Development of science (methodology).pdf

Development of science in Ancient, medieval and modern period

1. ALAKA SREEKUMAR
PHYSICAL SCIENCE OPTIONAL
ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ANCIENT,
MEDIEVAL AND MODERN PERIODS & EVOLUTION
OF SCIENCE EDUCATION.

2. INTRODUCTION
Science is not just a collection of discoveries, it is a living journey of human
curiosity. From the first spark of fire lit by early humans to the launch of satellites
into space, science has shaped the destiny of mankind. The story of science is also
the story of humanity - how we learned to question, to imagine, to experiment,
and to grow. Every discovery is really a reflection of the human spirit trying to
understand the world and make life better.
From that single spark of fire, the long journey of science began. Humans shaped
stones into tools, then into weapons, and later into machines. They crushed herbs
to heal wounds, which slowly grew into the science of medicine. They looked at
the moon and stars to find their way, which grew into astronomy. Every small
step of survival slowly became a giant leap of knowledge.
Science has never been something far away or separate. It has always walked
beside us as close as the air we breathe and the water we drink. When a mother
uses a simple home remedy to cure her child’s cough, that is science. When a
farmer studies the clouds to predict rain, that is science. Over time, these small
acts of curiosity built the grand towers of civilisation.
Science is not just about experiments, laws, or theories. It is a journey of
questioning, imagining, experimenting, failing, and trying again. If we look
closely, the story of science is also our own story as human beings. The first
humans, huddled in caves, were terrified of thunder. But they also wondered
about it. Curiosity turned fear into discovery. Discovery turned into knowledge.
And knowledge turned into power. And this story is still unfolding every day, in
every classroom, in every curious child who dares to ask “why?”
As future teachers, we must understand this journey deeply. It is not enough to
know that Aryabhata calculated planetary movements or that Newton discovered
gravity, we must also appreciate the human courage and imagination behind these
milestones. Only then can we pass on to our students a vision of science that is
not dry or mechanical, but warm, inspiring, and deeply human.
In this assignment, we will explore how science developed in the ancient,
medieval, and modern periods, and how the way we teach science evolved with
time.

3. Part I: Development of Science in
Ancient, Medieval and Modern Periods
• Ancient Period - The Dawn of Curiosity
The ancient period was a time when science grew naturally out of people’s
relationship with nature. Life itself was the laboratory. People learned by
watching the skies, rivers, plants, and animals.


India’s Contributions
• Aryabhata (476-550 CE)- One of the earliest and most brilliant
mathematicians and astronomers of India was Aryabhata. In his famous
text Aryabhatiya (499 CE), he put forward revolutionary ideas. He
correctly explained that the Earth rotates on its own axis, which was a
radical departure from the then-prevalent belief that the Sun revolved
around the Earth. Aryabhata also calculated the length of the year with
remarkable accuracy and gave an approximation of π (pi) as 3.1416, which
is very close to the modern value. His works laid the foundation for
trigonometry and algebra, and they influenced scholars not only in India
but also in the Arab world and later in Europe.

• Susruta (c. 600 BCE)- Susruta, often called the “Father of Surgery,” made
groundbreaking contributions in the field of medicine and surgery. His
monumental work, the Susruta Samhita, describes more than 300 surgical

4. procedures and the use of 120 surgical instruments, many of which were
designed with incredible precision. He pioneered techniques such as
cataract surgery and rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction), which are still
recognized today. His emphasis on cleanliness, sterilization, and training
of surgeons shows how advanced his medical knowledge was for his time.
The legacy of Susruta continues to inspire modern medical sciences.


• Charaka (c. 100 CE)- Charaka, another great scholar of Ayurveda,
compiled the Charaka Samhita, a comprehensive text on ancient Indian
medicine. He systematically described over 300 diseases and the medicinal
properties of numerous plants and herbs. His work emphasized holistic
health, preventive care, diet, lifestyle, and ethics in medical practice. The
principles laid down by Charaka form the backbone of Ayurveda, which is
still practiced widely in India and gaining recognition globally for its
natural and preventive approach to health.

• Brahmagupta (598-668 CE)- Brahmagupta, a renowned mathematician
and astronomer, introduced some of the most important concepts in
mathematics. In his treatise Brahmasphutasiddhanta (628 CE), he gave
rules for the use of zero as a number, which was one of the greatest
breakthroughs in human thought. He also described rules for arithmetic
operations involving zero and negative numbers, and formalized the
decimal system. These ideas later travelled to the Arab world and Europe,
forming the basis of modern mathematics. Without Brahmagupta’s
contribution, the number system we use today would not have been
possible.
Greek Contributions
• Aristotle (384-322 BCE)- He was a philosopher and scientist who
classified plants and animals systematically, laying the groundwork for
biology. He also developed the foundations of logic, introducing methods
of reasoning that are still studied in philosophy today. His emphasis on
observation and classification was a turning point in the study of natural
sciences.

• Archimedes (287-212 BCE)- He was one of the most brilliant
mathematicians and inventors of the ancient world. He discovered the

5. principle of buoyancy, which explains why objects float or sink in water.
Archimedes also invented practical machines like levers and pulleys,
demonstrating how simple tools could multiply human effort. His
contributions combined theoretical knowledge with practical applications,
making him a true pioneer of engineering.


• Pythagoras (570-495 BCE)- He is remembered as both a mathematician
and a philosopher. He gave the world the Pythagoras Theorem, one of the
cornerstones of geometry. Beyond mathematics, he explored the
relationship between numbers, music, and harmony, believing that the
universe itself was built on numerical patterns. His ideas blended science
with philosophy, showing how knowledge and beauty are interconnected.
Egyptian Contributions
• Built pyramids (2600-2500 BCE) using advanced geometry and
engineering.
• Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE)- Medical text describing diseases and
treatments.
• Embalming led to knowledge of anatomy and surgery.
Chinese Contributions
• Paper (c. 105 CE)- Invented by Cai Lun, made knowledge easier to
preserve.
• Compass (c. 2nd century BCE-1st century CE)- Helped in navigation.
• Gunpowder (9th century CE)- First used in fireworks, later in weapons.
Ancient science was not about laboratories or equations. It was about living
close to nature and turning survival into knowledge.

• Medieval Period - The Bridge of Knowledge
The medieval period is sometimes called a “dark age” in Europe, but in truth, it
was more of a bridge of preservation and growth. While wars and religion
sometimes slowed progress, other regions kept the flame of science burning.

6. Arab-Islamic Scholars
• During the Islamic Golden Age, Baghdad became a great center of
knowledge with the establishment of the House of Wisdom, where scholars
from different cultures came together to study and translate scientific texts.
Among the most influential thinkers was Alhazen (965-1040 CE), who
carefully studied how light and vision work. His experiments laid the
foundations of optics and changed the way people understood sight, lenses,
and reflection. Another towering figure was Avicenna (980-1037 CE), a
physician and philosopher whose monumental book, The Canon of
Medicine, served as the standard medical text in Europe and the Middle
East for centuries. Meanwhile, Al-Khwarizmi, a brilliant mathematician,
introduced algebra in a systematic way. His works not only revolutionized
mathematics but also gave rise to the term “algorithm,” derived from his
name, which is at the very heart of modern computer science. Together,
these scholars made Baghdad a true treasure house of learning and
advanced science for the whole world.
Indian Contributions
• Bhaskaracharya(1114-1185 CE)- Bhaskaracharya, also known as
Bhaskara II, was one of the greatest mathematicians and astronomers of
medieval India. His most famous work is the Siddhanta Shiromani
(“Crown of Treatises”), completed in 1150 CE, which is divided into four
parts. In Lilavati, Bhaskara explained arithmetic and geometry through
engaging examples and poetic verses, making it both practical and
beautiful. In Bijaganita, he explored algebra in depth, including topics like
quadratic equations and surds. Remarkably, in Grahaganita and

7. Goladhyaya, he described planetary motion and even hinted at ideas
resembling differential calculus, almost 500 years before Newton and
Leibniz developed it in Europe. He also gave methods to calculate
planetary positions, eclipses, and conjunctions with great accuracy.
European Contributions
• While Europe was under strong religious influence, universities began to
rise in cities like Bologna and Paris. People experimented with alchemy-
an early form of chemistry- and studied navigation, which helped explorers
like Columbus later.
• In Europe, science was often tied to religion, but thinkers like Roger Bacon
(1219-1292 CE) promoted experimental methods.
The medieval period was not about grand discoveries but about guarding
knowledge, translating it, and preparing for the explosion of ideas that the
Renaissance would bring.
• Modern Period – The Explosion of Ideas
The modern period changed everything. Human beings were no longer afraid to
question old beliefs. The Renaissance brought art, culture, and science together,
and the Scientific Revolution reshaped how we understand the world.

The Scientific Revolution
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)- In 1543, he published his famous book
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres). In this work, he put forward the heliocentric theory,
claiming that the Sun, not the Earth, was at the center of the universe. This
was a bold challenge to centuries of tradition and religious authority, which
had supported the geocentric model since the time of Aristotle and Ptolemy.

8. Though controversial, Copernicus’s theory opened the door for a new
scientific worldview.

• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)- He refined the heliocentric model with his
three laws of planetary motion. He showed through precise calculations
that planets do not move in perfect circles but rather in elliptical orbits. His
work demonstrated that celestial motion could be described
mathematically with great accuracy. Kepler’s laws gave astronomy a solid
mathematical foundation and paved the way for a new understanding of the
cosmos.


• Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)-He used technological innovation to
revolutionize science. By improving the telescope in 1609, he made
groundbreaking discoveries: the four moons of Jupiter, the phases of
Venus, and even mountains and craters on the Moon- proving that heavenly
bodies were not “perfect spheres” as once believed. Galileo was a strong
supporter of heliocentrism, and for this he was tried by the Church in 1633.
Although forced to recant, his insistence that science must be grounded in
observation and experiment earned him the title of the “Father of Modern
Science.”

• Isaac Newton (1643-1727)- In his monumental work Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, 1687), Newton explained the laws of motion and the law of
universal gravitation. He showed that the same force that causes an apple
to fall to the ground also governs the orbits of planets and moons. With
this, Newton united the heavens and the Earth under a single set of natural
laws, marking the triumph of mathematics in explaining nature.

The Industrial Revolution
• The late 18
th
and 19
th
centuries witnessed the Industrial Revolution, a
period when science and technology transformed everyday life on an
unprecedented scale. One of the key figures of this era was James Watt
(1736–1819). While he did not invent the steam engine, Watt made crucial
improvements that made it far more efficient and reliable. His enhanced

9. steam engine became the driving force behind factories, locomotives, and
ships. This innovation turned quiet villages into bustling industrial cities
and laid the foundation of modern industry.

• Rapid progress was made in electricity, chemistry, and mechanics.
Scientists and inventors discovered new ways of harnessing natural forces,
making science not just a field of study but a source of practical power. The
development of the railway system revolutionized transport, shrinking
distances and connecting people and goods across countries. The telegraph
made communication almost instantaneous, changing how societies and
economies functioned. Mechanised industries brought mass production,
creating more goods than ever before and reshaping patterns of work, trade,
and daily life.
19
th
Century – Science for Life
The 19
th
century saw science directly touching human health and understanding
of life itself.
• Michael Faraday (1791-1867)- He rose from modest beginnings as a
bookbinder’s apprentice to become one of the greatest experimental
scientists. In 1831, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, a
principle that made possible the generation of electricity. His work led to
the development of electric motors and generators, innovations that
powered factories, revolutionised transport, and continue to form the
backbone of the world’s electrical systems today.

• Charles Darwin (1809-1882)- He published his revolutionary book, On
the Origin of Species, in 1859. With his theory of evolution by natural
selection, Darwin explained how species change over time, challenging
traditional beliefs about creation and humanity’s place in the world. His
ideas not only reshaped biology but also influenced philosophy,
anthropology, and even social thought, making people see themselves as
part of a vast, evolving web of life.
• Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)- Pasteur’s proof of the germ theory of disease
overturned centuries of misconceptions about illness. He introduced
pasteurisation, a process that made milk and other foods safer, and
developed crucial vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His discoveries laid the

10. foundation of microbiology, saving countless lives and setting modern
standards for hygiene, vaccination, and public health.
20
th
Century – Science Transforms the World
The 20
th
century was an age of breathtaking scientific progress, where new
discoveries changed not only how we understood the universe but also how we
lived our daily lives. It was a century that saw science and technology touch every
aspect of human existence- health, communication, energy, and even our vision
of space and time.
• Marie Curie (1867-1934)- She became the first woman to win a Nobel
Prize, and remains the only person ever to win in two different sciences-
Physics (1903) and Chemistry (1911). Her pioneering research on
radioactivity not only opened the path to the development of nuclear energy
but also revolutionised medicine through X-rays and cancer treatments.
Curie’s work was remarkable not just for its scientific value but also for
breaking barriers in a male-dominated field, inspiring generations of
women scientists.

• Albert Einstein (1879-1955)-He was reshaping the very foundations of
physics. In 1905, he published his theory of relativity, demonstrating that
space and time are not fixed but relative, depending on the observer’s
motion. Einstein also made vital contributions to quantum theory, paving
the way for technologies such as lasers and semiconductors, which today
power everything from computers to medical devices. His name became
synonymous with genius, and his theories transformed how humanity
perceived the universe.


• Watson & Crick (1953)- In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick
revealed the double-helix structure of DNA, the molecule that carries the
genetic blueprint of life. This discovery unlocked the genetic code,
launching the fields of genetics and biotechnology. It has since led to major
advances in medicine, agriculture, and forensic science, and continues to
shape cutting-edge research like genetic engineering and personalised
medicine.

11. • Space Age (1969)- The Space Age reached its greatest milestone on July
20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the
Moon. His words- “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for
mankind” captured the triumph of human curiosity and courage. The Moon
landing was not just a political victory during the Cold War but also a
symbol of human potential, inspiring future generations to explore the
stars.
• Advances in antibiotics, nuclear power, computing, and communication
transformed health, warfare, and society.
21
st
Century – The Age of Technology & Challenges
The 21
st
century is often called the knowledge century. Unlike earlier times, when
science was about “discovering” the unknown, today it is equally about
responsibility and application. Science is no longer limited to laboratories or
universities- it shapes the food we eat, the medicines we take, the phones we hold,
and even the air we breathe. It has become a constant presence in our daily lives,
both as a blessing and a challenge.
• Nanotechnology- One of the most exciting areas of modern science is
nanotechnology- the art of working at the level of atoms and molecules.
Imagine materials so small that a thousand of them could fit across the
width of a human hair. These “nano” materials are being used to create
smarter medicines that directly target diseased cells, stronger-yet-lighter
materials for airplanes, and efficient solar panels for renewable energy.
Nanotechnology has shown us that even at the tiniest scale, the universe
has infinite possibilities.
• Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering- With the discovery of tools like
CRISPR gene-editing in 2012, scientists can now alter DNA with
remarkable precision. This means diseases once thought incurable like
sickle-cell anaemia or some cancers may be treated at their genetic root.
Artificial organs, lab-grown meat, and genetically modified crops are also
reshaping how we view health, food, and sustainability.

• Artificial Intelligence & the Digital Revolution- The most visible
transformation of our times comes from artificial intelligence (AI) and
computers. Machines today are not only calculating but also learning,

12. analysing, and even creating. From chatbots answering questions to AI
diagnosing diseases faster than doctors, the boundaries between human
intelligence and machine intelligence are becoming blurred. The digital
revolution has also transformed education, with platforms like SWAYAM,
Coursera, and Khan Academy bringing science education to millions
worldwide.

• Space Exploration- Humanity’s dream of the stars continues stronger than
ever. After the historic Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969, the 21
st
century
has taken giant strides into space. The International Space Station, orbiting
Earth since 2000, stands as a living laboratory of global cooperation.
Robotic explorers like NASA’s Curiosity (2011) and Perseverance (2020)
rovers have been searching for signs of life on Mars, while the James Webb
Space Telescope (2021) has begun peering into the earliest galaxies of the
universe. Private ventures such as SpaceX are designing reusable rockets
and planning future missions to Mars, making space travel more accessible.
India too has made its mark with the Mangalyaan Mars Orbiter (2014) and
the historic Chandrayaan-3 mission (2023), which successfully landed near
the Moon’s south pole - a world first. Together, these missions reflect not
just human curiosity, but also humanity’s search for survival, discovery,
and a shared cosmic future.

Global Challenges
But alongside these triumphs, science faces some of the greatest challenges in
human history. Climate change threatens ecosystems and livelihoods worldwide.
The COVID-19 pandemic (2020) reminded us both of our vulnerability and of
the power of science in creating vaccines at record speed. Issues of energy, water,
pollution, and biodiversity press us to find sustainable solutions. The 21
st
century
demands that science be guided by compassion, ethics, and foresight, not just
ambition.

13. Part II: Evolution of Science Education
Science education is not just about “facts and formulas”- it is about nurturing
curiosity, questioning, and creativity. The way science has been taught has also
evolved over time.

Ancient Science Education
In the ancient world, there were no formal classrooms, blackboards, or
examinations. Education was experiential- children learned by watching their
elders, listening to stories, or working alongside masters.
• In India, Gurukulas became centres of learning. Students (sisyas) lived
with their teachers (gurus), learning Astronomy, Ayurveda, Mathematics,
Architecture, and even Agriculture. Knowledge was holistic- blending
science with philosophy, ethics, art, and spirituality. For example, in
Takshashila and Nalanda universities (as early as 5th century CE),
thousands of students studied medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, and logic.
• In Egypt, apprenticeships in temples taught medicine and engineering,
while priests recorded knowledge on papyri.
• In Greece, philosophers like Plato and Aristotle set up academies and
Lyceums, where questioning and reasoning were encouraged.

14. Science education in this period was deeply personal, teacher-to-student, often
oral, and closely tied to survival and spirituality.
Medieval Science Education
As societies grew, learning shifted into institutions such as monasteries,
madrasas, and religious schools.
• In Europe, monasteries preserved Greek and Roman knowledge during the
Middle Ages. Monks copied manuscripts on medicine, astronomy, and
natural philosophy. Education, however, was often linked with religion,
limiting free questioning.
• In the Islamic Golden Age (8
th
–13
th
centuries CE), madrasas in Baghdad,
Damascus, and Cordoba flourished. Scholars like Alhazen (optics) and
Avicenna (medicine) influenced both East and West. Here, students studied
science, mathematics, and medicine alongside theology.
• In India, temples and madrasas continued to teach Ayurveda, astronomy,
and mathematics. Practical subjects like architecture, metallurgy, and
navigation were also taught, though experimentation was still limited.
• This period was marked by translation and preservation — knowledge
travelled from India and Greece into the Arab world, and then into Europe,
laying the foundation for the Renaissance.
This period was marked by translation and preservation — knowledge travelled
from India and Greece into the Arab world, and then into Europe, laying the
foundation for the Renaissance.
Modern Science Education
The Renaissance (14
th
–17
th
centuries) awakened a spirit of inquiry in Europe.
Gradually, universities began teaching science not as philosophy but as an
experimental subject. The invention of the printing press (15
th
century) made
textbooks widely available, and knowledge spread faster.
• In Europe, universities like Oxford, Cambridge, and Bologna structured
science into formal subjects. Laboratory methods and experiments became
central to education.
• In India, the colonial period introduced Western-style schools and colleges.
Institutions like Calcutta University (1857) and Presidency College
brought structured science syllabi.

15. • After Independence (1947), India focused on building scientific capacity.
The government promoted scientific temper (Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision)
and established premier institutes like IITs, IISc, CSIR, DRDO, and ISRO.
Textbook-based science was supplemented by laboratory experiments,
aiming to make citizens rational and innovative.
This period marked the transition from memorising knowledge to testing
knowledge through experiments.
Contemporary Science Education
Today, science education is more dynamic than ever before. It is no longer
confined to classrooms and textbooks- it is interactive, digital, and global.
• Teaching style - Classrooms now emphasise experiments, projects,
group discussions, and inquiry-based learning. Students are encouraged
to ask “why?” rather than simply accept facts.
• Technology integration- ICT tools, digital labs, simulations, and smart
classrooms make science more engaging. Students can explore the solar
system in virtual reality or model chemical reactions on a computer.
• Online platforms- MOOCs, SWAYAM (India), Coursera, edX, and
Khan Academy make science accessible to anyone with an internet
connection. Learning is now lifelong, not limited to school years.
• Global outlook- Collaboration between countries, sharing of research
online, and international competitions (like science Olympiads) have
made science education borderless.
• Life skills-The aim is no longer just memorising Newton’s laws, but
learning to think scientifically to question, reason, innovate, and solve
real-life problems ethically.
Contemporary science education is about living scientifically, not just studying
science. It prepares learners to face challenges like climate change, pandemics,
sustainability, and technological disruption.
Humanising Science and Science Education
Science is not only about formulas and experiments- it is about people,
imagination, and progress. When a child learns why rain falls, how plants grow,
or how a mobile phone works, they are connecting their life to the vast story of
science. As teachers, our role is to humanise science education:

16. • To make it relevant to daily life.
• To encourage questioning, creativity, and ethical thinking and to show that
science belongs to everyone- not only to scientists in laboratories.

17. CONCLUSION
From the gurukulas of ancient India and the madrasas of the medieval world to
today’s smart classrooms and virtual labs, the journey of science education
mirrors the journey of humanity itself. Every generation has found its own way
to pass on knowledge- sometimes through stories told by firelight, sometimes
through palm-leaf manuscripts, sometimes through printed books, and now
through glowing screens. What has remained constant is the deep human desire
to understand, question, and share.
Science itself is not a frozen set of formulas but a living, breathing story of human
curiosity. And science education is the bridge that carries this story forward.
When Aryabhata calculated the value of π, when Galileo turned his telescope to
the stars, when Marie Curie experimented late into the night, none of their
discoveries would have mattered if they were not taught, retaught, and reimagined
by future learners. Education is what transforms individual brilliance into
collective progress. The real aim of science education, therefore, is not just to fill
notebooks with facts or prepare students for examinations. It is to light a spark- a
spark of wonder, of questioning, of imagining possibilities.
As we stand in the 21st century, surrounded by challenges like climate change,
pandemics, artificial intelligence, and space exploration, science education has a
bigger role than ever. It must not only create scientists and engineers but also
responsible citizens who think critically, act ethically, and dream fearlessly. The
future belongs to those who can combine knowledge with empathy, discovery
with responsibility, and progress with humanity.
Thus, the evolution of science education is not just about methods and tools- it is
about shaping the minds and hearts of people who will carry humanity forward.
In the end, science education is nothing less than the story of how human beings
teach each other to wonder, to care, and to build a better world.

18. REFERENCE
• Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986). History of Science and Technology in Ancient
India. New Delhi: Project of History of Indian Science.
• Grant, E. (1996). The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Sharma, A. (2015). Science Education in India: Historical Perspective.
New Delhi: NCERT.
• National Policy on Education (1986, 2020). Ministry of Education,
Government of India.