Nanocrystalline TiO2 for Solar Cells and Lithium Batteries
Ladislav Kavan
J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic,
Dolejškova 3, CZ-18223 Prague 8, Czech Republic.
[email protected]
Keywords: Titanium dioxide, solar cells, Li-ion batteries
Abstract. Nanocrystalline TiO2 (anatase) has attracted considerable interest for applications in
photoelectrochemical solar cells. This device is based on charge injection from photoexcited
organometallic dye which is adsorbed on the TiO2 surface. Titanium dioxide can electrochemically
accommodate Li
+
which is useful for a design of new Li-ion batteries. Whereas the charge storage
in anatase or rutile is based on the Li-insertion into the bulk crystal, the monoclinic TiO2(B)
exhibits an unusual pseudocapacitive Li-storage mechanism. The photoelectrochemical and Li-
insertion activity of mesoscopic TiO2 depend significantly on the electrode morphology.
Electrode Materials From Ti(IV) Oxides: Preparation
Since the pioneering study in 1972 [1], titanium dioxide has been recognized as one of the most
important materials for photoelectrochemistry [1-8]. TiO2 is attractive electrode material for
applications in photoelectrochemical solar cells, because of its low price, stability, and
environmental compatibility. For solar energy conversion, TiO2 needs to be sensitized by adsorption
of suitable dyes [4-6,8,9]. The first photoelectrochemical studies of TiO2 in early 70s employed
almost exclusively the n-doped rutile single crystal. This electrode material is not suitable for
sensitization, because the monolayer of adsorbed dye on a flat surface does not absorb the light very
efficiently [4,6,9]. To increase the physical surface area per square unit of the projected electrode
area (roughness factor), polycrystalline electrodes must be used [4,5,8]. A logical conclusion is that
small crystals (nanocrystals) are the optimum materials for TiO2 electrodes in solar cells. Also for
the application in Li-ion batteries, the nanocrystalline morphology is beneficial, especially if fast
charging/discharging of a battery is requested. Obviously, there is a motivation for exploring of
electrochemical properties of nanocrystals in general, and Ti(IV) oxides in particular.
Electrode materials from non-organized nanocrystalline Ti(IV) oxides. Rutile is considered
to be the thermodynamically stable form of TiO2 at normal conditions (by ca. 5-12 kJ/mol more
stable than anatase) [6], but this is true only for crystals larger than about tens of nm. A model sol-
gel process towards nanocrystalline anatase is based on hydrolysis of titanium(IV) alkoxides:
Ti(OR)4 + 2 H2O → TiO2 + 4 ROH (1)
where R is typically ethyl, butyl or isopropyl. The product is processed by peptization (de-
agglomeration), hydrothermal growth (Ostwald ripening) and sintering into layers on certain
substrate, e.g. F-doped SnO2 [2,3,10-12] or Ti [10-12]. These films were suitable for solar cell
applications [2,3] and for Li-ion batteries [11-13].
Hydrolysis of Ti- and Li-alkoxides lead to useful ternary oxide, Li4Ti5O12
(spinel) [14-16]:
5 Ti(OR)4 + 4 LiOEt + 12 H2O → Li4Ti5O12 + 20 ROH + 4 EtOH (2)
where R = isopropyl or butyl and Et
= ethyl. The sol-gel synthesis of Li4Ti5O12
(spinel) provided the
smallest so far obtained nanocrystals with surface areas of (183 - 196) m
2
/g [14-16].
Electrochemically active layers of TiO2 [5,11,12] and Li4Ti5O12 [16] can be also fabricated by
sintering of powder materials. This technique was first demonstrated on the material P25 (Degussa)
Advances in Science and Technology Vol. 51 (2006) pp 20-29
© (2006) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AST.51.20