency and accountability is ensured .
iii. Ideal State : This states are operated combining the values of religious states and logical states
along with ruler’s own philosophy about well being of people . According to Khaldun ideal state
can’t exist in reality .
State Activities : In Ibn Khaldun’s contribution , state is vested with following responsibilities :
Ensuring and protecting the sovereignty of the state
Achieve political , economic and administrative efficiency
Ensuring people’s welfare
Ensuring Law and order
Maintain social solidarity
Accountability and transparency of government officials .
Ibn Khaldun’s view regarding Administration : To Ibn Khaldun political at rise and growth,
rulership is held together and united by what he called asabiyyah, technically ‘group feelings’,
‘cohesion’, ‘solidarity’. Due to solidarity and cultural togetherness, the group takes control of
monopolizing
power
luxury and leisure
contentment,
satiation, and
decline
Establishment of
the State through
Group solidarity
Religion
Sociology of Public Administration
The first stage: It is the period of establishment. Group solidarity here is based on ties of family
and on religion and is essential for the preservation of the state. The ruler is more a chief than a lord or a
king. He himself has to follow the rules of religion.
The second stage: the ruler succeeds in monopolizing power. He becomes an absolute master.
This monopoly of power by the ruler is the natural and necessary end of the rule that began on the basis
of natural group solidarity. The ruler can now build a well-ordered state.
The third stage : This stage is one of luxury and leisure when the ruler uses his authority to
satisfy his personal needs.
The fourth stage : This is a stage of contentment, satiation, and complacency. Luxury and
comfort have become a habit. Ruler and ruled are confident that they will last forever. And they may
indeed last for quite some time, as the length of this period depends upon the power and the solidity of
the achievements of the founders of the state. But during this stage, the state is already, imperceptibly,
starting to decline and to disintegrate, and the fifth and last stage of prodigality and waste begins.
Figure : State cycle of Ibn Khaldun
Types of state : In acco5rdance with Khaldun , states are of three in types :
i. Religious State : In this type of state , “Allah (God) is the main source of power ” of the rulers
to rule the country . With this belief , rulers rule the country in order to maintain social solidarity
and meet the needs of citizens .
ii. Logical State : Where the state operates it’s activities on the basis of logic where rule of law ,
transparency and accountability is ensured .
iii. Ideal State : This states are operated combining the values of religious states and logical states
along with ruler’s own philosophy about well being of people . According to Khaldun ideal state
can’t exist in reality .
State Activities : In Ibn Khaldun’s contribution , state is vested with following responsibilities :
Ensuring and protecting the sovereignty of the state
Achieve political , economic and administrative efficiency
Ensuring people’s welfare
Ensuring Law and order
Maintain social solidarity
Accountability and transparency of government officials .
Ibn Khaldun’s view regarding Administration : To Ibn Khaldun political at rise and growth,
rulership is held together and united by what he called asabiyyah, technically ‘group feelings’,
‘cohesion’, ‘solidarity’. Due to solidarity and cultural togetherness, the group takes control of
monopolizing
power
luxury and leisure
contentment,
satiation, and
decline
Establishment of
the State through
Group solidarity
Religion
17
Sociology of Public Administration
governance; administer justice . social group came together to organize themselves and take over
governance through violence. In power, the rulership group institute good leadership, organized
egalitarian economic system, fortified themselves by social reorientation, variables and functional
political activities.
Soon afterwards, the social cohesion began to drift, dwindle and visibly decay as individualism, greed,
avarice, corruption and sleazebag cropped in the system of government. Leadership becomes
authoritarian and viciously tyrannical. They employ coercion and threat to extract the people’s loyalty.
The consequences of this are many. Qualities of administration begin to erode until the regime meets its
waterloo and subsequently eased out by another group of rulership.
As to achieve monopolization of power, the ruler destroys those who share power with him, gets rid of
the natural solidarity that supported him in the beginning, then Khaldun suggested to purchases the
support of bureaucrats and mercenaries who are loyal to him -their employer- and not to a kinship-
solidarity or a religious cause. The army and administrative bureaucracy will be paid government
officials.
Ibn Khaldun’s writing indicates both free market and welfare State on one side, and economic growth
by private sector and State on the other.
He reorganizes the finances of the state to increase his own personal income by lowering the tax burden
on his subjects: this results in large revenue from small assessments. He then spends lavishly on public
works and on the beautification of his cities. There is economic prosperity for everyone, the crafts, fine
arts, sciences are encouraged, the new ruling dass and even the upper strata of the middle class become
avid patrons for cultural pursuits and projects and pleasures of the world.
Khaldun’s concept of Governance : According to Ibn Khaldun, “the strength of the sovereign
(al-mulk) does not materialize except through the implementation of the Shariah, and the Shariah cannot
be implemented except by the sovereign (al-mulk). The sovereign cannot gain strength except through
the people (al-rijal) , the people cannot be sustained except by wealth (al-mal) , wealth cannot be
acquired except through development (al-imarah), development cannot be attained except through
justice (al-adl)”.
The rise and fall of civilizations according to Ibn Khaldun depends on strong State to implement law
through institutions and rule of law, people, wealth, development and justice . To him civilization needs
organisation and cooperation. To him only cooperation or recognition of government by citizens can
save civilisation. Ibn Khaldun can be seen to seek social order in five ways:
the ruler,
the law,
principles of justice. In
the role of moral values
informal mechanism for justice.
All these five values can be considered as components of good governance recognised by a state.
Justice and Rule of Law : To him, justice in the comprehensive sense cannot be fully realized without
asabiyyah‟ (social solidarity). Ibn Khaldun said that “justice is the criterion (al-mizan) by which God
will evaluate mankind for which the sovereign is charged with the responsibility of actualizing”
Sociology of Public Administration
governance; administer justice . social group came together to organize themselves and take over
governance through violence. In power, the rulership group institute good leadership, organized
egalitarian economic system, fortified themselves by social reorientation, variables and functional
political activities.
Soon afterwards, the social cohesion began to drift, dwindle and visibly decay as individualism, greed,
avarice, corruption and sleazebag cropped in the system of government. Leadership becomes
authoritarian and viciously tyrannical. They employ coercion and threat to extract the people’s loyalty.
The consequences of this are many. Qualities of administration begin to erode until the regime meets its
waterloo and subsequently eased out by another group of rulership.
As to achieve monopolization of power, the ruler destroys those who share power with him, gets rid of
the natural solidarity that supported him in the beginning, then Khaldun suggested to purchases the
support of bureaucrats and mercenaries who are loyal to him -their employer- and not to a kinship-
solidarity or a religious cause. The army and administrative bureaucracy will be paid government
officials.
Ibn Khaldun’s writing indicates both free market and welfare State on one side, and economic growth
by private sector and State on the other.
He reorganizes the finances of the state to increase his own personal income by lowering the tax burden
on his subjects: this results in large revenue from small assessments. He then spends lavishly on public
works and on the beautification of his cities. There is economic prosperity for everyone, the crafts, fine
arts, sciences are encouraged, the new ruling dass and even the upper strata of the middle class become
avid patrons for cultural pursuits and projects and pleasures of the world.
Khaldun’s concept of Governance : According to Ibn Khaldun, “the strength of the sovereign
(al-mulk) does not materialize except through the implementation of the Shariah, and the Shariah cannot
be implemented except by the sovereign (al-mulk). The sovereign cannot gain strength except through
the people (al-rijal) , the people cannot be sustained except by wealth (al-mal) , wealth cannot be
acquired except through development (al-imarah), development cannot be attained except through
justice (al-adl)”.
The rise and fall of civilizations according to Ibn Khaldun depends on strong State to implement law
through institutions and rule of law, people, wealth, development and justice . To him civilization needs
organisation and cooperation. To him only cooperation or recognition of government by citizens can
save civilisation. Ibn Khaldun can be seen to seek social order in five ways:
the ruler,
the law,
principles of justice. In
the role of moral values
informal mechanism for justice.
All these five values can be considered as components of good governance recognised by a state.
Justice and Rule of Law : To him, justice in the comprehensive sense cannot be fully realized without
asabiyyah‟ (social solidarity). Ibn Khaldun said that “justice is the criterion (al-mizan) by which God
will evaluate mankind for which the sovereign is charged with the responsibility of actualizing”
18
Sociology of Public Administration
He has warned the State against immoral activities, which can be considered the indicators of economic
decline. He has listed such activities, which include immorality, wrongdoing, insincerity, and trickery,
for the purposes of making a living, lying, gambling, cheating, fraud, theft, perjury, and usury.
Statement reminds the government, its servants, and the citizens to recognise a moral duty to follow the
law.
Accountability and transparency : Ibn Khaldun, therefore, viewed State to be accountable, and
transparent, responsible for its action and permissive to the masses to participate in decision making
according to the principles of shura.
Relevance with Modern concept :
Modern statecraft and Khaldun : If we look toward modern state policies , his four reasons for state
formation covers various modern theories relating to the state formation . His formal state are
synonymous to Marxist state theory while mechanical causes and efficiency causes are parallel to social
contract theories of state formation.
Logical state which ensure welfare , rule of law is a rational state criteria . Most of the modern welfare
state are this type of state or trying to be .
The economic development of Ibn Khaldun contains elements of today‟s sustainable development.
Indeed Emile Durkheim’s concept of “mechanical” and “organic solidarity” reflects Ibn Khaldun’s
notion of ‘asabiyya or “social cohesion”. It is ‘asabiyya that is at the core of the Khaldunian
understanding of society and we shall return to it. Durkheim, himself one of the founding fathers of
modern social science, showed us how the collapse of solidarity led to abnormal behavior.
Modern administration and Khaldun : In his state cycle , Ibn Khaldun mentioned that the state
administration will carry out welfare , beautification and development activities after monopolization of
power . Modern administration works with a view to ensure in this regard .
Mew Public Management (NPM) which proposed for customer oriented and market model economy is
partially related to Khaldun’s view. Ibn Khaldun proposed economic growth through consumption and
market economy and also welfare economy.
Modern governance and Khaldun : State to be accountable, and transparent, responsible for its action
and permissive to the masses to participate in decision making is a prime concern in Khaldun’s
governance procedure.
His rule of Law which can be established through the practice of asabiyya is an important element of
modern governing process .
Contrast with the Modern concept :
Khaldun in his state cycle said about the monopolization of the power of the rule , which is just opposite
of democratic practice , may create hindrance on the way of development and also a major advocacy for
dictatorship .
Sociology of Public Administration
He has warned the State against immoral activities, which can be considered the indicators of economic
decline. He has listed such activities, which include immorality, wrongdoing, insincerity, and trickery,
for the purposes of making a living, lying, gambling, cheating, fraud, theft, perjury, and usury.
Statement reminds the government, its servants, and the citizens to recognise a moral duty to follow the
law.
Accountability and transparency : Ibn Khaldun, therefore, viewed State to be accountable, and
transparent, responsible for its action and permissive to the masses to participate in decision making
according to the principles of shura.
Relevance with Modern concept :
Modern statecraft and Khaldun : If we look toward modern state policies , his four reasons for state
formation covers various modern theories relating to the state formation . His formal state are
synonymous to Marxist state theory while mechanical causes and efficiency causes are parallel to social
contract theories of state formation.
Logical state which ensure welfare , rule of law is a rational state criteria . Most of the modern welfare
state are this type of state or trying to be .
The economic development of Ibn Khaldun contains elements of today‟s sustainable development.
Indeed Emile Durkheim’s concept of “mechanical” and “organic solidarity” reflects Ibn Khaldun’s
notion of ‘asabiyya or “social cohesion”. It is ‘asabiyya that is at the core of the Khaldunian
understanding of society and we shall return to it. Durkheim, himself one of the founding fathers of
modern social science, showed us how the collapse of solidarity led to abnormal behavior.
Modern administration and Khaldun : In his state cycle , Ibn Khaldun mentioned that the state
administration will carry out welfare , beautification and development activities after monopolization of
power . Modern administration works with a view to ensure in this regard .
Mew Public Management (NPM) which proposed for customer oriented and market model economy is
partially related to Khaldun’s view. Ibn Khaldun proposed economic growth through consumption and
market economy and also welfare economy.
Modern governance and Khaldun : State to be accountable, and transparent, responsible for its action
and permissive to the masses to participate in decision making is a prime concern in Khaldun’s
governance procedure.
His rule of Law which can be established through the practice of asabiyya is an important element of
modern governing process .
Contrast with the Modern concept :
Khaldun in his state cycle said about the monopolization of the power of the rule , which is just opposite
of democratic practice , may create hindrance on the way of development and also a major advocacy for
dictatorship .
19
Sociology of Public Administration
The third stage of state cycle is called about luxury and leisure of the state mechanism organs which
may lead economic inefficiency and which will accelerate the consumption rate of the state , thus
economic crisis can be emerged.
Khaldun’s bureaucrats would be loyal to the king other than being accountable to the people . Hardly
there have procedures to ensure king’s officials accountability in Ibn Khaldun’s theory.
Max Weber (1864 - 1920)
About Max Weber and his contribution : Max Weber, a famous
German sociologist and political economist , was born on April 21,
1864 in Erfurt, Prussia (Germany). Weber was the eldest son of Max
and Helene Weber. His father was an aspiring liberal politician who
soon joined the more compliant, pro-Bismarckian “National-Liberals”
and moved the family from Erfurt to Berlin, where he became a
member of the Prussian House of Deputies (1868–97) and the
Reichstag (1872–84).
Weber left home to enroll at the University of Heidelberg in 1882,
interrupting his studies after two years to fulfill his year of military
service at Strasburg. After his release from the military, however,
Weber was asked by his father to finish his studies at the University of Berlin. One year after his
appointment at Berlin, he became a full professor in political economy at Freiburg, and the following
year (1896) he attained that position at Heidelberg. Following his doctoral and postdoctoral theses on
the agrarian history of ancient Rome and the evolution of medieval trading societies, respectively,
Weber wrote a comprehensive analysis of the agrarian problems of eastern Germany for one of the
country's most important academic societies, the Union for Social Policy (1890). He also wrote
important essays on the German stock exchange and the social decline of Latin antiquity. He was
politically active in these years, working with the left-liberal Protestant Social Union.
The high point of his early scholarly career was his inaugural address at Freiburg in 1895, in which he
pulled together some five years of study on the agrarian problems of Germany east of the Elbe into a
devastating indictment of the ruling Junker aristocracy as historically obsolete. Weber's Freiburg
address thus advanced an ideology of “liberal imperialism,” attracting to its support such important
liberal publicists as Friedrich Naumann and Hans Delbrck.
Indeed, Weber's most powerful impact on his contemporaries came in the last years of his life, when,
from 1916 to 1918, he argued powerfully against Germany's annexationist war goals and in favour of a
strengthened parliament. He stood bravely for sobriety in politics and scholarship against the
apocalyptic mood of right-wing students in the months following Germany's defeat in World War I.
After assisting in the drafting of the new constitution and in the founding of the German Democratic
Party, Weber died of a lung infection in June 1920.
He worked as a university professor until suffering a nervous collapse. He returned to scholarship in
1903 and wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber argued against Germany's
WWI goals and after the war--assisted in drafting the new constitution and in the founding of the
German Democratic Party. He died in 1920.
Max Weber’s view about State : Hence, wherever possible, political democracy strives to
shorten the term of office by election and recall, and by not binding the candidate to a special
Sociology of Public Administration
The third stage of state cycle is called about luxury and leisure of the state mechanism organs which
may lead economic inefficiency and which will accelerate the consumption rate of the state , thus
economic crisis can be emerged.
Khaldun’s bureaucrats would be loyal to the king other than being accountable to the people . Hardly
there have procedures to ensure king’s officials accountability in Ibn Khaldun’s theory.
Max Weber (1864 - 1920)
About Max Weber and his contribution : Max Weber, a famous
German sociologist and political economist , was born on April 21,
1864 in Erfurt, Prussia (Germany). Weber was the eldest son of Max
and Helene Weber. His father was an aspiring liberal politician who
soon joined the more compliant, pro-Bismarckian “National-Liberals”
and moved the family from Erfurt to Berlin, where he became a
member of the Prussian House of Deputies (1868–97) and the
Reichstag (1872–84).
Weber left home to enroll at the University of Heidelberg in 1882,
interrupting his studies after two years to fulfill his year of military
service at Strasburg. After his release from the military, however,
Weber was asked by his father to finish his studies at the University of Berlin. One year after his
appointment at Berlin, he became a full professor in political economy at Freiburg, and the following
year (1896) he attained that position at Heidelberg. Following his doctoral and postdoctoral theses on
the agrarian history of ancient Rome and the evolution of medieval trading societies, respectively,
Weber wrote a comprehensive analysis of the agrarian problems of eastern Germany for one of the
country's most important academic societies, the Union for Social Policy (1890). He also wrote
important essays on the German stock exchange and the social decline of Latin antiquity. He was
politically active in these years, working with the left-liberal Protestant Social Union.
The high point of his early scholarly career was his inaugural address at Freiburg in 1895, in which he
pulled together some five years of study on the agrarian problems of Germany east of the Elbe into a
devastating indictment of the ruling Junker aristocracy as historically obsolete. Weber's Freiburg
address thus advanced an ideology of “liberal imperialism,” attracting to its support such important
liberal publicists as Friedrich Naumann and Hans Delbrck.
Indeed, Weber's most powerful impact on his contemporaries came in the last years of his life, when,
from 1916 to 1918, he argued powerfully against Germany's annexationist war goals and in favour of a
strengthened parliament. He stood bravely for sobriety in politics and scholarship against the
apocalyptic mood of right-wing students in the months following Germany's defeat in World War I.
After assisting in the drafting of the new constitution and in the founding of the German Democratic
Party, Weber died of a lung infection in June 1920.
He worked as a university professor until suffering a nervous collapse. He returned to scholarship in
1903 and wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber argued against Germany's
WWI goals and after the war--assisted in drafting the new constitution and in the founding of the
German Democratic Party. He died in 1920.
Max Weber’s view about State : Hence, wherever possible, political democracy strives to
shorten the term of office by election and recall, and by not binding the candidate to a special
20
Sociology of Public Administration
expertness. Thereby democracy inevitably comes into conflict with the bureaucratic tendencies, which,
by its fight against notable rule, democracy has produced. -Max Weber, Bureaucracy
In Weber’s theory , the doctrine that money is a creature of the state, or alternatively put that money is
a creature of the law. His ideas about monetary authorities formulating monetary policy only with a
view to stability in foreign exchange rates are often neglected in summaries of his major contributions,
although it is clear that he, himself, took these ideas to be central to The State Theory of Money.
Weber talks elsewhere about the formation of the nation state as a process of the concentration of
power—of the means of coercion—in the hands of a single institution, here he is talking about its
diffusion throughout social networks and relationships.
His descriptions of the entrepreneur are occasionally cast in an almost heroic register: ‘a modern
manufacturer, chained to the unremitting, intense, exhausting work of running his business, is, of all the
representatives of the propertied strata, the type who is least able to make himself available for politics’.
Modernization theory : As Weber believed that “nobody wants to be governed by ill bred parvenus” .
Weber’s preferred solution is the modernization of politics through the adoption of now standard
features of representative democracy: parliaments, party competition, a quasi-plebiscitary system of
elections and ambitious politicians competing for power and personal glory.
According to him , modernity = Landflucht (flight from the land) + capitalism + Protestantism +
democracy + individualism,
Weber shares the bourgeois ambitions for modernization in the economic, political and cultural spheres,
and the content of that modernization reflects bourgeois values. These proposed ‘three modernizations'
can be summed up as follows:
It is also important to note the degree of interdependence of these modernizing strategies, the adoption
of any one of which can be a means to the modernization of any of the others. For example, cultural
modernization can act as a strategy of political and economic modernization, but equally political and
economic modernization will impact on culture. This interpretation of Weber not as pessimistic or tragic
theorist of modernity, but as a campaigner on its behalf casts the more familiar aspects of his analysis of
power and politics in a difference light.
Sociology of Public Administration
expertness. Thereby democracy inevitably comes into conflict with the bureaucratic tendencies, which,
by its fight against notable rule, democracy has produced. -Max Weber, Bureaucracy
In Weber’s theory , the doctrine that money is a creature of the state, or alternatively put that money is
a creature of the law. His ideas about monetary authorities formulating monetary policy only with a
view to stability in foreign exchange rates are often neglected in summaries of his major contributions,
although it is clear that he, himself, took these ideas to be central to The State Theory of Money.
Weber talks elsewhere about the formation of the nation state as a process of the concentration of
power—of the means of coercion—in the hands of a single institution, here he is talking about its
diffusion throughout social networks and relationships.
His descriptions of the entrepreneur are occasionally cast in an almost heroic register: ‘a modern
manufacturer, chained to the unremitting, intense, exhausting work of running his business, is, of all the
representatives of the propertied strata, the type who is least able to make himself available for politics’.
Modernization theory : As Weber believed that “nobody wants to be governed by ill bred parvenus” .
Weber’s preferred solution is the modernization of politics through the adoption of now standard
features of representative democracy: parliaments, party competition, a quasi-plebiscitary system of
elections and ambitious politicians competing for power and personal glory.
According to him , modernity = Landflucht (flight from the land) + capitalism + Protestantism +
democracy + individualism,
Weber shares the bourgeois ambitions for modernization in the economic, political and cultural spheres,
and the content of that modernization reflects bourgeois values. These proposed ‘three modernizations'
can be summed up as follows:
It is also important to note the degree of interdependence of these modernizing strategies, the adoption
of any one of which can be a means to the modernization of any of the others. For example, cultural
modernization can act as a strategy of political and economic modernization, but equally political and
economic modernization will impact on culture. This interpretation of Weber not as pessimistic or tragic
theorist of modernity, but as a campaigner on its behalf casts the more familiar aspects of his analysis of
power and politics in a difference light.
21
Sociology of Public Administration
Social Action : As a major foundation of both pragmatism and post-structuralism through his
spherically diverse analysis of “social action”, Weber’s relevance to the realities of contemporary
political culture cannot be overlooked by today’s administration theories. It is in the study of the
‘external’ characteristic of these categorical forms of action in their ‘effective’ impact on others that
Weber’s analysis becomes socially relevant, rather than merely academic. As Weber states in his The
Nature of Social Action:
External behavior is not ‘social action’ when it results simply from expectations
about the behavior of material objects. Internal behavior counts as ‘social action’
only when it has relation to the behavior of other people.
It is in this fundamental application of “social action” through experienced externalities within a multi-
dimensional analysis of modernity that the political value of Weber is realized. This is accomplished by
comparing the principles of “social action” with the public/private dichotomy of pragmatic political
theory; this theory redefined the
Social relationship : The behavior of actors is the meaningful content , the action of each takes account
of the others and is oriented to the behavior of others . Mere group memberships is not sufficient . The
relations of the actors may be solidarity , or the opposite (i.e. a ‘state’ ceases to exist when there is no
longer a probability that certain kinds of meaningful oriented social action takes place .)
The subjective meaning need not be the same for all parties to the relationship . The relationship may be
temporary or long term . Its subject meaning may change over time .
Legitimacy , power and authority : Weber differentiated authority , power and control . To him , a
person could be said to posses power , if any social relationship , his will could be enforced despite
resistance .For Weber , ‘authority’ was identically with the ‘authoritarian power of command ’. Weber
identified five essential components of authority , these are
1. an individual or a body of individuals who rule
2. an individual or a body of individuals who are ruled
3. the will of the rulers to influence the conduct of the ruled and an expression of that will or will
command
4. evidence of the influence of the rulers in terms of object degree of commend
5. direct or indirect evidence of the that influence in terms of the subjective acceptance with which
the ruled obey the commend.
Legitimacy of an order can be upheld in 2 ways :
Purely disinterested motives including purely effectual , rational belief in absolute validity of an
order as an expression of ultimate values and religious attitudes through belief in need to follow
order for salvation
Entirely through self interest based on ulterior motives .
Types of legitimate authority : there are 3 pure types of legitimate authority , these are :
Legal / Rational authority : It is manifested in organizations where rules are applied judicially
and in accordance with ascertainable principles valid for all members in the organization .
Authority held by legally established impersonal order , extends to people only by virtue of
offices the held .
Traditional authority :It refers to the established belief in the sanctity of memorial tradition
and the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them . Authority held be a
Sociology of Public Administration
Social Action : As a major foundation of both pragmatism and post-structuralism through his
spherically diverse analysis of “social action”, Weber’s relevance to the realities of contemporary
political culture cannot be overlooked by today’s administration theories. It is in the study of the
‘external’ characteristic of these categorical forms of action in their ‘effective’ impact on others that
Weber’s analysis becomes socially relevant, rather than merely academic. As Weber states in his The
Nature of Social Action:
External behavior is not ‘social action’ when it results simply from expectations
about the behavior of material objects. Internal behavior counts as ‘social action’
only when it has relation to the behavior of other people.
It is in this fundamental application of “social action” through experienced externalities within a multi-
dimensional analysis of modernity that the political value of Weber is realized. This is accomplished by
comparing the principles of “social action” with the public/private dichotomy of pragmatic political
theory; this theory redefined the
Social relationship : The behavior of actors is the meaningful content , the action of each takes account
of the others and is oriented to the behavior of others . Mere group memberships is not sufficient . The
relations of the actors may be solidarity , or the opposite (i.e. a ‘state’ ceases to exist when there is no
longer a probability that certain kinds of meaningful oriented social action takes place .)
The subjective meaning need not be the same for all parties to the relationship . The relationship may be
temporary or long term . Its subject meaning may change over time .
Legitimacy , power and authority : Weber differentiated authority , power and control . To him , a
person could be said to posses power , if any social relationship , his will could be enforced despite
resistance .For Weber , ‘authority’ was identically with the ‘authoritarian power of command ’. Weber
identified five essential components of authority , these are
1. an individual or a body of individuals who rule
2. an individual or a body of individuals who are ruled
3. the will of the rulers to influence the conduct of the ruled and an expression of that will or will
command
4. evidence of the influence of the rulers in terms of object degree of commend
5. direct or indirect evidence of the that influence in terms of the subjective acceptance with which
the ruled obey the commend.
Legitimacy of an order can be upheld in 2 ways :
Purely disinterested motives including purely effectual , rational belief in absolute validity of an
order as an expression of ultimate values and religious attitudes through belief in need to follow
order for salvation
Entirely through self interest based on ulterior motives .
Types of legitimate authority : there are 3 pure types of legitimate authority , these are :
Legal / Rational authority : It is manifested in organizations where rules are applied judicially
and in accordance with ascertainable principles valid for all members in the organization .
Authority held by legally established impersonal order , extends to people only by virtue of
offices the held .
Traditional authority :It refers to the established belief in the sanctity of memorial tradition
and the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them . Authority held be a
22
Sociology of Public Administration
person of the chief who occupies the traditionally sanctioned position of authority ; matter of
personal obligation and loyalty within the scope of tradition .
Charismatic authority : it is the devotion of the specific and exceptional sanctity , heroism or
exemplary character of an individual person , and of the normative pattern or order revealed by
him . Leader obeyed by personal trust in him , his revelation , heroism, coolness , as far as those
qualities fall within the scope of the obeyers belief in his charisma .
Weberian Administration : In a modern state real rule, which becomes effective in everyday life
neither through parliamentary speeches nor through the pronouncements of monarchs but through the
day-to-day management of the administration, necessarily and inevitably lies in the hands of
officialdom, both military and civilian – Max Weber
This newfound principle of political rule is in stark contrast to Max Weber’s belief in the eventual
“leveling of the governed” in their submission to a rational-legal order. According to Weber, this system
will be administered by bureaucratic experts. These experts would reign within a stratified structure of
“officially” authorized methods of discipline.
Max Weber continued the process of defining the features of an organizational system that would result
in the greatest efficiency and best work-product. He laid out the six characteristics of bureaucracy:
1. There is the principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered
by rules, that is, by laws or administrative regulations.
2. The principles of office hierarchy and of levels of graded authority mean a firmly ordered
system of super and subordination in which there is a supervision of the lower offices by the
higher ones.
3. The management of the modern office is based upon written documents (“the files”), which
are preserved in their original or draught form.
4. Office management, at least all specialized office management – and such management is
distinctly modern – usually presupposes thorough and expert training.
5. When the office is fully developed, official activity demands the full working capacity of the
official, irrespective of the fact that his obligatory time in the bureau may be firmly
delimited.
6. The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less stable, more or
less exhaustive, and which can be learned.
From the above characteristics of Weberian model of bureaucracy the main elements of it can be
determined as mentioned below :
Impersonal order
Rule bound
Sphere of competence including obligation , provision and compulsions
Hierarchy
Personal and public end
Written documents ; and
Monocratic type
Weber’s thoughts on Governance : From Weber’s perspective it is seen that he suggested for
modernization of the government , democratic practice , market orientation and rule of law . Weberian
governance concept thus includes :
Promotion of democracy and people’s participation: Weber urged his suggestion for the adoption of
now standard features of representative democracy including parliaments, party competition which will
ensure efficient and effective governance and people’s participation.
Sociology of Public Administration
person of the chief who occupies the traditionally sanctioned position of authority ; matter of
personal obligation and loyalty within the scope of tradition .
Charismatic authority : it is the devotion of the specific and exceptional sanctity , heroism or
exemplary character of an individual person , and of the normative pattern or order revealed by
him . Leader obeyed by personal trust in him , his revelation , heroism, coolness , as far as those
qualities fall within the scope of the obeyers belief in his charisma .
Weberian Administration : In a modern state real rule, which becomes effective in everyday life
neither through parliamentary speeches nor through the pronouncements of monarchs but through the
day-to-day management of the administration, necessarily and inevitably lies in the hands of
officialdom, both military and civilian – Max Weber
This newfound principle of political rule is in stark contrast to Max Weber’s belief in the eventual
“leveling of the governed” in their submission to a rational-legal order. According to Weber, this system
will be administered by bureaucratic experts. These experts would reign within a stratified structure of
“officially” authorized methods of discipline.
Max Weber continued the process of defining the features of an organizational system that would result
in the greatest efficiency and best work-product. He laid out the six characteristics of bureaucracy:
1. There is the principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered
by rules, that is, by laws or administrative regulations.
2. The principles of office hierarchy and of levels of graded authority mean a firmly ordered
system of super and subordination in which there is a supervision of the lower offices by the
higher ones.
3. The management of the modern office is based upon written documents (“the files”), which
are preserved in their original or draught form.
4. Office management, at least all specialized office management – and such management is
distinctly modern – usually presupposes thorough and expert training.
5. When the office is fully developed, official activity demands the full working capacity of the
official, irrespective of the fact that his obligatory time in the bureau may be firmly
delimited.
6. The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less stable, more or
less exhaustive, and which can be learned.
From the above characteristics of Weberian model of bureaucracy the main elements of it can be
determined as mentioned below :
Impersonal order
Rule bound
Sphere of competence including obligation , provision and compulsions
Hierarchy
Personal and public end
Written documents ; and
Monocratic type
Weber’s thoughts on Governance : From Weber’s perspective it is seen that he suggested for
modernization of the government , democratic practice , market orientation and rule of law . Weberian
governance concept thus includes :
Promotion of democracy and people’s participation: Weber urged his suggestion for the adoption of
now standard features of representative democracy including parliaments, party competition which will
ensure efficient and effective governance and people’s participation.
23
Sociology of Public Administration
Rule of Law : Weber believed that “A modern society in which rule is not exercised via the day-to-day
operation of administration is unthinkable.” In his bureaucratic model he suggested to govern the
government officials in accordance with the law .
Economic and Sustain able development : The governing procedure , in Weberian practice , include
the market orientation of all financial activities and accelerate the market based economy which are
very important for socio-economic development of a country.
Relevance with Modern Concept
Modern statecraft and Max Weber : Weberian states are the money centered state which accelerated
the market orientation of states .Liberalism basis of Weber’s theory is also an important characteristics
of modern statecrafts. Legitimacy , power and authority which distinguished by Weber is still accepted
and practiced theory . Weber draws the values of the bourgeoisie are suitable to a modern society
because only these are sufficiently individualistic and democratic. Anyone can become bourgeois given
the right breaks, but even the right breaks can never make you satisfaktionsfähig
Modern administration and Max Weber : Weberian bureaucracy is an important well accepted
paradigm in the field of public administration. His characteristics of bureaucracy is similar to existing
state officials in many countries like Bangladesh.
Modern governance and Max Weber : Modernization of the government , democratic practice and
market orientation as suggested by Max Weber are symbols of modern governance trends.
Contrast with modern Concept : Market orient and limited state intervention is now seen as an
inefficient procedure and constraints for development . Also the curse for recent global famines also
vested on the shoulder of such practices. Besides, money based government system and bourgeoisies
practice is highly criticized by Marxist theorists.
The problem of a clash between two modern values indicated by Weber : technical efficiency and
individualism. These are the two pillars on which modern society rests for Weber, but they are not
compatible. Individualism alone would give whim and whimsy the upper hand and destroy the stability
of the social environment and level of predictability on which rational capitalism above all rests. But
equally, technical efficiency threatens to destroy any individuality making political leadership
impossible and rendering ‘society’ rudderless. Secondly, it follows for Weber that the challenge then is
to design institutions in which these two necessary but mutually incompatible principles are held in
check or in which they can be yoked in tandem to pull in a common direction.
Weber’s bureaucratic paradigm is now marked as an inefficient administrative procedure. This practice
is highly criticized by New Public Management thinker like Pillotte , Geabler etc..
Conclusion :
Kautilya had a rational approach to governance and statecraft. He conceptualized the state and the office
of the kingship to be human artifacts. Also his model of the human being was very realistic. However
he expected super human qualities from a 'human' King. While , the Confucian tradition of fondness of
learning is considered as an advantage to these countries in their transformation from the industrial to a
postindustrial or intellectual stage of development, where knowledge is a key to prosperity .
Ibn Khaldun‟s writings on rise and fall of civilisation can be divided into two: the causes of
development and the causes of fall. Some points regarding the former are very identical to current views
for economic and social development as well as good governance. The indicators of fall seem to be
Sociology of Public Administration
Rule of Law : Weber believed that “A modern society in which rule is not exercised via the day-to-day
operation of administration is unthinkable.” In his bureaucratic model he suggested to govern the
government officials in accordance with the law .
Economic and Sustain able development : The governing procedure , in Weberian practice , include
the market orientation of all financial activities and accelerate the market based economy which are
very important for socio-economic development of a country.
Relevance with Modern Concept
Modern statecraft and Max Weber : Weberian states are the money centered state which accelerated
the market orientation of states .Liberalism basis of Weber’s theory is also an important characteristics
of modern statecrafts. Legitimacy , power and authority which distinguished by Weber is still accepted
and practiced theory . Weber draws the values of the bourgeoisie are suitable to a modern society
because only these are sufficiently individualistic and democratic. Anyone can become bourgeois given
the right breaks, but even the right breaks can never make you satisfaktionsfähig
Modern administration and Max Weber : Weberian bureaucracy is an important well accepted
paradigm in the field of public administration. His characteristics of bureaucracy is similar to existing
state officials in many countries like Bangladesh.
Modern governance and Max Weber : Modernization of the government , democratic practice and
market orientation as suggested by Max Weber are symbols of modern governance trends.
Contrast with modern Concept : Market orient and limited state intervention is now seen as an
inefficient procedure and constraints for development . Also the curse for recent global famines also
vested on the shoulder of such practices. Besides, money based government system and bourgeoisies
practice is highly criticized by Marxist theorists.
The problem of a clash between two modern values indicated by Weber : technical efficiency and
individualism. These are the two pillars on which modern society rests for Weber, but they are not
compatible. Individualism alone would give whim and whimsy the upper hand and destroy the stability
of the social environment and level of predictability on which rational capitalism above all rests. But
equally, technical efficiency threatens to destroy any individuality making political leadership
impossible and rendering ‘society’ rudderless. Secondly, it follows for Weber that the challenge then is
to design institutions in which these two necessary but mutually incompatible principles are held in
check or in which they can be yoked in tandem to pull in a common direction.
Weber’s bureaucratic paradigm is now marked as an inefficient administrative procedure. This practice
is highly criticized by New Public Management thinker like Pillotte , Geabler etc..
Conclusion :
Kautilya had a rational approach to governance and statecraft. He conceptualized the state and the office
of the kingship to be human artifacts. Also his model of the human being was very realistic. However
he expected super human qualities from a 'human' King. While , the Confucian tradition of fondness of
learning is considered as an advantage to these countries in their transformation from the industrial to a
postindustrial or intellectual stage of development, where knowledge is a key to prosperity .
Ibn Khaldun‟s writings on rise and fall of civilisation can be divided into two: the causes of
development and the causes of fall. Some points regarding the former are very identical to current views
for economic and social development as well as good governance. The indicators of fall seem to be
24
Sociology of Public Administration
greed for luxury, corruption of morality, and tyranny. The negation of these factors by analogy will be
the indicators of sustainable development. Since the time of Max Weber and his sociological research
on bureaucracy, public administration has played a major role in the ever shifting relationship between
the individual and the community. In the twenty-first century, the contemporary liberal democratic
impulse towards both an unfettered individualism (libertarianism) and a strong localized civic
community or culture has developed major challenges to Weber’s ‘modern’ approach to public
administration.
References and bibliography :
1. Khattak, Masood.Ur.Rehman ; 2011 , Indian strategic thinking: a reflection of Kautilya’s six-fold
policy
2. Chandrasekaran, Pravin , 2006 , KAUTILYA: POLITICS, ETHICS AND STATECRAFT , Harvard University
3. Sharma, Dr. Sanjeev Kumar , 2005, Indian Idea of Good Governance : Revisiting Kautilya’s
Arthshastra
4. Niaz , Ilhan; 2006 , Kautilya’s Arthashastra and governance as an element of state power
5. Prakash , Aseem ; 1993 , State and Statecraft in Kautilya's Arthasastra
6. Sihag , Balbir S. ; KAUTILYA ON ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE DURING THE FOURTH CENTURY B.C. , Journal
of the History of Economic Thought, Volume 29, Number 3, September 2007
7. Bryer, Thomas A. ; Bureaucratization and Active Citizenship: Approaches to Administrative Reform ,
Los Angeles, USA
8. Chau , Dao Minh ; ADMINISTRATIVE CONCEPTS IN CONFUCIANISM AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN COUNTRIES , ASIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION VOL. 18, NO. 1
(JUNE 1996): 45-69
9. Little, Reg ; Confucian Reconstruction of Global Economics and Finance , Culture Mandala: Bulletin
of the Centre for East-West Cultural & Economic Studies, Vol. 8, Issue 2, December 2009, pp.62-73;
10. Fetze , Joel S. and Soper, J. Christopher ; The Effect of Confucian Values on Support for Democracy
and Human Rights in Taiwan , Taiwan Journal of Democracy, Volume 3, No.1: 143-154
11. Lee , Boyung ; A Confucian Perspective on Western Notions About Globalization , Boston College,
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
12. Tehranian, Majid ; GLOBALISM, LOCALISM, AND ISLAMISM: Migration, Identity, and World System
Development
13. Li, You-Sheng ; Stories of Lao Tzu, Confucius, and Chuang Tzu written
14. Azadarmaki , Taghi ; IBN KHALDUN'S SOCIAL THEORY AND IRANIAN SOCIETY
15. Tomar , Cengiz ; BETWEEN MYTH AND REALITY: DEBATES ON IBN KHALDUN IN THE ARAB WORLD
16. Kaplan, Yusuf ; THE WESTERN INTERPRETERS AND IBN KHALDUN’S CONCEPTION OF CIVILIZATION
17. Ahmed , Akbar ; Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West
Today
18. ROSEN , LAWRENCE; Theorizing from Within: Ibn Khaldun and His Political Culture
19. Mohammad, Tahir Sabit Haji , Ph.D. ; PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN IBN KHALDUN’S
ECONOMIC THOUGHT , Malaysian Journal of Real Estate, Volume 5, Number 1 2010
20. STOWASSER , Dr. Barbara ; IBN KHALDUN'S PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY: THE RISE AND FALL OF STATES AND
CIVILlZATIONS , Georgetown University. Wash. D.C.
21. Jarvis , Doug ; Max Weber and Public Administration in Today’s Democratic Community
22. Maclachlan, Fiona; Max Weber and the State Theory of Money
23. Lenzer , Gertrud ; Whither Sociology? Some eflections on the Ideas of ‘Globalization’ and ‘Social
Capital’, International Review of Sociology Revue Internationale de Sociologie Vol. 17, No. 3,
November 2007, pp. 495 _509
24. Scott , Alan ; 2000 , Capitalism, Weber and Democracy
Sociology of Public Administration
greed for luxury, corruption of morality, and tyranny. The negation of these factors by analogy will be
the indicators of sustainable development. Since the time of Max Weber and his sociological research
on bureaucracy, public administration has played a major role in the ever shifting relationship between
the individual and the community. In the twenty-first century, the contemporary liberal democratic
impulse towards both an unfettered individualism (libertarianism) and a strong localized civic
community or culture has developed major challenges to Weber’s ‘modern’ approach to public
administration.
References and bibliography :
1. Khattak, Masood.Ur.Rehman ; 2011 , Indian strategic thinking: a reflection of Kautilya’s six-fold
policy
2. Chandrasekaran, Pravin , 2006 , KAUTILYA: POLITICS, ETHICS AND STATECRAFT , Harvard University
3. Sharma, Dr. Sanjeev Kumar , 2005, Indian Idea of Good Governance : Revisiting Kautilya’s
Arthshastra
4. Niaz , Ilhan; 2006 , Kautilya’s Arthashastra and governance as an element of state power
5. Prakash , Aseem ; 1993 , State and Statecraft in Kautilya's Arthasastra
6. Sihag , Balbir S. ; KAUTILYA ON ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE DURING THE FOURTH CENTURY B.C. , Journal
of the History of Economic Thought, Volume 29, Number 3, September 2007
7. Bryer, Thomas A. ; Bureaucratization and Active Citizenship: Approaches to Administrative Reform ,
Los Angeles, USA
8. Chau , Dao Minh ; ADMINISTRATIVE CONCEPTS IN CONFUCIANISM AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN COUNTRIES , ASIAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION VOL. 18, NO. 1
(JUNE 1996): 45-69
9. Little, Reg ; Confucian Reconstruction of Global Economics and Finance , Culture Mandala: Bulletin
of the Centre for East-West Cultural & Economic Studies, Vol. 8, Issue 2, December 2009, pp.62-73;
10. Fetze , Joel S. and Soper, J. Christopher ; The Effect of Confucian Values on Support for Democracy
and Human Rights in Taiwan , Taiwan Journal of Democracy, Volume 3, No.1: 143-154
11. Lee , Boyung ; A Confucian Perspective on Western Notions About Globalization , Boston College,
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
12. Tehranian, Majid ; GLOBALISM, LOCALISM, AND ISLAMISM: Migration, Identity, and World System
Development
13. Li, You-Sheng ; Stories of Lao Tzu, Confucius, and Chuang Tzu written
14. Azadarmaki , Taghi ; IBN KHALDUN'S SOCIAL THEORY AND IRANIAN SOCIETY
15. Tomar , Cengiz ; BETWEEN MYTH AND REALITY: DEBATES ON IBN KHALDUN IN THE ARAB WORLD
16. Kaplan, Yusuf ; THE WESTERN INTERPRETERS AND IBN KHALDUN’S CONCEPTION OF CIVILIZATION
17. Ahmed , Akbar ; Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West
Today
18. ROSEN , LAWRENCE; Theorizing from Within: Ibn Khaldun and His Political Culture
19. Mohammad, Tahir Sabit Haji , Ph.D. ; PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN IBN KHALDUN’S
ECONOMIC THOUGHT , Malaysian Journal of Real Estate, Volume 5, Number 1 2010
20. STOWASSER , Dr. Barbara ; IBN KHALDUN'S PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY: THE RISE AND FALL OF STATES AND
CIVILlZATIONS , Georgetown University. Wash. D.C.
21. Jarvis , Doug ; Max Weber and Public Administration in Today’s Democratic Community
22. Maclachlan, Fiona; Max Weber and the State Theory of Money
23. Lenzer , Gertrud ; Whither Sociology? Some eflections on the Ideas of ‘Globalization’ and ‘Social
Capital’, International Review of Sociology Revue Internationale de Sociologie Vol. 17, No. 3,
November 2007, pp. 495 _509
24. Scott , Alan ; 2000 , Capitalism, Weber and Democracy
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