Educational Psychology for postgraduates.pptx

This is a presentation of clinical paychology for student learning for teach methodology

1. Gollis University Educational Psychology for Postgraduate students Course code: Cr. Hr. 3 By: MILLION Kebede (PhD) April 2024 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 1

2. 1. Introduction 1.1 Definition of Psychology The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus, psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”. Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation to his environment”. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 2

3. Introduction … cont’d “ Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behavior, including from the stand-point of behavior, much of what earlier psychologists dealt with as experience”. Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior. It includes the application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 3

4. Introduction … cont’d The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment ( Tavris and Wade, 1997) Psychology is all about human behavior, about mental processes, and about the context in which behavior and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998) The science of behavior and mental processes. (Lahey,1998) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 4

5. Introduction … cont’d The science of behavior and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999) Scientific study of behavior and mind. ( Nairne , 2003) A science in which behavioral and other evidence is used to understand the internal processes leading people (and members of other species) to behave as they do. (Eysenck, 2004). B.F. Skinner defined, “Psychology is the science of behavior and experience.” 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 5

6. Introduction … cont’d Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships.” William McDougall, “Psychology is the science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behavior of the organism as a whole.” Kurt Koffka , “Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of living creatures in their contact with the outer world.” The field of psychology is considered a "Hub Science" with strong connections to the medical sciences, social sciences, and education ( Boyack , Klavans , & Borner , 2005). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 6

7. Introduction … cont’d In general psychology os considered as the science of: Soul the Mind Consciousness(conscious, subconscious and the unconscious ) not accepted by some Behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 7

8. Educational Psychology Educational psychology is one of the branches of psychology to study the behavior of the learner in relation to his education. As specialized branch of psychology concerns itself with suggesting ways and means of improving the process and products of education, enabling the teacher to teach effectively and the learners to learn effectively with the minimum effort. It is thus designated as the service of education. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 8

9. Educational Psychology It has simplified the tasks and improved the efficiency of the teacher or all those connected in the process and products of education by supplying them with the essential knowledge and skills in much need the same way as science and technology has helped in making possible maximum output through minimum input in terms of time and labor in our day-to-day activities. Educational psychology is the study of how people learn, including teaching methods, devising tests instructional processes, and individual differences in learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 9

10. Educational Psychology …cont’d It explores the cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and social influences on the learning process. Educational psychologists use this understanding of how people learn to develop instructional strategies and help students succeed in school. This branch of psychology focuses on the learning process of early childhood and adolescence. However, it also explores the social, emotional, and cognitive processes that are involved in learning throughout the entire lifespan. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 10

11. Educational Psychology …cont’d Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with the application of psychological findings in the field of education. In other words, it deals with the human behavior in educational situations. It is the systematic study of the development of the individual in the educational settings. It is the scientific study of human behavior by which it can be understood, predicated and directed by education to achieve goals of life. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 11

12. Educational Psychology …cont’d Educational psychology considers how the educational process affects students, school psychology is a specialty area devoted to assessing children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems and developing solutions to such problems. Counselling psychology usually works in schools and industrial firms, advising and assisting people. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 12

13. 1.2. 1. Definitions of Educational Psychology Educational psychology is de fined as that branch of psychology that is concerned with the study of the mental processes and behaviors associated with human learning and instruction. Educational psychologists ask questions about the nature of learners and learning, the characteristics of effective teaching, and how the nature of classrooms affects learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 13

14. Definitions of Educational Psychology …cont’d O C.E. Skinner: “Educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning”. Crow and Crow☹1973) “Educational psychology describes and explains learning experience of an individual from birth to old age”. E. A. Peel: “Educational psychology is the science of education”. Trow describes, “Educational psychology is the study of psychological aspects of educational situations”. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 14

15. Definitions of Educational Psychology …cont’d Stephens says, “Educational psychology is the study of educational growth and development”. oJudd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.” Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education, supplies all the information, principles and techniques essential for: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 15

16. Definitions of Educational Psychology …cont’d Understanding the behavior of the pupil in response to educational environment and Desired modification of his behavior to bring an all-round development of his personality. Thus, Educational Psychology is concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 16

17. Definitions of Educational Psychology …cont’d and developing ways of improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc. In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?” 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 17

18. 1.2.2 Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology Focal area (Scope) of educational psychology tells us the areas of application. In other words, it can be called the subject matter of educational psychology. 1.Human Behavior : It studies human behavior in the educational context. Psychology is the study of behavior and education aims at modification of behavior. Hence the influence of Educational Psychology has to be reflected in all aspects of education 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 18

19. 1.2.2 Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology 2.Growth and development: It studies the principles governing growth and development. The insight provided by the study will help in scientifically planning and executing learner-oriented programs of education. 3. The Learner.: The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 19

20. 1.2.2 Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behavior of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood. 4. The Learning Experiences: Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 20

21. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d 5. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 21

22. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d 6. Learning Situation or Environment: Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 22

23. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d 7.Evaluation of learning process: Some forms of evaluation inevitable in teaching. Also in all fields of activity when judgments used to be made, evaluation plays an important role. Even when we want to cross a road we make a judgment whether it is safe to cross the road. Effectiveness of learning process always depends on the evaluation as it gives the knowledge of result which helps the learner as well as the teacher to modify or correct oneself. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 23

24. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d Educational psychology guides are by explaining the different methods of assessment contributing to the effectiveness of learning process. Knowing the learner, acquiring the essential skill in teaching and evaluation are the focal points in the study of educational psychology. 8.Individual differences: It is universally accepted that every individual differs from every other individual. This idea has been brought to light by Educational Psychology. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 24

25. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d 9. Personality and adjustment : Education has been defined as the all-round development of the personality of an individual. If educational has to fulfil this function all instructional programs have to be based on the principles governing the nature and development of personality. 10.The Teacher : The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 25

26. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d .It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his/her role properly in the process of education. His/her conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc. so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 26

27. Focal Areas(scope) of Educational Psychology … cont’d 11. Guidance and Counselling : Education is nothing by providing guidance and counselling required for the proper development of the child. This is very true, especially in the light of the extremely complex and problematic situation one has to face in the fast growing world. Educational psychology has come to the rescue by developing principles and practical measures helpful for providing effective guidance and counselling. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 27

28. 1.2.3 Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers Educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education. The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher in the following ways: 1.To understand the Stages of Development: Psychology has clearly shown that human life passes through different stages of development before it reaches adulthood. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 28

29. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d They are infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Psychologists have also thoroughly studied the characteristic behavior patterns in these different periods of life. dentification of these periods with different sets of characteristics and attributes as regards physical, mental and emotional development greatly help educationists to design curriculum and determine appropriate methods of teaching for students at different stages. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 29

30. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 2.To Know the Learner: The child or the learner is the key factor in the teaching-learning process. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know his interests, attitudes, aptitudes and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities; to know the stage of development linked with his social, emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs; to know his level of aspiration, his/her conscious and unconscious behavior; his/her motivational and group behavior, his/her conflicts, 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 30

31. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d desires and other aspects of his mental health. So that perfect guidance and help can be provided and positive attitude towards the learner can be formed. 3.To Understand the Nature of Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according to the level of the learners. A teacher is teaching in a class but a large number of students do not 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 31

32. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d understand the subject-matter which is being taught. To deal with the students effectively in the class the teacher must have the knowledge of the various approaches to the learning process, principles, laws and factors affecting it then only he/she can apply remedial measures in the learning situation. 4. To Understand the Individual Differences: No two persons are exactly alike. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 32

33. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d Pupils differ in their level of intelligence, aptitudes, likes and dislikes and in other propensities and potentialities. There are gifted, backward, physically and mentally challenged children. Thus, psychology tells the teacher about the individual differences among the students in the class and the procedure, methodology and techniques to be adopted for them. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 33

34. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 5.o Solve Classroom Problems: There are innumerable problems like truancy/absenteeism , bullying, peer pressure, ethnic tensions, cheating in tests etc. Educational Psychology helps to equip the teacher by studying the characteristics of the problem children, the dynamics of the group, behavioral characteristics and adjustments. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 34

35. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 6. To develop Necessary Skills and Interest in Teaching: Educational psychology helps the teacher to acquire and develop necessary qualities and skills to deal with the problems created by the pupils, maintain a healthy atmosphere in the classroom and show concern regarding the progress of the child. 7. To Understand Effective Methods of Teaching: Educational Psychology has discovered several new approaches, principles. methods and techniques of teaching which are very helpful in today’s teaching-learning process. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 35

36. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d Educational psychology tells us how significant play and recreation are for the children and how play-way methods turn learning into an interesting task. 8 . To Understand the Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Child: Educational psychology helps the teacher to know that the child is the product of heredity and environment. They are the two sides of a coin. Both play a prominent part in the all-round development of the child. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 36

37. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d While the child is born with a number of hereditary qualities, environment helps them to be modified according to the requirements of the society. 9.To Understand the Mental Health of the Child: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know what are the factors responsible for the mental ill-health and maladjustment of a student and to suggest improvement thereof. Besides this, it also provides the teacher with necessary insight to improve his own mental status to cope up with the situation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 37

38. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 10.To Understand the Procedure of Curriculum Construction: Curriculum is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. Curriculum should be child-centered and fulfil the motives and psychological needs of the individual because child capacities differ from stage to stage. Educational psychology helps the teacher to suggest ways and means to curriculum framers to prepare sound and balanced curriculum for the children. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 38

39. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 11.To Provide Guidance and Counselling: Today guidance to a child at every stage of life is needed because psychological abilities, interests and learning styles differ from person to person. Similarly, what courses of study the child should undertake in future is also a vital question. All these can be answered well if the teacher knows the psychology of children. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 39

40. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 12.To Understand Principles of Evaluation and Assessment: Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. How to test the potentialities of the child depends upon the evaluation techniques. The development of the different types of psychological tests for the evaluation of the individual is a distinct contribution of educational psychology. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 40

41. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 13.To inculcate Positive and Creative Discipline: The slogan of the traditional teachers was “spare the rod and spoil the child.” Flogging the child was the chief instrument. Educational Psychology has replaced the repressive system with the preventive system. Now teachers adopt a cooperative and scientific approach to modify the behavior of the students. Emphasis is laid on self-discipline through creative and constructive activities. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 41

42. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d 14.Educational Psychology and Research: Educational psychologists conduct research to improve the behavior of human beings in the educational situation. For this purpose it helps in developing tools and devices to measure the performance and suggest remedial measures thereof. 15.To Know Himself/Herself: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know about himself/herself. His/her own behavior pattern, personality characteristics, 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 42

43. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d likes and dislikes, motivation, anxiety, conflicts, adjustment etc. All this knowledge helps him in growing as a successful teacher. 16.Educational Psychology Helps in Professional Growth, Changing Attitude and Innovative Thinking: Inside the classroom, educational psychology has enabled the teacher to achieve proper conditioning of pupils by achieving and directing classroom programs on human lives. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 43

44. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d Not only this, educational psychologists are busy in finding out innovations in the field of education. These innovations will bring about professional growth of the teacher. In Conclusion, we can say that educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education. In teaching, we are dealing with three elements –the teacher, the student, and the subject. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 44

45. Relevance of Educational Psychology to Teachers … cont’d . It has helped teachers, headmasters, administrators, inspectors, guidance and counselling workers, social workers to significantly develop an impartial and sympathetic attitude towards children and form them into integrated personalities. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 45

46. 2. Learner Developmental Characteristics and Individual Differences The psychology of individual difference focuses upon the ways in which members of the same species differ from oner another. To meet the educational needs of the learners’, developmental approach must be used. Three major stage-range factors associated with learners’ readiness- physical, cognitive and psychosocial maturation and other characteristics. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 46

47. Learner Developmental Characteristics ….cont’d must be taken in to account at each developmental period through the life cycle. Unique as each individual’s chronology; some typical developmental trends have been identified as milestone of normal progression through the life cycle. When dealing with the teaching-learning process, it is imperative to examine the developmental phases as individuals progress from infancy to senescence so as to fully appreciate the behavioral changes that occur in the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 47

48. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d Psychomotor aspects are domains that include movement behavior and physical coordination, motor skills, and physical abilities of a person so that the skills that will develop if often practiced can be measured based on distance, speed,, technique, and manner of implementation. The cognitive element is the domain that includes mental activities (brain). Affective/ Emotional issues are those related to attitudes and values, which include behavioral traits such as feelings, interests, beliefs, emotions, and values. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 48

49. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d Learner characteristics are so diverse that they range from personal to academic. The former refers to traits like gender, language, age, and cultural background. Meanwhile, academic characteristics consist of logic, objectivity, intellect, insight, and practical applications. These combined qualities contribute significantly to the student learning process. Many factors cause the low quality of education, including learning activities that are less responsive to the plurality of individuals and the environment in which students are located. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 49

50. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d To obtain meaningful learning needs to be designed and developed based on the condition of students as learning subjects and the cultural community in which students live. Students are humans who have a history, creatures with unique characteristics (individualism) ( Budiningsih , 2011). It concluded that an understanding of the subject of learning must be possessed by teachers or other education personnel to be used as a foothold in developing theories or praxis of education and learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 50

51. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d Characteristics come from the word character which means character traits, or habits possessed by relatively fixed individuals (Polansky, 2017). Characteristics refer to a person's character and lifestyle as well as values that develop regularly so that behavior becomes consistent and easy to notice( Djamarah , 2000). In the learning process, the character of students must also influence it. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 51

52. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d The influence is related to the way students learn; the way students and understand a theory. The concept of learner characteristics is used in the science of learning and cognition to designate the target group of students and determine aspects of their personal, academic, social or cognitive personality that can influence how and what they learn ( Drachsler & Kirschner, 2014). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 52

53. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d Cognitive: capable of higher levels of reasoning, abstract thinking, making connections between different concepts, analyzing events with multiple causes and effects, and are beginning to understand how the past, present, and future connect, and are becoming more interested in the world at large and subjects like social issues and politics. Physical: puberty mostly complete in girls at various stages of puberty for boys, rapid gain in height, improvement in fine and gross motor skills, wide range of 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 53

54. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d abilities to control emotions and make decisions, hormonal imbalances resulting in acne (a disorder of the skin caused by the inflammation of the skin glands and hair follicles) , moodiness, and fatigue. Social: value peer interactions, identity lies in group of friends, short-term planning guided by peers, egocentric (concerned with individual rather than society). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 54

55. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d Emotional: high expectations, low self-esteem, feelings of omnipotence(having unlimited authority), seeking independence, popularity, friends, feelings of love, and reassurance from teachers and peers. Learner characteristics are very important for instructional designers because they enable them to design and create customized learning for the target group ( İşman , 2011). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 55

56. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d In general, the characteristics of students that need attention in learning planning include characteristics related to: (1) initial abilities, such as intellectual abilities, thinking skills, and movement abilities; (2) socio-cultural background and status; and (3) personality differences, such as traits, attitudes, feelings, interests, and talents ( Sitanggang & Saragih , 2013). The learning modalities possessed by students can be the basis for determining 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 56

57. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d the type of learning model carried out by educators both in groups and independent assignments ( Syamsussabri & Sueb , 2018). It concluded that by taking into account the characteristics of students, more efficient, effective and motivating teaching materials can be designed and developed. . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 57

58. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d With this understanding, it is hoped that every teacher will be able to serve students appropriately according to the conditions they have. Various kinds of activities in the educational process require an understanding of students, including educational planning, selection of learning tools and resources, selection of materials, teaching and learning interactions, providing motivation, counselling guidance services and various other factors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 58

59. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d When planning, designing, implementing and evaluating an educational program, an educator must carefully consider the characteristics of learners with aspects of their developmental stages. Psychologists categorized the developmental stages of human beings as follows: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 59

60. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 60 Developmental stages : For children For adults Infancy (First 12 months of life) Young adulthood (20-40 years of age) Toddlerhood ( 1-2 years of age) Middle aged adulthood (41-64) Early childhood (3-5 years of age) Old adulthood (65 years and older) Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age) Adolescence (12-19 years of age)

61. Learner Dev. Characteristics & ind’ld differences …cont’d Learning style is a typical way for students to learn which consists of: visual, auditory , and kinesthetic. The benefits of analyzing the character of students include: (1) the basis for compiling material based on initial abilities, (2) knowing the absorption capacity of students, (3) knowing the social and family backgrounds of students, (4) knowing the level of growth and development, ( 5) knowing the level of previous mastery. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 61

62. 2.1.1 Definition of Development and related Terms (growth and maturation) Development Human development concerns the ways in which people change with the passage of time. Developmental psychology – the study of the changes that occur as individuals mature. Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as whole. Development is a continuous process through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 62

63. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d It is a wider and more comprehensive term than growth. It is also possible without growth In Webster‟s dictionary development is defined as “the series of changes which an organism undergoes in passing from an embryonic stage to maturity.” In Encyclopedia Britannica is the term development defined as “the progressive change in size, shape and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic potential are translated into functioning adult system.” 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 63

64. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d So, development includes all those psychological changes that take in the functions and activities of different organs of an organism. Development is continuous and gradual process (Skinner). According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behavior which results from environmental situation.” 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 64

65. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Growth Growth refers to physical increase in some quantity over time. It includes changes in terms of height, weight, body proportions and general physical appearance. In Encyclopedia Britannica, growth is defined as “an increase in size or the amount of an entity”. It means growth involves all those structural and physiological changes that take place within individual during the process of maturation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 65

66. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d For example, growth of a child means the increase in weight, height and different organs of the child’s body. Hurlock has defined Growth as “change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old features and acquisition of new ones”. Growth refers to structural and physiological changes (Crow and Crow, 1962). Thus, growth refers to an increase in physical size of whole or any of its part and can be measured. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 66

67. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Comparison of growth and development 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 67 Growth Development Growth refers to physiological Development refers to overall changes in the individual. It involves changes in an orderly and coherent type towards the goal of maturity. Changes in the quantitative respect is termed as growth. Development changes in the quality along with quantitative Growth does not continue throughout life. Development continues throughout life.

68. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 68 Growth stops after maturation. Development is progressive. Growth occurs due to the multiplication of cells Development occurs due to both maturation and interaction with the environment. Growth is cellular.. Development is organizational Growth is one of the parts of the developmental process. Development is a wider and comprehensive term

69. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 69 Growth may be referred to describe the changes in particular aspects of the body and behavior of the organism.  Development describes the changes in the organism as a whole. The changes produced by growth are subjects of measurements. They may be quantified and observable in nature. Development brings qualitative changes which are difficult to measure directly. They are assessed through keen observation of behavior in different situations. Growth may or may not bring development. Development is possible without growth.

70. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Maturation Maturation is a stage of completion of growth and strengthening of acquired entail, social and emotional development. Maturation is essentially a process of refinement and modification from within and inborn ripening and progress of capacities of the organism. Maturation is an essential precondition of learning. One example of maturation is puberty 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 70

71. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d To define maturation in simple terms, maturation is the process of growth and development that human beings go through regarding the changes that occur from birth until death. Maturation, regarding development, refers to how people grow, develop, and change in other ways starting at birth and ending at death. The three main types of maturation are physical, cognitive, and biological maturation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 71

72. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d The maturational theory of child development was a theory created by the American psychologist and pediatrician, Dr. Arnold Gesell. This theory posits that all children develop in the same sequential order. Maturation theory, as developed by Dr. Arnold Gesell, an American psychologist and pediatrician, focuses on the changes undergone in childhood. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 72

73. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d His theory posits that all children go through the same sequential stages of maturation, but each individual child develops and completes milestones on their own personal timelines. As mentioned earlier, the process of maturation does not end in adulthood but continues during the entire lifespan of a person. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 73

74. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d The process of aging in adulthood is called senescence, which considers how people develop and/or deteriorate starting in early adulthood ending at death in late adulthood. Maturation theory is important for people to study, because it helps build on knowledge already known to the scientific community and also helps provide information on when people should be ready to achieve a certain developmental task or milestone. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 74

75. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d 2.1.2 Dimensions of Development Before understanding the dimensions of development, it is necessary to understand the stages of development in a life-span. Have you ever thought back over your lifetime? Have you wondered about how you have grown up and changed through the years? Are you able to recall the changes that happened during your childhood? These questions make us think of development in a lifespan perspective. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 75

76. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d This perspective explains the developmental process from conception to death. You know that there are many phases in human life such as infancy, childhood, early adolescence, later adolescence, early adulthood and late adulthood. Each phase of life has different characteristics, which is followed by different demands and opportunities 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 76

77. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d . When we think of development, what comes generally to our minds are the changes that are visible in our physical appearance. However, development is more than physical changes though it is a major part of development. Human development usually concerns differences or changes that occur over time. You know that development is the interplay of biological, cognitive, social, emotional and moral aspects. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 77

78. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Development is multidimensional which means that change happens across many different aspects of a child’s life. Physical, cognitive, emotional, moral or psychosocial changes- all take place at the same time. Therefore, these aspects are actually the various dimensions of development. Therefore, these dimensions of development are those aspects of human life, which change throughout the life span. These will be discussed in the subsequent sections 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 78

79. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Physical development Physical growth and development refers to a process which brings bodily and physiological changes- internal, as well as external- in a child from conception till death. During childhood there are changes in a child’s height, weight and body proportion. The pace of this growth is more in later childhood (7-12 years) than in early childhood stage (3-6 years). Legs lengthen rapidly and there is increase in height. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 79

80. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d A gradual improvement in speed, steadiness of movement and accuracy also form significant features of physical development in early childhood while at a later stage they get weary after physical activity, but also show a great interest in competitive games which require skill. This stage of childhood is now going to be transformed into the blossoming period of child development, which is known as adolescence. Let us now try to explore the characteristics of adolescence stage. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 80

81. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 81 Physical development

82. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Emotional development Emotion has been defined differently as ‘a stage of agitation’ anxiety, ‘disturbance of equilibrium’, ‘intense random and disorganized response to a stimulus’. In modern life, emotions demand greater understanding because of their pervasive effects on behavior, personality and health. At the childhood stage, children experience feelings of love, hatred and fear which last for long. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 82

83. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d There is the formation of sentiments and complexes. They develop a sense of autonomy, combat, doubt and shame. In other words, they accept themselves if they succeed in their own eyes and develop a sense of inferiority, if they fail. By the time the children enter the stage of adolescence, there are some noticeable changes in their emotional behavior. The adolescents often struggle with a sense of identity and question about themselves. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 83

84. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d The common observable behavioral patterns at this stage are moodiness, anger, depression, anxiety and state of dilemma. Their trust therefore shifts to friends and the opinions of others seem to be important. Cognitive Development Child’s cognitive development forms the foundation of many other developments like language, social, moral and emotional development. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 84

85. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d But the question arises, what is this cognitive development? Cognitive development involves mental processes that are associated with taking in, organizing and making sense of information processes that include perceiving, attending to, understanding and recalling information. The mental functions are part of what is referred to as cognition. Moral Development Every day, we come across many situations which demand our reasoning of right or wrong. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 85

86. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d For example, you are already late for school and on your way you find a red signal at a square. If you do not reach on time half of your salary gets deducted. What will you do? There are such situations in our daily life which make us realize how far we can uphold our attitude of being self. In these situations, we need to extend and challenge our thinking about what is ‘moral’. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 86

87. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Actually, being moral or morality refers to the fundamental questions of right and wrong, justice, fairness and basic human rights. 2.1.3 Controversies in Development Psychology is inevitably controversial because it attempts to interpret and explain human behavior and experience. When we consider human nature, there is an academic controversy about: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 87

88. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d which characteristics are most affected by genetics, how much are they affected by genetics, and how much we can adapt our behavior in response to personal and social demands. The four major development controversies, including nature versus nurture, stability versus change, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 88

89. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Nature/heredity versus Nurture/environment As previously mentioned, the nature vs nurture debate is a large debate in developmental psychology. Some believe that human thought and behavior are innate and a result of our genetics. Others believe at birth our mind is a blank slate that gets filled with knowledge by experience from our environment as we grow. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 89

90. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d The current perspective on this debate is that human behavior is the result of a mix of both our nature and nurture. Our genes can influence how we interact with the world and vice versa, our environment can trigger something in our genetic code that can result in new or abnormal behavior. Stability versus change The debate around stability vs change is focused on personality traits. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 90

91. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d A psychologist arguing from a stability perspective believes that personality traits are the same throughout a person's entire life, from infancy through to adulthood. Other researchers agree with an opposing belief, that personality traits can change throughout a person's life and are heavily influenced by their social interactions. For example, increasing confidence in social skills and settings from experience and with age. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 91

92. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Continuity versus discontinuity This debate surrounds the occurrence of change that children and adults experience. Do people experience change in a smooth progression over time or in a series of staggered steps, pausing and then growing again at intervals? The answer depends on which psychological perspective you agree with. Many psychological theories suggest that learning and cognitive development occur in distinct stages, only passing on from one step to the next with age and experience and rarely regressing backwards. . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 92

93. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d Theories such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development support discontinuity Universal versus context-specific. The Universal versus Context-specific development controversy is a long-standing debate in the field of psychology concerning the extent to which human development is influenced by universal, biologically determined factors versus context-specific cultural and environmental factors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 93

94. Definition of Development and related Terms …cont’d The Universal versus Context-specific development controversy has important implications for our understanding of human development, as it highlights the complex interplay between biological, cultural, and environmental factors in shaping who we are and how we grow and change over time. Ultimately, a comprehensive understanding of human development will require an integrated approach that takes into account both universal and context-specific factors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 94

95. \ 2. 2 Theories of Development and their Educational Implications A theory is a set of principles that are based on observations and that explain and relate certain phenomena. Principles - relationships between underpinning concepts, for example, the factors that influence learning. It is important to develop our understanding of children’s behavior, reactions and ways of learning through taking an eclectic approach to theory along with additional research as well as cultural influences. Electric approach is a type of psychotherapy tailored to fit the exact needs of the individual seeking treatment. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 95

96. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Overall our understanding of theory is very important in the planning and delivery of developmentally appropriate practice and to support the implementation of evidence based practice. The following are some of the well known theories. 2.2.1 Theories of Cognitive & Language Development 2.2.1.1 Jean Piaget’s (1896 – 1980) - Constructivist theory Jean Piaget: A Swiss psychologist who is best known for his highly influential 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 96

97. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget's influence on educational psychology is still evident today. Piaget was a ‘constructivist’ which means that his theory was based on the belief that children ‘construct’ their thoughts and understanding of the world based on their experiences. He saw learning as an ongoing process where children made use of what he called ‘schema’ /representation to construct their learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 97

98. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d This is a four-part process: Assimilation – children construct a schema about their world based on their current experiences ( A four legged furry animal is called a cat ) Equilibrium – this schema fits with the child’s current experience and everything is in balance ( the child points to the cat in the house and the parent says cat) Disequilibrium – an experience occurs which changes or challenges the current schema ( on a visit to a friends house the child experiences a four legged furry animal called a dog) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 98

99. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Accommodation – the child changes the original schema to include the new information ( different four legged furry animals exist, some are cats and some are dogs). Piaget also thought that children go through four developmental stages which take them from birth to maturity: Sensori – motor stage (birth to 18/24 months), Pre-operational stage (18/24 months–7 years), Concrete-operational stage (7–11 years) and Formal operational stage (11–adult) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 99

100. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Sensory – motor stage (birth to 18/24 months ) During this stage the baby is experiencing the immediate environment and the effect that they can have on it. During this time the child will develop an understanding of ‘ object permanence ’, the fact that something still exists even if you cannot see it. They will also start to use symbolic language. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 100

101. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Pre-operational stage (18/24 months–7 years) Young children are using symbols in their thought, speech and play. At this stage children are very ego-centric, they believe that the world revolves around them and their needs and find it difficult to see the view of others. Piaget’s research also found that children of this age are unable to conserve – to understand that just because one child has a drink in a tall thin glass and the other has a drink in a short wide glass doesn’t mean that the first child has more. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 101

102. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d They will think this even if they see the adult start with two drinks in the same glass filled to the same level. Concrete-operational stage (7–11 years) Stage of cognitive development (Crain, 2005). This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways. Children are now able to understand the concept of conservation. They can also solve problems but will normally need to use props/respect or objects in order to support their thinking. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 102

103. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Formal operational stage (11–adult) Now capable of abstract thinking and can consider situations and problems that they have not directly experienced. The ability to think through more complex logic, mathematical and scientific concepts becomes more developed. Some young people with special education needs or disability may never reach this stage of development 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 103

104. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Piaget saw development happening in advance of the learning, as the child reaches each new stage of development the number and complexity of the schema will change. It is also important to understand that Piaget saw children’s thinking as different to that of adults and so therefore they will learn in different ways. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 104

105. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 105 Age (years) Stage Description 0–2 Sensorimotor World experienced through senses and actions 2–6 Preoperational Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning 7–11 Concrete operational Understand concrete events and analogies/ comparisons logically; perform arithmetical operations 12– Formal operational Formal operations Utilize abstract reasoning Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

106. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The understanding that children learn best when they are actively exploring a stimulating and challenging environment. Children are active in the construction of their own learning and they need opportunity to play and discover. Piaget’s theory also influences the characteristics of effective teaching and learning which are: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 106

107. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Playing and exploring -children investigate and experience things, and ‘have a go’ Active learning -children concentrate and keep on trying if they encounter difficulties, and enjoy achievements Creating and thinking critically -children have and develop their own ideas, make links between ideas, and develop strategies for doing things. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 107

108. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The ability to think critically calls for a higher-order thinking than simply the ability to recall information. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing ( break down) , synthesizing (bringing together) , and/or evaluating and judging information and gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 108

109. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d It has also influenced thinking around the concept of ‘readiness’ and that children need to reach a certain level of cognitive development before being expected to understand particular concepts. This has been taken into consideration within the EYFS in England(he early years foundation stage (EYFS) sets standards for the learning, development and care of your child from birth to 5 years old), children develop in the prime areas first which form the basis for successful learning in the specific areas. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 109

110. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Observations are important here too as it helps us to understand each child’s level of achievement, interests and learning styles and then provide suitable learning opportunities. Piaget’s theory can also help our understanding of children’s behavior, the inability to conserve, for example, could lead to arguments over sharing or the amount of drink one child has compared to another. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 110

111. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.1.2 Lev Vygotsky’s Theory (1896 – 1934) -Social Constructivist Theory Vygotsky also proposed that children constructed their understanding and learning but saw this happening within a socio–cultural context. His theory is based on the idea that language and cognitive development go hand-in-hand and that through language the children develop their understanding. The main idea behind Vygotsky’s theory is that as a child develops they will reach a point where learning can no longer take place. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 111

112. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d At this point the child then needs the support of others to move on in their learning, a process known as scaffolding. The child is said to be in a ‘zone of proximal development’ and the scaffolding process will help them to develop the skills and understanding required to move forwards. The child will then practice and consolidate that learning before more scaffolding is required. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 112

113. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky does not identify a series of stages but more a gradual process of development with each experience building on what has gone before. He also recognizes that experience, language and therefore also development will also vary according to the culture that the child is immersed in. Vygotsky’s theory highlights the social aspect of play, learning and development. It also emphasizes the importance of both adult led and child initiated play. . Adults need to be observant of children’s play and development and know 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 113

114. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d when to step in to scaffold the learning. Adults can work alongside the children in order to extend and challenge their learning. Vygotsky also recognized the important role that our peers may also play in scaffolding/frame learning – a group of children playing together will include a range of ages and abilities and some children will be supporting the development of others. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 114

115. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Scaffolding refers to a method where teachers offer a particular kind of support to students as they learn and develop a new concept or skill. In the instructional scaffolding model, a teacher may share new information or demonstrate how to solve a problem. If the children encounter a problem then there may be some discussion amongst them as to how best solve it, ideas will be put forwards and tested until eventually they come up with a solution that works for them 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 115

116. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Like Piaget, Vygotsky’s theory also promotes learning through stimulating and challenging play but alongside others. 2.2.2 Theories of psychosexual and Psychosocial Development Psychosexual Theory of development S igmund Freud (1856–1939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 116

117. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Freud's psychosexual theory states five stages of human development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These psychosexual stages capture the main growth points of a person from infancy to adulthood and focus on different facets of wants, needs, and desires. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 117

118. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d According to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone (producing sexual excitement or libidinal gratification when stimulated, sexually, sensitive) , at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital . Libidinal instinct psychic energy in psychoanalytic theory derived from primitive biological urge - as for sexual pressure or self-preservation ) expressed in conscious activity) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 118

119. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Freud’s stages are called the stages of psychosexual development and are presented below. At any of these stages, the child might become “stuck” or fixated if a caregiver either overly indulges or neglects the child’s needs. A fixated adult will continue to try and resolve this later in life. Examples of fixation are given after the presentation of each stage. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 119

120. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d For about the first year of life , the infant is in the oral stage of psychosexual development. The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification. A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well. Psychologically, the infant is all Id. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 120

121. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation. If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further. However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may stay stuck in the oral stage. As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive/uncontrollable talking. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 121

122. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored. During the anal stage which coincides with toddlerhood or mobility and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed. There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out. The child is learning a sense of self-control. The ego is being developed . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 122

123. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair (a child’s chair having an open seat under which a receptacle/container is placed for toilet training , for example). The child may grow up fearing losing control. He may become fixated in this stage or “ anal retentive ”-fearful of letting go 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 123

124. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others. If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be “ anal expulsive ” or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized. The Phallic stage occurs during the preschool years (ages 3-5) when the child has a new biological challenge to face. Freud believed that the child becomes sexually attracted to his or her opposite sexed parent or interested in his/her own sex organs. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 124

125. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Boys experience the “ Oedipal Complex ” in which they become sexually attracted to their mothers but realize that Father is in the way. He is much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risking losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms and thereby learns the role of males in his society. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 125

126. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply. In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a “phallic male” or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure) by seducing women and beating up men! 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 126

127. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d A little girl experiences the “ Electra Complex ” in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret/shame, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences “penis envy/jealousy ”). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 127

128. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female. However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a “castrating female” who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life. FGM is the cutting, sewing or destruction of a female's genitals. It is practiced by various religions and cultures. It has been practiced for centuries. It causes severe pain and prolonged bleeding, infection, infertility and even death, the UN report said. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 128

129. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d During middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the latent stage focusing his or her attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, he or she will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 129

130. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the genital stage . From adolescence throughout adulthood a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 130

131. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the Id with the Superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges. Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges. The id is the impulsive part of your personality that is driven by pleasure and repulsed by pain, the superego is the judgmental and morally correct part of your personality, 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 131

132. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d and the ego is the conscious part of your personality that mediates between the id and the superego and makes decisions. Freud called this particular part of the personality id, which is a Latin word for "it," due to the fact that it is unaware of the external world and the passage of time. It is the basic instinct, what we are born with, of needs, desires, and pleasures. The id, ego, and superego are three agencies that make up your personality. The id is the inherited part of the personality; the ego is who you are, or self; and the superego is governed by morals and societal compasses. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 132

133. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud’s psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one’s personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud’s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 133

134. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Psychosocial Theory of development Psychosocial theories focus on the nature of self-understanding, social relationships, and the mental processes that support connections between the person and his/her social world. Erik Erikson (1902–1994) another stage theorist, took Freud’s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson’s psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan.. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 134

135. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity. Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson’s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 135

136. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 136

137. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 137 Stage Age (years) Developmental Task Description 1 0–1 Trust vs. mistrust Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met 2 1–3 Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Develop a sense of independence in many tasks 3 3–6 Initiative vs. guilt Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped 4 7–11 Industry vs. inferiority Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not 5 12–18 Identity vs. confusion Experiment with and develop identity and roles 6 19–29 Intimacy vs. isolation Establish intimacy and relationships with others 7 30–64 Generativity vs. stagnation Contribute to society and be part of a family 8 65– Integrity vs. despair Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions

138. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.2.1 Biological Approach The biological approach to psychology is one way to conceptualize and explain the human experience. The biological approach seeks to explain mental processes and behavior by focusing on the function of the nervous system at the cellular and structural level. The biological perspective proposes that biological structures determine our behavior and thoughts 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 138

139. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d These structures include neurons, brain regions, neurotransmitters or genes. A biological approach in psychology involves studying human biology to understand human behavior. In contrast to the cognitive approach, in the biological approach, the mind is not seen as separate from the physical makeup of our bodies. There is no 'ghost in the machine; instead, the physical machine is made up of many structures, e.g. cells that work together to enable us to function. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 139

140. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Biopsychology is where psychology and biology overlap. The essential ideas taken from biology and applied to psychology are natural selection, localization of brain functions, and brain chemicals as a basis of behavior. Biological Approach Assumptions In biopsychology, exploring human biology and genes throughout history and today using more advanced technology has created some assumptions that the biological approach follows. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 140

141. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d There are three main ones: Genes determine our behavior. Brain functions are localized. Neurochemicals are the basis of behavior. One of the key assumptions of the biological approach is that traits and behaviors can be inherited from our parents. It also assumes the traits get passed down from one generation to another to ensure survival in the natural environment. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 141

142. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.2.2 Social Learning Approach Based on previous studies, learning is defined as “A persisting change in human performance or performance potential as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9). Learning is also elucidated by Weinstein & Mayer (1986) as “The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” (p. 1040). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 142

143. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d On this point, Shuell (1986) clarified learning as “An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” ( p. 412). Learning theories see the environment as the major force in development. (Hoffman, 1993). Scholars categorized learning theories as Behaviorism, Social Learning Theory (SLT) and Social Cognitive Learning Theory (SCLT)., 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 143

144. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d In the context of study, Albert Bandura is arguably the most eminent living psychologist. His Social Cognitive theory has influenced many areas of inquiry: education, health sciences, social policy and psychotherapy among others. Social learning theory is increasingly cited as an essential component of sustainable natural resource management and the promotion of desirable behavioral change. ( Muro & Jeffrey 2008). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 144

145. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with others in a social context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors. After observing the behavior of others, people assimilate and imitate that behavior, especially if their observational experiences are positive ones or include rewards related to the observed behavior. According to Bandura, imitation involves the actual reproduction of observed motor activities. (Bandura 1977). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 145

146. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d SLT has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. It is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory. This theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation ( Muro & Jeffrey 2008). However, on this regards, Bandura believes that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 146

147. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d For that reason, in his theory he added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. According to the elements of this theory there are three general principles for learning from each other. Social learning theory is the philosophy that people can learn from each other through observation, imitation and modeling. The concept was theorized by psychologist Albert Bandura and combined ideas behind behaviorist and cognitive learning approaches. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 147

148. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The principles of social learning are assumed to operate in the same way throughout life. Observational learning may take place at any age. Insofar as exposure to new influential, powerful models who control resources may occur at life stage, new learning through the modeling process is always possible (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 148

149. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.2.3 Psychoanalytic Approach According to Sigmund Freud, development is primarily unconscious and behavior is motivated by unconscious/inner forces, memories, and conflicts over which a person has little control or awareness. Psychoanalysis is a method of therapy in which the patient talks about experiences, early childhood, and dreams. It refers to both a theory and a type of therapy based on the belief that all people possess unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 149

150. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d According to the American Psychoanalytic Association (APA), psychoanalysis can help people understand themselves by exploring their unrecognized impulses hidden in the unconscious. In psychotherapy, people are able to feel safe as they explore feelings, desires, memories, and stressors that can lead to psychological difficulties. Research has demonstrated that the self-examination utilized in the psychoanalytic process can contribute to long-term emotional growth. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 150

151. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Psychoanalysis is based on Freud's theory that people can experience catharsis ( a powerful emotional release that, when successful, is accompanied by cognitive insight and positive change ).and gain insight into their state of mind by bringing the content of the unconscious into conscious awareness. Through this process, a person can find relief from psychological distress. According to psychoanalytic theory, this emotional release is linked to a need to relieve unconscious conflicts. For example, experiencing stress over a work-related situation may cause feelings of frustration and tension. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 151

152. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Stress, anxiety, fear, anger, and trauma can cause intense and difficult feelings to build over time. At a certain point, it feels as if there is so much emotion and turmoil that it becomes overwhelming. People may even feel as if they are going to "explode" unless they find a way to release this pent-up emotion. Rather than venting these feelings inappropriately, the individual may instead release these feelings in another way, such as through physical activity or another stress-relieving activity. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 152

153. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Psychoanalysis also suggests that: A person's behavior is influenced by their unconscious drives. Emotional and psychological problems such as depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts between the conscious and unconscious mind. Personality development is heavily influenced by the events of early childhood (Freud suggested that personality was largely set in tone by the age of five). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 153

154. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d People use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from information contained in the unconscious. Skilled analysts can help a person bring certain aspects of their unconscious mind into their conscious awareness by using psychoanalytic strategies such as dream analysis and free association. Structure of Personality Freud believed our personality comprised three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego, which become integrated as we grow and develop. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 154

155. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d THE ID - is the primitive, raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality. The id is responsible for the urges that we experience, such as hunger, sleep, aggression, etc. that are largely unconscious and present at birth. As an infant, we are almost all id, such that we are almost exclusively interested in maximizing pleasure/comfort and avoiding pain/discomfort. If your id were completely in control, you would act on all of your urges, and seek to maximize pleasure and always avoid discomfort. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 155

156. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d For example, I love to watch television. If my id were in control, I would watch television morning until night. I would never come to work, I would never do the laundry, I would never pay my bills, and I would completely avoid all responsibility and only live to watch television. Thankfully, the id does not have complete control. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 156

157. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d EGO: addresses the demand of reality The ego is the rational, reasonable part of our personality that emerges in early infancy that makes it possible for us to exercise control over our unconscious urges. In other words, the ego acts as a buffer between our id and the demands of reality. The ego allows us to behave in a socially appropriate manner. It is because of the ego that I go to work each day rather than watching television all day long. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 157

158. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d SUPEREGO: moral branch, evaluates right from wrong The superego acts like a conscience that helps us to evaluate what is right and wrong. One way to think of the superego is like Jiminy Cricket from the Disney cartoon Pinocchio. Unlike the id that is believed to be innate, Freud believed the superego did not emerge until the age of 5 or 6, and that morality was learned from significant others, such as one's parents, teachers, etc. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 158

159. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.3 Theories of Moral Development The founder of psychoanalysis, Freud (1962), proposed the existence of a tension between the needs of society and the individual. According to Freud, moral development proceeds when the individual’s selfish desires are repressed and replaced by the values of important socializing agents in one’s life (for instance, one’s parents). A proponent of behaviorism, Skinner (1972) similarly focused on socialization as the primary force behind moral development. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 159

160. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d In contrast to Freud’s notion of a struggle between internal and external forces, Skinner focused on the power of external forces (reinforcement contingencies) to shape an individual’s development. While both Freud and Skinner focused on the external forces that bear on morality (parents in the case of Freud, and behavioral contingencies in the case of Skinner), Piaget (1965) focused on the individual’s construction, construal/ interpretation of morality from a social-cognitive and social-emotional perspective 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 160

161. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.3.1Piaget’s Theory of moral development To understand adult morality, Piaget believed that it was necessary to study both how morality manifests in the child’s world as well as the factors that contribute to the emergence of central moral concepts such as welfare, justice, and rights. By interviewing children, Piaget (1965) found that young children were focused on authority mandates and that with age, children become autonomous, evaluating actions from a set of independent principles of morality. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 161

162. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d He developed two phases of moral development, one common among children and the other common among adults. The first is the Heteronomous Phase. This phase, more common among children, is characterized by the idea that rules come from authority figures in one’s life, such as parents, teachers, and God. It also involves the idea that rules are permanent no matter what. Thirdly, this phase of moral development includes 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 162

163. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d the belief that “naughty”/disobedient /bad behavior must always be punished and that the punishment will be proportional. This absolutism in moral development is seen in children’s play from the age of 5, where they exhibit a blind belief in the rules and ideas of right and wrong passed to them by their elders. The second phase in Piaget’s theory of moral development is referred to as the Autonomous Phase. This phase is more common after one has matured and is no longer a child. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 163

164. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d In this phase, people begin to view the intentions behind actions as more important than their consequences. For instance, if a person who is driving swerves in order to not hit a dog and then knocks over a road sign, adults are likely to be less angry at the person than if he or she had done it on purpose just for fun. Even though the outcome is the same, people are more forgiving because of the good intention of saving the dog. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 164

165. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d This phase also includes the idea that people have different morals and that morality is not necessarily universal People in the Autonomous Phase also believe rules may be broken under certain circumstances. For instance, Rosa Parks broke the law by refusing to give up her seat on a bus, which was against the law but something many people consider moral nonetheless. In this phase, people also stop believing in the idea of immanent/inherent justice. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 165

166. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.3.2 Kohlberg’s Theory of moral development Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) extended upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding moral and cognitive development. Kohlberg, like Piaget, was interested in moral reasoning. Moral reasoning does not necessarily equate to moral behavior. Holding a particular belief does not mean that our behavior will always be consistent with the belief. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 166

167. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d To develop this theory, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development. After presenting people with this and various dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 167

168. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Moral Stages According to Kohlberg Using a stage model similar to Piaget’s, Kohlberg proposed three levels, with six stages, of moral development. Individuals experience the stages universally and in sequence as they form beliefs about justice. He named the levels simply preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 168

169. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 169

170. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The rightness and wrongness of actions are determined by whether actions are rewarded or punished by authorities, such as parents or teachers. If helping yourself to a cookie brings affectionate smiles from adults, then taking the cookie is considered morally “good.” If it brings scolding instead, then it is morally “bad.” The child does not think about why an action might be praised or scolded; in fact, says Kohlberg, he would be incapable, at Stage 1, of considering the reasons even if adults offered them. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 170

171. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Eventually, the child learns not only to respond to positive consequences but also learns how to produce them by exchanging favors with others. The new ability creates Stage 2, ethics of market exchange. At this stage, the morally “good” action is one that favors not only the child but another person directly involved. A “bad” action is one that lacks this reciprocity. If trading the sandwich from your lunch for the cookies in your friend’s lunch is mutually agreeable, then the trade is morally good; otherwise, it is not. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 171

172. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d This perspective introduces a type of fairness into the child’s thinking for the first time. However, it still ignores the larger context of actions—the effects on people not present or directly involved. In Stage 2 , for example, it would also be considered morally “good” to pay a classmate to do another student’s homework—or even to avoid bullying—provided that both parties regard the arrangement as being fair. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 172

173. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Conventional: Conformity to Peers and Society As children move into the school years, their lives expand to include a larger number and range of peers and (eventually) of the community as a whole. The change leads to conventional morality, which are beliefs based on what this larger array of people agree on—hence Kohlberg’s use of the term “conventional.” At first, in Stage 3 , the child’s reference group are immediate peers, so Stage 3 is 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 173

174. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d sometimes called the ethics of peer opinion. If peers believe, for example, that it is morally good to behave politely with as many people as possible, then the child is likely to agree with the group and to regard politeness as not merely an arbitrary social convention, but a moral “good.” This approach to moral belief is a bit more stable than the approach in Stage 2 because the child is taking into account the reactions not just of one other person, but of many. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 174

175. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d But it can still lead astray/away from what is proper or desirable/ if the group settles on beliefs that adults consider morally wrong, like “Shoplifting/theft for candy bars is fun and desirable.” Eventually, as the child becomes a youth and the social world expands, even more, he or she acquires even larger numbers of peers and friends. He or she is, therefore, more likely to encounter disagreements about ethical issues and beliefs. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 175

176. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Preconventional: Obedience and Mutual Advantage The preconventional level of moral development coincides approximately with the preschool period of life and with Piaget’s preoperational period of thinking. At this age, the child is still relatively self-centered and insensitive to the moral effects of actions on others. The result is a somewhat short-sighted orientation to morality. Initially (Kohlberg’s Stage 1), the child adopts an ethics of obedience and punishment —a sort of “morality of keeping out of trouble.” 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 176

177. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Resolving the complexities lead to Stage 4, the ethics of law and order, in which the young person increasingly frames moral beliefs in terms of what the majority of society believes. Now, an action is morally good if it is legal or at least customarily approved by most people, including people whom the youth does not know personally. This attitude leads to an even more stable set of principles than in the previous stage, though it is still not immune from ethical mistakes. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 177

178. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d A community or society may agree, for example, that people of a certain race should be treated with deliberate disrespect, or that a factory owner is entitled to dump wastewater into a commonly shared lake or river. To develop ethical principles that reliably avoid mistakes like these require further stages of moral development. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 178

179. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Postconventional: Social Contract and Universal Principles As a person becomes able to think abstractly (or “formally,” in Piaget’s sense), ethical beliefs shift from acceptance of what the community does believe to the process by which community beliefs are formed. The new focus constitutes Stage 5, the ethics of social contract. Now an action, belief, or practice is morally good if it has been created through fair, democratic processes that respect the rights of the people affected .(Read the word document and other references for further knoeledge ) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 179

180. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d 2.2.3.3 Carol Gilligan’s Theory of moral development What is Gilligan's theory of moral development? Gilligan's theory of moral development is called the Ethics of Care. Through her research, she found the idea of care to be essential when considering the development of all people, and that all humans value the ability to create and maintain relationships. Moral development is the way a person decides to consider what is ethical, socially acceptable, or right vs. wrong in order to drive their behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 180

181. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Carol Gilligan's theory of moral development outlines how a woman's morality is heavily influenced by caring about personal relationships. Gilligan's theory is a modification of her professor Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Kohlberg's theory is based on the belief that people go through several stages of moral reasoning and that only men can reach the highest level of moral reasoning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 181

182. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d He hypothesizes that this is due to men focusing more on justice with their decisions being thought of as verdicts based on perceiving all conflicts as controversies. Carol Gilligan criticized Lawrence Kohlberg's theory, stating that it was biased towards men. Gilligan stated that his theory was derived by only studying men and did not take into account a woman's way of thinking or patterns of behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 182

183. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Gilligan further went on to state that Kohlberg's theory proved that women are often more undervalued than men. Gilligan named her theory the Ethics of Care, which she suggests happens in three stages. Gilligan did not attach ages to the stages, declaring that only a woman's evolving self-perception and interpersonal reasoning can move her through each stage. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage. This stage is when a woman is focused on herself, meaning only her needs and self-interests are of any importance. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 183

184. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d The second stage is the conventional stage, where women begin to consider their responsibilities towards others. Moving into this stage means that a female is experiencing selflessness and is orienting herself to the feelings of others. The third and final stage is the post-conventional stage, where a woman fully understands the interdependence that exists between herself and others. This is the highest stage that a woman can reach. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 184

185. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d A female makes a decision on a universal level as she has learned that she has to take full responsibility for her actions, while also choosing to take care of others. Care-Based Morality and Justice-Based Morality Care-based morality is the view that moral development involves caring about a person's human relationships and finding the balance between caring for oneself and others. The main principles of care-based morality are that it: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 185

186. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d is based on care for self and the care for others guides a person in recognizing relational interdependency helps with cultivating skills of attentiveness and respect emphasizes not only caring about relationships but about maintaining them as well is if a person acts justly, they can avoid confrontation and still help someone in need is more common in females, since they learn connections from their 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 186

187. Theories of Development & Educational Implications …cont’d Gilligan's (1982) model posits the existence of separate patterns of moral development for men and women. The pattern for men, termed the "justice ethic," is based on abstract concepts of justice, reciprocity, and individual rights. The pattern for women, termed the "care ethic," is based on responsibility toward others and the preservation of relationships. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 187

188. 3.Individual Differences among Learners Definitions of Individual Differences: 1. Drever James: “Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual differences.” 2. Good, C.V.: “The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 188

189. Individual Differences among Learners …cont’d “The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single characteristics or a number of characteristics, those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another.” 3. Skinner, C.E.: “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.” 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 189

190. Individual Differences among Learners cont’d 4. Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.: “Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.” “The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group differences. This study classifies individuals by age, traits, sex, race, social class and so on, and observes the differences within and between those groups. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 190

191. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d Physical, mental, social and cultural differences etc. are being studied, under individual differences.” Perhaps the first task of every teacher in a class should be to know and study individual differences among his pupils. Individual differences in bodily appearance and physique, habits and skills, interests and temperaments, abilities and attainments have already been recognized. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 191

192. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d According to Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.” It is clear from this definition of individual differences that it comprehends every aspect of human personality which is in some manner measurable. 3.1 Types of individual differences 1. Physical differences: Shortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are various physical individual differences. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 192

193. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d 2. Differences in intelligence: There are differences in intelligence level among different individuals. We can classify the individuals from super-normal (above 120 I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level. 3. Differences in attitudes: Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people, objects, institutions and authority. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 193

194. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d 4. Differences in achievement: It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These differences are very much visible in reading, writing and in learning mathematics. 5. Differences in motor ability: There are differences in motor ability. These differences are visible at different ages. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 194

195. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d Some people can perform mechanical tasks easily, while others, even though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing these tasks. 6. Differences on account of sex: McNemar and Terman discovered the following differences between men and women, on the basis of some studies ( i ) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability. (ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 195

196. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d (iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell etc., while men show greater reaction and conscious of size- weight illusion. (iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and chemistry. (v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were found to be three times of such faults in women. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 196

197. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d (vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many color blind men as there are women. (vii) Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting, stories of games and sports, stories and games of occupation and skill. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 197

198. Individual Differences among Learners … cont’d There are several other differences as well . One of the important objectives of modern education is the complete development of the individual. Individuals have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different abilities. We cannot afford to ignore these individual differences in imparting education to children. Since school work is planned on group basis it presents a formidable challenge to all teachers. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 198

199. 3.2 developmental features of adolescence Adolescence From ages 12 to 18 years, children experience distinct mental and physical changes. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the beginning of a girl menstrual cycle typically occurs 2 years after the onset of puberty. The NIH reports that boys do not begin puberty with a distinct marker and tend to mature with adult genitalia about age 16 or 17 years. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 199

200. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d During this time of physical change, adolescents may become more self-centered. In middle to late adolescence, teenagers are often characterized as becoming more comfortable with their body sexually and ready to have romantic friendships. Adolescent behavior often includes the teen-agers need to pull away from parents and authority figures to establish their own self-identity and make decisions on their own. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 200

201. developmental features of adolescence …cont’d 3.2.1 Physical Development of Adolescence Physical changes of puberty mark the onset of adolescence. These changes include a growth spurt in height, growth of pubic and underarm hair, and skin changes (e.g., pimples). Males experience growth in facial hair and a deepening of their voice. Females experience breast development and begin menstruating. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 201

202. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d These pubertal changes are driven by hormones, particularly an increase in testosterone for males and estrogen for females. Pubertal changes take around three to four years to complete. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Every person’s individual timetable for puberty is different and is primarily influenced by heredity; however, environmental factors—such as diet and exercise—also exert some influence. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 202

203. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Adolescents experience an overall physical growth spurt/speed. The growth proceeds from the extremities toward the torso(the human body apart from the head, neck, arms and the legs(human trunk. This is referred to as distal proximal development(proximodistal). First the hands grow, then the arms, and finally the torso. The overall physical growth spurt results in 10-11 inches of added height and 50 to 75 pounds of increased weight. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 203

204. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Both height and weight can certainly be sensitive issues for some teenagers. Yet, neither socially preferred height nor thinness is the destiny for many individuals. Being overweight, in particular, has become a common, serious problem in modern society due to the prevalence of diets high in fat and lifestyles low in activity. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 204

205. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Puberty is a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation. These changes begin sometime between 8 and 14. Puberty occurs over two distinct phases, and the first phase, adrenarche, begins at 6 to 8 years of age and involves increased production of adrenal androgens that contribute to a number of pubertal changes—such as skeletal growth. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 205

206. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Hormonal Changes The second phase of puberty, gonadarche/sex gland , begins several years later and involves increased production of hormones governing physical and sexual maturation. Puberty involves distinctive physiological changes in an individual’s height, weight, body composition, and circulatory and respiratory systems, and during this time, both the adrenal glands and sex glands mature. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 206

207. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Sexual Development Typically, the growth spurt is followed by the development of sexual maturity. Sexual changes are divided into two categories: Primary sexual characteristics and secondary sexual characteristics. Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs. For males, this includes growth of the testes, penis, scrotum, and spermarche or first ejaculation of semen. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 207

208. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Primary characteristics for females include growth of the uterus and menarche or the first menstrual period. Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to reproduction, but signal sexual maturity. For those assigned male at birth, this includes broader shoulders and a lower voice as the larynx grows. Hair becomes coarser and darker, and hair growth occurs in the pubic area, under the arms, and on the face 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 208

209. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d for those assigned female at birth, breast development occurs around age 10, although full development takes several years. Hips broaden and pubic and underarm hair develops and also becomes darker and coarser. Acne: An unpleasant consequence of the hormonal changes in puberty is acne, defined as pimples on the skin due to overactive sebaceous (oil-producing) glands 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 209

210. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d These glands develop at a greater speed than the skin ducts that discharges the oil. Consequently, the ducts can become blocked with dead skin and acne will develop. Experiencing acne can lead the adolescent to withdraw socially, especially if they are self-conscious about their skin or teased/bothered. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 210

211. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Effects of Pubertal Age Research has demonstrated mental health problems can be linked to children who begin puberty earlier than their peers. For females, early puberty is associated with depression, substance use, eating disorders, disruptive behavior disorders, and early sexual behavior. Some early maturing females demonstrate more anxiety and less confidence in their relationships with family and friends and they compare themselves more negatively to their peers. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 211

212. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Additionally, mental health problems are more likely to occur when a child is among the first in their peer group to develop. Because the preadolescent time is one of not wanting to appear different, early developing children stand out among their peer group and gravitate toward those who are older. For females, this results in them interacting with older peers who engage in risky behaviors such as substance use and early sexual behavior 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 212

213. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Males also see changes in their emotional functioning at puberty. According to Mendle , Harden, Brooks-Gunn, and Graber, while most males experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms during puberty, males who began puberty earlier and exhibited a rapid tempo/pace, or a fast rate of change, actually increased in depressive symptoms. The researchers concluded that the transition in peer relationships might be especially challenging for males whose pattern of pubertal maturation differs 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 213

214. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d significantly from those of others their age. Consequences for males attaining early puberty was increased odds of cigarette, alcohol, or other drug use. 3.2.2 Cognitive Development Adolescence The human brain is not fully developed by the time a person reaches puberty. Between the ages of 10 and 25, the brain undergoes significant changes that have important implications for behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 214

215. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d The brain reaches 90% of its adult size by the time a person is six or seven years of age. Thus, the brain does not grow in size much during adolescence. However, the creases in the brain continue to become more complex until the late teens. The biggest changes in the folds of the brain during this time occur in the parts of the cortex that process cognitive and emotional information 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 215

216. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increase, improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. Prefrontal cortex : the gray matter of the anterior part of the frontal lobe that is highly developed in humans and plays a role in the regulation of complex cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 216

217. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d However, this growth takes time and the growth is uneven. Additionally, changes in both the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin in the limbic system tend to make adolescents more emotional and more responsive to rewards and stress. In the next section, we will learn about changes in the brain and why teenagers sometimes engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and have varied emotions. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 217

218. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body. They enable the brain to provide a variety of functions, through the process of chemical synaptic transmission. These endogenous chemicals are integral in shaping everyday life and functions.[ 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 218

219. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Dopamine is a chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) that works in the brain. It helps nerve cells send messages to each other. It's produced by cells deep in the brain and acts on cells in other parts of the brain. Serotonin receptors influence several biological and neurological processes, such as aggression, anxiety, appetite, cognition, learning, memory, mood, nausea, sleep, and thermoregulation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 219

220. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d 3.2.3 Psychosocial Development Adolescence Psychosocial” means “pertaining to the influence of social factors on an individual's mind or behavior, and to the interrelation of behavioral and social factors” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2012). An adolescent has four tasks to accomplish to become a well-adjusted adult. These tasks are categorized as: 1) independence, 2) body image, 3) peer relations, and 4) identity. Adolescence is divided into three periods; early (ages 12-14), middle (ages 15-17) and late (ages 18-21). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 220

221. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Self-concept and Self-esteem in Adolescence In adolescence, teens continue to develop their self-concept. Their ability to think of the possibilities and to reason more abstractly may explain the further differentiation of the self during adolescence. However, the teen’s understanding of self is often full of contradictions. Young teens may see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn, happy yet often moody, and both smart and completely clueless/unexperienced (Harter, 2012). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 221

222. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d These contradictions, along with the teen’s growing recognition that their personality and behavior seem to change depending on who they are with or where they are, can lead the young teen to feel like a fraud. With their parents they may seem angrier and sullen, with their friends they are more outgoing and goofier, and at work they are quiet and cautious. “Which one is really me?” may be the refrain of the young teenager 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 222

223. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Harter (2012) found that adolescents emphasize traits such as being friendly and considerate more than do children, highlighting their increasing concern about how others may see them. Harter also found that older teens add values and moral standards to their self-descriptions. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 223

224. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity. Teens struggle with the question “Who am I?” This includes questions regarding their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 224

225. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and experimentation regarding identity and one’s life path. During adolescence we experience psychological moratorium, where teens put on hold commitment to an identity while exploring the options. The culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may either withdraw further into social isolation or become lost in the crowd. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 225

226. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d However, more recent research, suggests that few leave this age period with identity achievement, and that most identity formation occurs during young adulthood ( Côte ̀, 2006). Expanding on Erikson’s theory, James Marcia (2010) identified four identity statuses that represent the four possible combinations of the dimension of commitment and exploration. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 226

227. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 227

228. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion . Identity diffusion is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options, nor made a commitment to an identity. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 228

229. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Those in identity foreclosure/bar/ extinguishe have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options. Some parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 229

230. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Identity moratorium/stand still is a status that describes those who are activity exploring in an attempt to establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment. This can be an anxious and emotionally tense time period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is certain and there are many questions, but few answers. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 230

231. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Identity achievement refers to those who after exploration have made a commitment. This is a long process and is not often achieved by the end of adolescence. During high school and the college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The biggest gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 231

232. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d This is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future (McAdams, 2013). Developmental psychologists have researched several different areas of identity development and some of the main areas include: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 232

233. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Religious identity: The religious views of teens are often similar to that of their families ( KimSpoon , Longo, & McCullough, 2012). Most teens may question specific customs, practices, or ideas in the faith of their parents, but few completely reject the religion of their families. Political identity: The political ideology of teens is also influenced by their parents’ political beliefs. A new trend in the 21st century is a decrease in party affiliation among adults. Many adults do not align themselves with either party but view themselves as more of an “independent”. Their teenage children are often following suit or become more apolitical ( Côte ̀, 2006). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 233

234. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Vocational identity: While adolescents in earlier generations envisioned themselves as working in a particular job, and often worked as an apprentice or part-time in such occupations as teenagers, this is rarely the case today. Vocational identity takes longer to develop, as most of today’s occupations require specific skills and knowledge that will require additional education or are acquired on the job itself. In addition, many of the jobs held by teens are not in occupations that most teens will seek as adults. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 234

235. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Gender identity: Acquiring a gender identity is becoming an increasingly prolonged task as attitudes and norms regarding gender keep changing. The roles appropriate for males and females are evolving, and the lack of a gender binary allow adolescents more freedom to explore various aspects of gender. Some teens may foreclose/bar on a gender identity as a way of dealing with this uncertainty, and they may adopt more stereotypic/unimaginative male or female roles (Sinclair & Carlsson, 2013). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 235

236. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Sexual identity: According to Carroll (2016), by age 14 most adolescents become interested in intimate relationships, and they may begin sexual experimentation. Many adolescent feel pressure to express interest in opposite-sex relationships, even if they are not ready to do so. This pressure can be especially stressful for those adolescents who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or questioning their sexual identity. Many non-heterosexual adolescents struggle with negative peer and family reactions during their exploration 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 236

237. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d A lack of parental acceptance, especially, can adversely affect the gay, lesbian or bisexual adolescent’s emerging sexual identity and can result in feelings of depression. In contrast, adolescents whose families support their sexual identity have better health outcomes. Ethnic identity: refers to how people come to terms with who they are based on their ethnic or racial ancestry. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 237

238. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d “The task of ethnic identity formation involves sorting out and resolving positive and negative feelings and attitudes about one’s own ethnic group and about other groups and identifying one’s place in relation to both” (Phinney, 2006, p. 119). When groups differ in status in a culture, those from the non-dominant group have to be cognizant of the customs and values of those from the dominant culture. The reverse is rarely the case. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 238

239. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d This makes ethnic identity far less salient for members of the dominant culture. In the United States, those of European ancestry engage in less exploration of ethnic identity, than do those of non-European ancestry (Phinney, 1989). However, according to the U.S. Census (2012) more than 40% of Americans under the age of 18 are from ethnic minorities. For many ethnic minority teens, discovering one’s ethnic identity is an important part of identity formation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 239

240. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Negative Identity: A negative identity is the adoption of norms and values that are the opposite of one’s family and culture, and it is assumed to be one of the more problematic outcomes of identity development in young people ( Hihara , Umemura, & Sigimura , 2019). Those with a negative identity hold dichotomous beliefs, and consequently divide the world into two categories (e.g., friend or foe, good or bad). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 240

241. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Hihara et al. suggest that this may be because teens with a negative identity cannot integrate information and beliefs that exist in both their inner and outer worlds. In addition, those with a negative identity are generally hostile and cynical/ pessimistic suspicious toward society, often because they do not trust the world around them. These beliefs may lead teens to engage in delinquent and criminal behavior and prevent them from engaging in more positive acts that could be beneficial to society. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 241

242. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Parents and Teens: Autonomy and Attachment While most adolescents get along with their parents, they do spend less time with them (Smetana, 2011). This decrease in the time spent with families may be a reflection of a teenager’s greater desire for independence or autonomy. It can be difficult for many parents to deal with this desire for autonomy. However, it is likely adaptive for teenagers to increasingly distance themselves and establish relationships outside of their families in preparation for adulthood 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 242

243. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d This means that both parents and teenagers need to strike a balance between autonomy, while still maintaining close and supportive familial relationships. Children in middle and late childhood are increasingly granted greater freedom regarding moment-to-moment decision making. This continues in adolescence, as teens are demanding greater control in decisions that affect their daily lives. This can increase conflict between parents and their teenagers 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 243

244. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d For many adolescents, this conflict centers on chores, homework, curfew, dating, and personal appearance. These are all things many teens believe they should manage that parents previously had considerable control over. Teens report more conflict with their mothers, as many mothers believe they should still have some control over many of these areas, yet often report their mothers to be more encouraging and supportive (Costigan, Cauce, & Etchison , 20070 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 244

245. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d As teens grow older, more compromise is reached between parents and teenagers (Smetana, 2011). Parents are more controlling of daughters, especially early maturing girls, than they are sons (Caspi, Lynam , Moffitt, & Silva, 1993). In addition, culture and ethnicity also play a role in how restrictive parents are with the daily lives of their children (Chen, Vansteenkiste , Beyers, Soensens , & Van Petegem , 2013). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 245

246. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Having supportive, less conflict-ridden relationships with parents also benefits teenagers. Research on attachment in adolescence find that teens who are still securely attached to their parents have less emotional problems ( Rawatlal , Kliewer & Pillay, 2015), are less likely to engage in drug abuse and other criminal behaviors ( Meeus , Branje & Overbeek , 2004), and have more positive peer relationships ( Shomaker & Furman, 2009). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 246

247. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Peers As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults. Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings. During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 247

248. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as a function of homophily (love of sameness ) is a sociological theory that similar individuals will move toward each other and act in a similar manner, that is, adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) Adolescents who spend time together also shape each other’s behavior and attitudes. Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 248

249. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family. One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer contagion ( Dishion & Tipsord , 2011), 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 249

250. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 250

251. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships, which are reciprocal dyadic relationships, and cliques, which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently, crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions (Brown & Larson, 2009). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities, such as jocks or brains, and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 251

252. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Romantic Relationships Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. By the end of adolescence, most American teens have had at least one romantic relationship ( Dolgin , 2011). However, culture does play a role as Asian Americans and Latinas are less likely to date than other ethnic groups (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg, & Pepler , 2004). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 252

253. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Dating serves many purposes for teens, including having fun, companionship, status, socialization, sexual experimentation, intimacy, and partner selection for those in late adolescence ( Dolgin , 2011). There are several stages in the dating process beginning with engaging in mixed-sex group activities in early adolescence ( Dolgin , 2011). The same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski , 2000). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 253

254. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships, or lack thereof than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and emotional and behavioral adjustment. Romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 254

255. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d However, a negative dating relationship can adversely affect an adolescent’s development. Soller (2014) explored the link between relationship inauthenticity and mental health. Relationship inauthenticity refers to an incongruence between thoughts/feelings and actions within a relationship. Desires to gain partner approval and demands in the relationship may negatively affect an adolescent’s sense of authenticity. Soller found that relationship inauthenticity was positively correlated with poor mental health, including depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts, especially for females. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 255

256. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d 3.2.4 Problems of Adolescence The adolescent brain is especially vulnerable to damage from drug exposure. Consequently, adolescents are more sensitive to the effects of repeated marijuana exposure. However, researchers have also focused on the highly adaptive qualities of the adolescent brain which allow the adolescent to move away from the family towards the outside world. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 256

257. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Novelty seeking and risk-taking can generate positive outcomes including meeting new people and seeking out new situations. Separating from the family and moving into new relationships and different experiences are actually quite adaptive for society. Main problems of adolescence: Family. , Education , Mood swings are a common occurrence , Moral principles, Features of the body , Adjustment to the social environment , Problems with personal health , Discrimination based on gender. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 257

258. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Mental health determinants Adolescence is a crucial period for developing social and emotional habits important for mental well-being. These include adopting healthy sleep patterns; exercising regularly; developing coping, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills; and learning to manage emotions. Protective and supportive environments in the family, at school and in the wider community are important. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 258

259. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Adolescents with mental health conditions are particularly vulnerable to social exclusion, discrimination, stigma (affecting readiness to seek help), educational difficulties, risk-taking behaviors, physical ill-health and human rights violations. Multiple factors affect mental health. The more risk factors adolescents are exposed to, the greater the potential impact on their mental health. Factors that can contribute to stress during adolescence include exposure to adversity, pressure to conform with peers and exploration of identity. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 259

260. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Media influence and gender norms can exacerbate the disparity between an adolescent’s lived reality and their perceptions or aspirations for the future. Other important determinants include the quality of their home life and relationships with peers. Violence (especially sexual violence and bullying), harsh parenting and severe and socioeconomic problems are recognized risks to mental health. Some adolescents are at greater risk of mental health conditions due to their living conditions, stigma, discrimination or exclusion or lack of access to 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 260

261. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d quality support and services. These include adolescents living in humanitarian and fragile settings; adolescents with chronic illness, autism spectrum disorder, an intellectual disability or other neurological condition; pregnant adolescents, adolescent parents, or those in early or forced marriages; orphans; and adolescents from minority ethnic or sexual backgrounds or other discriminated groups. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 261

262. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Emotional disorders Emotional disorders are common among adolescents. Anxiety disorders (which may involve panic or excessive worry) are the most prevalent in this age group and are more common among older than among younger adolescents Depression and anxiety share some of the same symptoms, including rapid and unexpected changes in mood. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 262

263. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Anxiety and depressive disorders can profoundly affect school attendance and schoolwork. Social withdrawal can exacerbate isolation and loneliness. Depression can lead to suicide Behavioral disorders Behavioral disorders are more common among younger adolescents than older adolescents. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 263

264. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), characterized by difficulty paying attention, excessive activity and acting without regard to consequences, occurs among 3.1% of 10–14-year-olds and 2.4% of 15–19-year-olds . Conduct disorder (involving symptoms of destructive or challenging behavior) occurs among 3.6% of 10–14-year-olds and 2.4% of 15–19-year-olds (1). Behavioral disorders can affect adolescents’ education and conduct disorder may result in criminal behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 264

265. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Eating disorders Eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, commonly emerge during adolescence and young adulthood. Eating disorders involve abnormal eating behavior and preoccupation with food, accompanied in most instances by concerns about body weight and shape. Anorexia nervosa can lead to premature death, often due to medical complications or suicide, and has higher mortality than any other mental disorder. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 265

266. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Anorexia nervosa is a serious and potentially life-threatening — but treatable — eating disorder. It's characterized by extreme food restriction and an intense fear of gaining weight. Treatment usually involves several strategies, including psychological therapy, nutritional counseling and/or hospitalization. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 266

267. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Psychosis Psychosis is a disorder in which a person’s is often unable to deal with reality at all and withdraws in to aprivate world. Conditions that include symptoms of psychosis most commonly emerge in late adolescence or early adulthood. Symptoms can include hallucinations/illusion or delusions/misconception. These experiences can impair an adolescent’s ability to participate in daily life and education and often lead to stigma or human rights violations. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 267

268. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Suicide and self-harm Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death in older adolescents (15–19 years) (2). Risk factors for suicide are multifaceted, and include harmful use of alcohol, abuse in childhood, stigma against help-seeking, barriers to accessing care and access to means of suicide. Digital media, like any other media, can play a significant role in either enhancing or weakening suicide prevention efforts. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 268

269. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Risk-taking behaviors Many risk-taking behaviors for health, such as substance use or sexual risk-taking, start during adolescence. Risk-taking behaviors can be an unhelpful strategy to cope with emotional difficulties and can severely impact an adolescent’s mental and physical well-being. Worldwide, the prevalence of heavy episodic drinking among adolescents aged 15­–19 years was 13.6% in 2016, with males most at risk . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 269

270. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d .The use of tobacco and cannabis are additional concerns. Many adult smokers had their first cigarette prior to the age of 18 years. Cannabis is the most widely used drug among young people with about 4.7% of 15–16-years-olds using it at least once in 2018 (4). Perpetration of violence is a risk-taking behavior that can increase the likelihood of low educational attainment, injury, involvement with crime or death. Interpersonal violence was ranked among the leading causes of death of older adolescent boys in 2019 (5). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 270

271. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Promotion and prevention Mental health promotion and prevention interventions aim to strengthen an individual's capacity to regulate emotions, enhance alternatives to risk-taking behaviors, build resilience for managing difficult situations and adversity, and promote supportive social environments and social networks. These programs require a multi-level approach with varied delivery platforms – for example, digital media, health or social care settings, schools or the community – and varied strategies to reach adolescents, particularly the most vulnerable. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 271

272. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Early detection and treatment It is crucial to address the needs of adolescents with mental health conditions. Avoiding institutionalization and over-medicalization, prioritizing non-pharmacological approaches, and respecting the rights of children in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and other human rights instruments are key for adolescents’ mental health. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 272

273. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d WHO response WHO works on strategies, programs and tools to assist governments in responding to the health needs of adolescents. For example, the Helping Adolescents Thrive (HAT) Initiative is a joint WHO-UNICEF effort to strengthen policies and programs for the mental health of adolescents. More specifically, the efforts made through the Initiative are to promote mental health and prevent mental health conditions. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 273

274. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d Furthermore, WHO is developing and testing scalable psychological interventions to address emotional disorders of adolescents, and guidance on mental health services for adolescents. WHO’s Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean has developed a mental health training package for educators for improved understanding of the importance of mental health in the school setting and to guide the implementation of strategies to promote, protect and restore mental health among their students 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 274

275. developmental features of adolescence … cont’d It includes training manuals and materials to help scale up the number of schools promoting mental health. (1) Institute of health Metrics and Evaluation. Global Health Data Exchange ( GHDx ) (2) WHO Global Health Estimates 2000-2019 (3) Global status report on alcohol and health 2018 (4) World Drug Report 2020 (5) 2019 Global Health Estimates (GHE), WHO, 2020 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 275

276. 4. Learning Process Learning is a permanent change in behavior from practice or past experiences. Therefore, it can be a positive or negative change. It is essential in motivation, activation of previously gained knowledge, and evaluation. Learning is a permanent behavior change, positive or negative, due to practice or experience. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 276

277. Learning Process … cont’d 4.1 Learning: Its Concept and Characteristics Learning is generally defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior, skills, knowledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences. A key feature is permanence: changes do not count as learning if they are temporary. You do not “learn” a phone number if you forget it the minute after you dial the number; you do not “learn” to eat vegetables if you only do it when forced. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 277

278. Learning Process … cont’d The change has to last. Notice, though, that learning can be physical, social, or emotional as well as cognitive. You do not “learn” to sneeze simply by catching cold, but you do learn many skills and behaviors that are physically based , such as riding a bicycle or throwing a ball . You can also learn to like (or dislike) a person, even though this change may not happen deliberately. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 278

279. Learning Process … cont’d 4.2 Factors Affecting Learning Certain factors are innate or personal to the individual engaged in the process of learning that are specifically unique to him/ her. Some are personal factors (psychological factors) , these are the intra or within individual factors like intelligence, motivation, interests, attitudes, emotion, self-concept, maturation amd readiness to learn, beliefs, values, and learning style which predispose an individual towards learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 279

280. Learning Process … cont’d There are certain other factors which belong to the environment or the surroundings with which the individual continuously interacts. Such factors include family, peer-group, neighborhood, community, school-related factors etc. Environmental factors, on the other hand, are those contextual factors, which highlight the role of the environment in learning, such as the socio-emotional, 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 280

281. Learning Process … cont’d societal, cultural and other school-related factors a) family, b) neighborhood and community; and c) socio-cultural diversities like, caste, class, ethnicity, religion, etc. Although these factors represent two different categories, they operate in a common system. The learner and the learning process can only be completely understood with reference to the interaction of both personal and environmental factors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 281

282. Learning Process … cont’d On the basis of this discussion, we may define learning as a function of the interaction of personal (psychological) and environmental factors and can be mathematically represented as: L = f (EF × PF) L = Learning; f = Function; EF = Environmental Factors; PF = Personal Factors. All these personal and environmental factors play a crucial role in influencing student learning 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 282

283. 4.3 Learning Theories and Their implication Educational psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that are relevant to classrooms, in that they describe at least some of what usually happens there and offer guidance for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories according to whether they focus on changes in behavior or in thinking. The distinction is rough and inexact, but a good place to begin. For starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about learning, called behaviorism (learning as changes in overt behavior) and constructivism, (learning as changes in thinking). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 283

284. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The second category can be further divided into psychological constructivism (changes in thinking resulting from individual experiences), and social constructivism, (changes in thinking due to assistance from others). Each describes some aspects of learning not just in general, but as it happens in classrooms in particular. So, each perspective suggests things that you might do in your classroom to make students’ learning more productive. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 284

285. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d In psychology, learning is the application of daily human processes enhanced by past experiences and cognitive, environmental, and emotional factors. It is a process that applies observational learning, operant conditioning, and classical conditioning as observable types of learning. It also uses cognitive learning, which is not observable. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 285

286. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 4.3.1 Behavioral Approach Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’ observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. At some point we all use this perspective, whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. In classrooms, behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between specific actions by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences of the actions. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 286

287. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d It is less useful for understanding changes in students’ thinking; for this purpose, we need a more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) theory. This fact is not really a criticism of behaviorism as a perspective, but just a clarification of its particular strength or source of usefulness, which is to highlight observable relationships among actions, precursors and consequences. Behaviorists use particular terms (or “lingo”, Strange /incomprehensible language) some might say) for these relationships. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 287

288. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d They also rely primarily on two basic images or models of behavioral learning, called respondent (or “classical”) conditioning and operant conditioning. The names are derived partly from the major learning mechanisms highlighted by each type. 4.3.1.1 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 288

289. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behavior. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. In simple terms, classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 289

290. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic experiments with dogs. In these experiments, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce a salivation response. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 290

291. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 291

292. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist, it has had a tremendous influence over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Behaviorism assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the environment and that environment shapes behavior. Classical conditioning—also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning—uses a few different terms to help explain the learning process. Knowing these basics will help you understand classical conditioning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 292

293. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Unconditioned Stimulus An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary response (the shivering). Neutral Stimulus A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 293

294. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d If you hear the sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a neutral stimulus. Conditioned Stimulus A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 294

295. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Unconditioned Response An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned response. Conditioned Response A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no response existed before. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 295

296. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the bite is a conditioned response. Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli, resulting in a learned response. There are three basic phases of this process. Phase 1: Before Conditioning The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 296

297. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus. During this phase of the process, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned response (UCR). Presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR). At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn't until the neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 297

298. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 298

299. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. Experimental evidence of classical conditioning and microscopic engrams in an electroconductive material. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response. In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 299

300. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Phase 2: During Conditioning During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 300

301. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle/bell. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 301

302. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus. The during conditioning phase involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. Phase 3: After Conditioning Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response- even without 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 302

303. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle. In the after-conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the conditioned response. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 303

304. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Key Principles of Classical Conditioning in Psychology Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response while others describe the disappearance of a response. Here is a closer look at five key principles of classical conditioning . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 304

305. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Acquisition Acquisition is the initial stage of learning, when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 305

306. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d After an association is made, the subject will begin to emit a behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as a conditioned stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been acquired. Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the response to make sure the behavior is well learned. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 306

307. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Extinction Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), the sound of the whistle 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 307

308. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the smell of food were no longer paired with the whistle, eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear. Spontaneous Recovery Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge, even after a period of extinction. This is called spontaneous recovery. For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 308

309. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d you stop reinforcing the behavior and the response becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, you ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the previously learned response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will return very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 309

310. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Generalization Stimulus generalization is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response to a sound that's similar to the bell. In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for example, a small child was conditioned to fear a white rat. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 310

311. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The child demonstrated stimulus generalization by also exhibiting fear in response to other fuzzy/uncertain white objects, including stuffed toys and Watson's own hair. Discrimination Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 311

312. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Because the subject is able to distinguish between these stimuli, they will only respond when the conditioned stimulus is presented. Teachers can apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 312

313. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 4.3.1.2 Operant/Instrumental Conditioning Operant conditioning is a learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a positive or negative consequence. This form of learning links voluntary actions with receiving either a reward or punishment, often to strengthen or weaken those voluntary behaviors. Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 313

314. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light. . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 314

315. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 315

316. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 316

317. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior. Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 317

318. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d . The ideas of John B. Watson dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the principles of classical conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he/she chose. Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 318

319. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences." Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit every day. His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect. According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 319

320. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d .Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future. If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 320

321. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened. Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 321

322. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds/reprimands you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again. Types of Behaviors Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 322

323. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d They simply occur automatically and involuntarily. Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of that action make up an important part of the learning process. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 323

324. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far greater importance. Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, often referred to today as a Skinner box 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 324

325. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward. Components of Operant Conditioning There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or punishment that is used can have an effect on how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 325

326. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 326

327. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 327

328. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's). 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 328

329. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Punishment in Operant Conditioning Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases. Positive punishment , sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 329

330. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Spanking( hit a child several times) for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application. Negative punishment , also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 330

331. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 4.3.1.3 Theory of Connectionism Connectionism is the philosophy of Edward Thorndike, which says that learning is a product between stimulus and response. A stimulus is something that causes a reaction, while a response is the reaction to a stimulus. The connection between the two is called an S-R bond, or stimulus-response bond. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 331

332. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Connectionism is a learning theory that explains learning as a result of connections between stimuli and responses. A stimulus is a specific occurrence that spurs action, and a response is a reaction. In connectionism, learning is often visible and apparent. Connectionism is an influential learning theory in the fields of cognitive science and psychology. The foundational premise of connectionism is that creatures can create connections between stimuli and responses through learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 332

333. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d A stimulus is a thing or occurrence that influences or brings about an activity or result. A response is a reaction or outcome that occurs after the stimulus occurs. In connectionism, learning happens when a connection is made between a stimulus and a rewarding response through trial and error. Additionally, connectionism explains learning through visible and apparent/easy to see/understand occurrences. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 333

334. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Rather than learning being an internal activity invisible to outsiders, connectionism places importance on apparent stimuli and visible responses. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) was an American psychologist who investigated learning. Through his work, Thorndike developed a theory of connectionism. Thorndike's theory proposed that learning happens through making attachments between stimuli and responses. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 334

335. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d There are three laws of the connectionism theory. These are: The law of effect, the law of exercise and the law of readiness Law of Effect The law of effect states that responses accompanied by a rewarding effect in a given circumstance have an increased chance of being repeated in the same circumstance. Alternatively, responses with a dissatisfying effect have a decreased chance of being repeated when the circumstance reoccurs. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 335

336. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The law of effect is based on the S-R relationship, wherein the given circumstance is the stimulus, and the effect is the response. An example of the law of effect is when students choose to study or not to study for an exam. A student who studies for a test and does well connects studying for an exam to a rewarding result. According to the law of effect, the student will be more likely to study for a subsequent exam because they believe it will lead to another success. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 336

337. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Alternatively, a student that does not study for an exam and does poorly does not experience a satisfying result. The connection between this stimulus and the response is weakened. According to the law of effect, the student is less likely to skip studying for a future exam. The Law of exercise The law of exercise stated that behavior is more strongly established through frequent connections of stimulus and response. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 337

338. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The law of readiness- A law which states that learning is dependent upon the learner's readiness to act, which facilitates the strengthening of the bond between stimulus and response. Thus, an athlete who is highly motivated and eager to learn is more likely to be receptive to learning than one who is poorly motivated. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 338

339. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 4.3.2 Cognitive Approach of learning Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn how to maximize your brain's potential. It makes it easier for you to connect new information with existing ideas hence deepening your memory and retention capacity. The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain information through experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 339

340. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d There is a young branch of psychology known as cognitive psychology. It is the study of one’s internal processes. These are the things going on in your brain, such as thinking, attention, learning, problem-solving, perception, among others. Components of cognitive learning Traditional learning mainly focuses on memorization instead of trying to achieve mastery in a particular subject. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 340

341. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The following are fundamental aspects of cognitive learning: 1. Comprehension For cognitive learning to be efficient and benefit you, understand the reason why you are learning a specific subject in the first place. 2. Memory Cognitive learning discourages cramming(to learn a lot of things within a short time) of information, which is very ineffective in education. Having a deep understanding of a subject improves your ability to relate new knowledge with previous experiences or information. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 341

342. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 3. Application Cognitive learning strategies help you apply new information or skills in life situations. They encourage you as you continue to develop problem-solving skills capacity. Cognitive learning theory explains how internal and external factors influence an individual’s mental processes to supplement learning. Delays and difficulties in learning are seen when cognitive processes are not working regularly. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 342

343. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d These processes are such as attention, observation, retrieval from long-term memory, and categorization. Several researchers have made significant contributions to this theory. Jerome Bruner focused on how mental processes are linked to teaching. Another researcher by the name Jean Piaget recognized that the environment plays a huge role and also focused on changes that take place in the internal cognitive structure. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 343

344. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The following are the major positive effects of cognitive learning: Enhances learning Boosts confidence Enhances comprehension Improves problem-solving skills Help learn new things faster Teaches to form concept formation (think abstract) 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 344

345. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d 4.3.3. Social Learning Approach Social Learning Theory was first proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura, to highlight the way that we, as human beings, keenly observe and imitate the behaviors and attitudes of other people. The social learning approach sees learning as being most effective in a social context, when people can learn through real-life examples and direct experiences. It's based on the idea that people learn best through their environment, as part of a continual process of observational learning. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 345

346. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d The social learning approach is based on Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, which overlaps significantly with behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning. At the heart of this approach is the belief that the cognitive process of learning is something that happens in a social context, rather than in formal classrooms. This behavioral theory suggests that the process of learning is, at its essence, a cognitive behavior that occurs in social settings, where people observe others and model their behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 346

347. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d At an instinctive level, people are motivated to learn in order to improve their future social interactions. You can find examples of social learning in almost every professional setting, whenever you have two or more people observing each other. Examples of social learning include games, forums, role plays, observing team members and supervisors, and mentoring. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 347

348. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Social Learning in Classrooms Social learning can be a powerful tool in classrooms of all levels, from preschool to postgraduate studies. Teachers are finding that students of all ages learn much more, retain more information, and stay more engaged through social learning than through textbooks alone. In school, teachers most commonly use social learning through guided participation methods. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 348

349. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d This could be the teacher saying a phrase or word and having the students repeat it back. Other common examples are choral/harmonic reading, call-and-response teaching, and modelling. Social learning plays an equally important role in college and post-graduate learning environments. Furthermore, it’s not limited to in-class sessions: social learning can also be effective in a remote context, such as through distance learning centers, virtual classrooms and online forums. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 349

350. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d Advantages of Social Learning Social learning has a range of benefits in both academic and professional environments: It promotes a culture of sharing knowledge and experience It helps people stay connected even when working or studying remotely It increases engagement through active participation It improves knowledge retention 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 350

351. Learning Theories and Their implication… cont’d It promotes better communication as people receive rapid feedback It builds closer relationships within teams through increased collaboration and team-building initiatives It encourages the exchange of ideas Social learning is highly effective as it taps into our behavioral instincts, making it the most natural way to learn. Most people practice social learning every day, both consciously and unconsciously. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 351

352. 5.Motivation in learning The term motivation describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation, forces acting either on or within a person to initiate behavior. The word is derived from the Latin term motivus (“a moving cause”), which suggests the activating properties of the processes involved in psychological motivation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 352

353. 5.Motivation in learning Motivation is an internal desire or willingness to do something. Motivation is what encourages people to set goals and then to take action to work toward achieving those goals. For example, someone who loves running may challenge themselves by setting goals of running a 5K or 10K. If they achieve those distances, maybe their next goal is to run a half-marathon, followed next by a full marathon. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 353

354. Motivation in learning… cont’d Children who want to master their basic multiplication facts to become better at math is likely to practice the facts until they are confident all are memorized. Motivation plays an important role in the behaviors and choices of all people, but also in education and learning. Motivation plays a key role in education. Students who are motivated are more likely to set goals and work toward achieving those goals. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 354

355. Motivation in learning… cont’d Students are more likely to have higher achievement and learn more when they are motivated. Motivation, the desire or willingness to do something, plays a key role in education, behavior, and achievements in learning. Students are intrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation means they have internal reasons for wanting to learn. They can also be externally motivated. Extrinsic Motivation – When students are motivated by outside factors. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 355

356. Motivation in learning… cont’d Motives are often categorized into primary, or basic, motives, which are unlearned and common to both animals and humans; and secondary, or learned, motives, which can differ from animal to animal and person to person. Primary motives are thought to include hunger, thirst, sex, avoidance of pain, and perhaps aggression and fear. Secondary motives typically studied in humans include achievement, power motivation, and numerous other specialized motives. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 356

357. Motivation in learning… cont’d Motives have also sometimes been classified into “pushes” and “pulls.” Push motives concern internal changes that have the effect of triggering specific motive states. Pull motives represent external goals that influence one’s behavior toward them. Most motivational situations are in reality a combination of push and pull conditions. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 357

358. Motivation in learning… cont’d For example, hunger, in part, may be signaled by internal changes in blood glucose or fat stores, but motivation to eat is also heavily influenced by what foods are available. Some foods are more desirable than others and exert an influence on our behavior toward them. Behavior is, thus, often a complex blend of internal pushes and external pulls. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 358

359. Motivation in learning… cont’d 5.1 Meaning and Purpose of Motivation Psychologists study motivational forces to help explain observed changes in behavior that occur in an individual. Motivation is not typically measured directly but rather inferred as the result of behavioral changes in reaction to internal or external stimuli. It is also important to understand that motivation is primarily a performance variable. That is, the effects of changes in motivation are often temporary. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 359

360. Motivation in learning… cont’d An individual, highly motivated to perform a particular task because of a motivational change, may later show little interest for that task as a result of further change in motivation. Motivation of an individual is also influenced by the presence of other people. Social psychologists have been active in discovering how the presence of others in a given situation influences motivation. For example, students and teachers behave in predictable ways in the classroom 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 360

361. Motivation in learning… cont’d . Those behaviors are often quite different, however, from the way students and teachers behave outside the classroom. Studies of conformity, obedience, and helping behaviors (which benefit others without reward) are three areas in this field that have received considerable attention. Motivation propels individuals to surpass ordinary limits and achieve success with vigor and zeal/ eagreness . 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 361

362. Motivation in learning… cont’d It encourages people to step outside their comfort zones, excel in their tasks, and enhance personal and professional development productivity. Motivation theories give managers insights into employee behaviors driven by their passions and interests. By applying these theories, management can place employees in scenarios that foster individual advancement and contribute to the organization's overall progress. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 362

363. Motivation in learning… cont’d 5.2. Indicators of Motivation Motivation can be measured by four indices: choice, effort, persistence, and level of achievement. The higher these indicators are, the higher a student's motivation. Students may be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to do well in school. If they are intrinsically motivated, they have an internal desire to learn something and are not learning it for a reward of any kind. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 363

364. Motivation in learning… cont’d Extrinsically motivated students are motivated to learn by an outside reward—this may be praise, allowance, gifts, etc. Motivation in the classroom is the willingness and desire of a student to learn. Motivation can be measured by four indices: choice, effort, persistence, and level of achievement. The higher these indicators are, the higher a student's motivation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 364

365. Motivation in learning… cont’d Other indicators include: Takes initiative and is willing to accept additional responsibilities. Has low absenteeism rates. Consistently seeks feedback for self-improvement. Makes suggestions to management to improve the organization. Provides support and assistance to team members whenever needed. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 365

366. Motivation in learning… cont’d 5.3 Theories of Motivation and their Educational Implications Understanding the intricate dynamics of human behavior and human motivation is a pivotal part of effective teaching. Diverse theories of motivation, each with its own unique perspectives, offer a variety of insights into what drives individuals to act, engage, and learn. In our exploration, we'll delve deep into these theories, shedding light on both the commonalities and distinctive elements that make each one unique. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 366

367. Motivation in learning… cont’d The study of motivation includes a variety of theories that explain why individuals are driven to do what they do. Each category approaches motivation differently, focusing on the factors that motivate behavior or the cognitive processes that play a role in motivational dynamics. Motivation theories provide critical insights into what drives people to act in certain ways and how different factors can influence individual motivation. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 367

368. Motivation in learning… cont’d Here are the five popular motivation theories, exploring their principles, applications, and significance. These theories can generally be categorized into two main types: content theories and process theories Content Theories They focus on the specific factors that motivate individuals. These theories primarily aim to identify what needs or desires drive human behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 368

369. Motivation in learning… cont’d The most well-known content theories include: Abrham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs : This theory proposes that humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. This theory suggests that humans have five levels of needs that dictate their behavior. These needs are often depicted as a pyramid, with the most basic needs at the bottom: The most basic to higher-level needs include physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 369

370. Motivation in learning… cont’d 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 370

371. Motivation in learning… cont’d Physiological Needs : These are fundamental biological necessities essential for human survival, such as air, food, water, shelter, clothing, warmth, and sleep. Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are met, security and safety become prominent. Love and Belongingness Needs: Social needs become important after safety, including relationships such as friendship and family. Esteem Needs: This includes self-esteem derived from personal achievement and recognition from others. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 371

372. Motivation in learning… cont’d Self-Actualization Needs: The highest level is fulfilling personal potential and self-fulfillment. Maslow's theory is widely influential in understanding human motivation, particularly in the workplace and educational settings. It helps structure rewards, recognition, and development opportunities that meet employee needs. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 372

373. Motivation in learning… cont’d 2.Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory Developed by Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s, this theory distinguishes between motivators (factors that cause satisfaction) and hygiene factors (factors that prevent dissatisfaction but do not cause satisfaction). Herzberg's theory is particularly useful in the management of work and the design of jobs. Key aspects include: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 373

374. Motivation in learning… cont’d Motivators: These include challenging work, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth, which can lead to job satisfaction. Hygiene Factors: These include salary, work conditions, fringe benefits, and job security, which, if absent, can lead to dissatisfaction. Organizations often use Herzberg’s theory to design job enrichment programs and differentiate between job context and content to improve employee satisfaction. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 374

375. Motivation in learning… cont’d 3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs : This theory focuses on three key needs: achievement, affiliation, and power. Depending on their dominant need, individuals are motivated by a desire to excel, form social relationships, or control others. David McClelland's theory, developed in the 1960s, focuses on three key needs: Achievement, Power, and Affiliation. People are motivated by: 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 375

376. Motivation in learning… cont’d Achievement: The need to set, pursue, and achieve goals. Power: The desire to influence, teach, or encourage others. Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. This theory is often applied in leadership training and development. Understanding these needs helps managers motivate their staff more effectively by aligning tasks and rewards with individual motivational profiles. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 376

377. Motivation in learning… cont’d 4. Alderfer’s ERG Theory: A modification of Maslow’s theory, Alderfer proposed three categories of needs: existence, relatedness, and growth, suggesting that individuals can be motivated by needs at more than one level simultaneously. Process Theories Process theories of motivation focus on the psychological and cognitive processes that affect motivational levels. These theories explore how people choose to work hard or not based on their expectations, goals, and perceptions of fairness. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 377

378. Motivation in learning… cont’d Key process theories include: 1.Expectancy Theory (Vroom): This theory suggests that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors depending on the expected outcomes of such behaviors. It is based on the belief that effort leads to performance, and performance leads to rewards. Expectancy Theory. Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory, formulated in the 1960s, is a process theory that addresses the mental processes regarding choice or deciding how to act. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 378

379. Motivation in learning… cont’d This theory suggests that: Expectancy: Individuals believe that more effort will yield better job performance. Instrumentality: The belief that if one performs well, then a valued outcome will be received. Valence: The importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 379

380. Motivation in learning… cont’d 2. Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin A. Locke): According to this theory, clear and challenging goals enhance employee performance. Motivation is influenced by the goals' specificity, difficulty, and feedback regarding progress. According to this theory, goals that are clear, specific, and challenging are more motivating than vague goals or easy goals. And when employees are more motivated, they’re more successful in hitting their goals. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 380

381. Motivation in learning… cont’d 3.Equity Theory (Adams): Developed by John Stacey Adams in the 1960s, this theory focuses on the principle that fairness motivates individuals. If they perceive an imbalance in the input-output ratios compared to others, they will be motivated to restore equity. This can lead to changes in effort level, employment, or requests for higher compensation. This theory posits that fairness motivates individuals 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 381

382. Motivation in learning… cont’d If workers perceive an inequity in their input-output ratio compared to others, they will be motivated to restore equity. Equity Theory is crucial for understanding how employee perceptions of fairness affect motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. It has profound implications for pay scale, performance management, and employee retention strategies. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 382

383. Motivation in learning… cont’d 4. Reinforcement Theory: Based on behaviorist principles, this theory asserts that behavior is a function of its consequences. Positive and negative reinforcements are used to encourage or discourage behaviors. 5.3.1 Behavioral Theories of Motivation One general aspect of motivated behaviors is that they lead to a goal and obtaining the goal is rewarding. Thus, motivation, defined as the energizing of behavior in pursuit of a goal, is a fundamental property of all deliberative behaviors 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 383

384. Motivation in learning… cont’d Expectations, based on past experiences, serve to direct behavior toward particular goals. Behavior-based theory of motivation influences motivation when tasks are clearly defined, expectations are communicated, tools are available to get the job done, opportunities for meaningful work are available and there is reward and recognition for performance. The behavioristic approach examines how motives are learned and how internal drives and external goals interact with learning to produce behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 384

385. Motivation in learning… cont’d Learning theorists have taken a somewhat more global perspective when studying motivation than researchers using the biological approach. These researchers have regarded motivation as one component out of several that combine to cause behavior. Thus, for example, one major theory regards learning and motivation as combining multiplicatively to determine behavior. Among the behavioristic approaches, three concepts are especially prominent: drive, learned motives, and incentives. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 385

386. Motivation in learning… cont’d Sometimes it is useful to think of motivation not as something “inside” a student driving the student’s behavior, but as equivalent to the student’s outward behaviors. This is the perspective of behaviorism, which is a way to think about the learning process. In its most thorough-going form, behaviorism focuses almost completely on what can be directly seen or heard about a person’s behavior, and has relatively few comments about what may lie behind (or “underneath” or “inside”) the behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 386

387. Motivation in learning… cont’d When it comes to motivation, this perspective means minimizing or even ignoring the distinction between the inner drive or energy of students, and the outward behaviors that express the drive or energy. The two are considered the same, or nearly so. Equating the inner and the outward might seem to violate common sense. How can a student do something without some sort of feeling or thought to make the action happen? 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 387

388. Motivation in learning… cont’d As we will explain, this very question has led to alternative models of motivation that are based on cognitive rather than behaviorist theories of learning. We will explain some of these later in this chapter. Before getting to them, however, we encourage you to consider the advantages of a behaviorist perspective on motivation. Sometimes the circumstances of teaching limit teachers’ opportunities to distinguish between inner motivation and outward behavior. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 388

389. Motivation in learning… cont’d Certainly, teachers see plenty of student behaviors—signs of motivation of some sort. But the multiple demands of teaching can limit the time needed to determine what the behaviors mean. If a student asks a lot of questions during discussions, for example, is he or she curious about the material itself, or just wanting to look intelligent in front of classmates and the teacher? 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 389

390. Motivation in learning… cont’d In a class with many students and a busy agenda, there may not be a lot of time for a teacher to decide between these possibilities. In other cases, the problem may not be limited time as much as communication difficulties with a student. Consider a student who is still learning English, or who belongs to a cultural community that uses patterns of conversation that are unfamiliar to the teacher, or who has a disability that limits the student’s general language skill. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 390

391. Motivation in learning… cont’d In these cases, discerning the student’s inner motivations may take more time and effort. It is important to invest the extra time and effort for such students, but while a teacher is doing so, it is also important for her to guide and influence the students’ behavior in constructive directions. That is where behaviorist approaches to motivation can help 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 391

392. Motivation in learning… cont’d 5.3.2 Cognitive Theories of Motivation Cognitive theorists believe that body change and thinking work together to produce emotion. Cognitive theories of motivation assume that behavior is directed as a result of the active processing and interpretation of information. Cognitive theory seeks to understand human learning, socialization, and behavior by looking at the brain's internal cognitive processes. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 392

393. Motivation in learning… cont’d Cognitive theorists want to understand the way that people process information. The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy Theory and the Goal-Setting Theory. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains why and how an individual chooses one behavioral option over others. On the other hand, the Goal-Setting Theory states the importance of creating goals in motivation a person. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 393

394. 4/26/2024 Dr. Million Kebede, instrucotr of the course 394