EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY theories of development 2026.pptxnnnnn

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1. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Moy Top Jinka, Ethiopia 1

2. Chapter three Theories of Development and Their Educational Implications Theories of Cognitive and Language Development Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory Theories of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson Psychoanalytic Approach Biological Approach Social Learning Approach Theories of Moral Development Piaget’s Theory Kohlberg’s Theory Gilligan’s Theory 2

3. P sychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson) In Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, Erikson highlighted the importance of relationship with others in the formation of one’s own identity. Erikson believed that personality develops through eight stages or critical periods of life. 3

4. He also contended that at each stage of life, an individual is confronted by a crisis . Erikson assume the personality develops in accordance to one’s ability to interact with the environment and to resolve the crises experienced . The manner in which the crises are resolved will have a lasting effect on the person’s view of himself or herself and the surrounding world.

5. 3. 2. 2. 1 Psychosocial Stages of Development Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (birth-1 yr) The first psychological challenge faced by an infant involves developing a sense of trust in others . For the infant, this sense of trust develops if s/he is predictably cared for when s/he cries and is warmly treated by her/his primary caregivers. If an infant, instead, is cared for in unpredictable ways such as not being fed, or comforted when necessary, Erikson believed this infant would develop basic mistrust of others, which would lead to fear and suspicion .

6. Stage 2 : Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (1 to 3yrs) At this stage, children want to do things on their own or act autonomously . Yet this need to become autonomous must be balanced by the reality of safety issues. For instance, while Erikson thought it was healthy to allow the two-year-olds to explore the streets alone , this exploration must be done in a constraint way such that the child is not hit by a car. Therefore, Erikson called for a delicate interplay between freedom and restraint . If children of this age are not allowed to do the things they can do, they may develop a sense of shame or doubt about their own abilities and fall to develop self-confidence. Encouraging children to do what they can do is the key to their developing a sense of autonomy.

7. Stage 3 : Initiative Versus Guilt (4 to 5 yrs) Erikson contends that children when face with new challenges, will want to explore and investigate . He termed this the development of a sense of initiative, whereby children begin to ask many questions about the world . The ever-present questions of “why” and “what” seem to engulf a child at this stage as do the inquisitive behaviors that often accompany taking initiative. For instance, children may ask question about and want to help with work in the kitchen. In situations in which a child is discouraged from taking the initiative, Erikson believed that the child would develop a sense of guilt regarding her natural tendency to explore and investigate . This in turn leads them to lack of assertiveness.

8. Stage 4 : Industry Vs Inferiority (6 to 11 yrs) The major psychological task in the fourth stage is the development of competence or industry . The term industry means in this stage children not only continues their interest in trying new things, but they will try to succeed in learning and gain recognition for producing things or good result. In this stage of development, which last throughout the elementary school years, children are faced with the challenges of producing good academic work related to reading, writing, and mathematical skills . Children also face the challenges to be competence in hobby, playing sports, maintaining a positive relationship with teachers, & developing friendship .

9. Recent research has shown that social skills training as well as attention to social problem solving can be helpful in terms of developing social competence in forming friendships and developing social skills . If children succeed in acquiring these new skills and the accomplishments are valued by others, the child develops a sense of industry and has a positive view of the achievements. On the other hand, a child who is constantly compared with others and come up a distinct second may develop a sense of inferiority. Children who leave the elementary years without this sense of industry, may feel they are failure at everything. So it is the responsibility of parents and teachers to help them to become academically and socially competent.

10. Stage 5 : Identity Vs Role Confusion (12 to 18 yrs) Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development is for the secondary and post-secondary school students. The major psychological task is to gain self identity . In this stage, adolescents struggle to resolve the questions of “Who am I?” and “Who will I become?” . That is why they move increasingly from their parents to peers as a point of reference , they need to understand how they are both alike and at the same time uniquely different from everyone else.

11. The adolescents also strive to find their own personalities . They need a figure or model to identify with . That’s why the adolescents often imitate the attitudes and actions of others they admire . Adolescents also face the issues of sexual identity that is the adolescent searches for comfortable expressions of sexuality through friendship and dating. This in fact is the most difficult time in everyone’s life . Teachers and parents have to be patience with the adolescents and guide them to cope effectively with the crises they are facing . Parents and teachers should give the adolescent opportunity to explore different jobs such as working temporarily in fast food restaurant, become the chef of a restaurant, work in a bank, work in a factory etc.

12. Stage 6 : Intimacy versus Isolation (19 to 40 yrs ) The major psychosocial crisis in Erikson’s six stage is the development of a true and intimate heterosexual relationship . Erikson contends that in this stage individuals should be able to care for others without losing their self-identity . Erikson believes individual who never know this intimacy will develop a sense of isolation & tend to avoid relationships with others and make commitments. This six stages crises faced mostly by college and university students . One of the ways for the adolescents to face this crisis is to be active in sports, clubs and participate in community social works.

13. Stage 7 : Generativity Vs Stagnation (40 to 60 y rs) The major concern of the people at this age is on the caring and well-being of the next generation rather than being overly self-concerned . Most parents focused their energy and time on bringing up their children to be successful academically, socially and emotionally . Erikson argued that if a sense of generativity is not present, the individual would experience stagnation & become overly self-preoccupied . Helping other people is a means of remaining productive and achieving the positive outcome of generativity .

14. Stage 8 : Ego Integrity Versus Despair (Over 60) The last psychosocial stage, involves integrity and despair. Older people must cope with the death of others , increasing illness , & their own approaching end . If people of this psychosocial stage look back with pride at a life of accomplishment , they can develop a positive sense of ego integrity. If, on the other hand, all they see is missed opportunities, they may become depressed and bitter, developing a sense of despair.

15. CHAPTER THREE :- Individual Difference in Learning Do you think all individuals are equal? Why and/or Why not? Explain your response with justification. How do you describe individual differences? In the words of Charles E. Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total personality.” 15

16. Cont… Learning & Learning Factors : Individual Differences One manifestation of the difference among students is that they seldom learn at the same rate . Differences in rates of learning are based on differences in intelligence , background, experience, interest, desire to learn, and countless psychological, emotional, and physical factors . 16

17. Cont… Individual styles of learning and thinking All people have their own preferred ways of learning. These differences are called learning styles. 1. Learning style is an individual's natural or habitual pattern of acquiring and processing information in learning situations. A core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn. Because of individual learning styles , one student may like to make diagrams to help remember a reading assignment, whereas another student may prefer to write a sketchy outline instead. Yet in many cases, the students could in principle reverse the strategies and still learn the material. 17

18. Cont… Individuals , including students, do differ in how they habitually think. These differences are more specific than learning styles or preferences, and psychologists sometimes call them cognitive styles. 2. Cognitive Styles:- typical ways of perceiving and remembering information , and typical ways of solving problems & making decisions In a style of thinking called field dependence, for example, individuals perceive patterns as a whole rather than focus on the parts of the pattern separately. 18

19. Cont… Impulsive Vs Reflective cognitive style Impulsive cognitive style is one in which a person reacts quickly, but as a result makes comparatively more errors. R eflective style is the opposite: the person reacts more slowly and therefore, makes fewer errors. As you might expect, the reflective style would seem better suited to many academic demands of school. Research has found that this is indeed the case for academic skills that clearly benefit from reflection, such as mathematical problem solving or certain reading tasks 19

20. Multiple Intelligences Intelligence:- is a single broad ability that allows a person to solve or complete many sorts of tasks, or at least many academic tasks like reading, knowledge of vocabulary, and the solving of logical problems According to Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner , 1983, 2003), there are eight different forms of intelligence , each of which functions independently of the others. Each person has a mix of all eight abilities - more of one and less of another - that helps to constitute that person’s individual cognitive profile . 20

21. Multiple Intelligences (By Howard Gardner) Form of intelligence Examples of activities using the intelligence 1. Linguistic: Verbal skill; ability to use language well • Verbal persuasion • writing a term paper skillfully 2. Musical: Ability to create and understand music • Singing, playing a musical instrument • Composing a tune 3. Logical Mathematical: Logical skill; ability to reason, often using mathematics • Solving mathematical problems easily and accurately • Developing and testing hypotheses 4. Spatial: ability to imagine and manipulate the arrangement of objects in the environment • Completing a difficult jigsaw puzzle • Assembling a complex appliance (e.g. a bicycle) 21

22. Cont… Form of intelligence Examples of activities using the intelligence 5 . Bodily kinesthetic: Sense of balance; coordination in use of one's body • Dancing • Gymnastics 6. Interpersonal: Ability to discern others' nonverbal feelings & thoughts • Sensing when to be tactful • Sensing a “subtext” or implied message in a person's statements 7. Intrapersonal: Sensitivity to one's own thoughts and feelings • Noticing complex of ambivalent feelings in oneself • Identifying true motives for an action in oneself 8. Naturalist: Sensitivity to subtle differences and patterns found in the natural environment • Identifying examples of species of plants or animals • Noticing relationships among species and natural processes in the environment 22

23. Cont… Personality Differences Attitude :- Students have their own personal attitudes and methods of thinking. Thinking patterns and reactions to the various philosophies and types of training must be reconciled. Interest:- People sense ideas and activities that possess special values, uses or attractions for them. The general categories of interest are the vocational, educational , The interests of students in different aspects of life will differ. 23

24. Individual Difference in Temperament and Personality Temperament and personality are related to each other and are developed from very early childhood as it stays with us our whole lives . Temperament:- is the different aspects of an individual’s personality like extroversion or introversion. is innate or inborn and is not learned . 24

25. Personality:- arises within an individual, which remains throughout an individual’s life. made up of certain characteristic patterns like behavior, feelings, and thoughts. fundamental characteristics related to personality are: consistency , psychological and physiological impact on behaviors and actions , and multiple expressions. 25

26. THE END 26

27. CHAPTER FOUR:- LEARNING PROCESS Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior, which occurs as a result of practice or experience. From the definition we can understand that: Learning is a change of behavior for better or worse Learning takes place through experience or practice. The changes due to growth, maturation, or injury are not to be concerned as learned behavior. 27

28. Factors Affecting Learning Readiness Preference of activity (learning styles) Reinforcement Situations (facilities- both human and material resources) Physical condition Goals or purposes set before the pupils. 28

29. Cont.… Attention Practice Attitude Emotional conditions The organization and presentation of learning materials Interest/needs 29

30. Theories of Learning 1. Behavioral Perspective Classical conditioning Associative Learning process/. Developed by the known Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936). 30

31. Procedures in classical conditioning

32. Concepts from the procedure Neutral Stimulus : (NS) - stimulus that, before conditioning, has no effect on the desired response Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):- a stimulus that brings about a response with out having been learned. Unconditioned response (UCR):- a response that is natural and need no training. Conditioned stimulus (CS):- a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR):- a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus 32

33. Acquisition : is the process by which a previously Neutral Stimulus ( CS) comes to produce a conditioned response (CR). Extinction - is the disappearance or is no reinforcement. Spontaneous recovery- reappearance of the extinct CR Generalization – The appearance of CR to the stimulus similar to the CS. Example: If a child is bitten by a large black dog, the child may fear not only that dog, but other large dogs. Discrimination: the opposite of generalization is discrimination, in which an individual learns to produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar. 33

34. Principles in classical conditioning Acquisition: is the process by which a previously neutral stimulus (CS) comes to produce a conditioned response (CR). Extinction - is the disappearance or no reinforcement. Spontaneous recovery- reappearance of the extinct CR Generalization – generalized to similar category of stimulus. Example : If a child is bitten by a large black dog, the child may fear not only that dog, but other large dogs. Discrimination: an individual learns to produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar. 34

35. Operant conditioning In reinforcement theories, more emphasis is laid on the consequences that follow a response. Responses which are followed by satisfaction or pleasure are reinforced and become more probable in future. Argued that behavioral principles of operant conditioning is effective in a range of educational settings. Teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items. Criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation 35

36. Skinner’s puzzle box

37. B. Operant theory of learning by B.F. Skinner The operant experiment Operations in operant conditioning Shaping – is a procedure of rewarding a behavior for successive closer and closer approximation to the target behavior. Generalization - organisms learn to generalize response what they learnt one situation the other situation Extinction – With holding the reinforcement when the experimenter wants to extinguish the response Spontaneous recovery- reappearance of the extinct response 37

38. Shaping – is a procedure of rewarding a behavior for successive closer and closer approximation to the target behavior 38

39. The concept of reinforcement Primary and Secondary reinforcement Primary reinforcement involves the use of reinforces that are innately satisfying Secondary reinforcement acquires its positive value through experience; secondary reinforces are learned or conditioned reinforces. E.g. praise Shaping – is a procedure of rewarding a behavior for successive closer and closer approximation to the target behavior.

40. Schedules of reinforcement There are two reinforcement schedules. These are Continuous reinforcement schedule - providing reinforcement after every correct response. In this schedule it was observed that learning occurred rapidly extinction also occurred rapidly. Partial reinforcement – for correct response reinforcement is provided sometime and it is with held some times. There are two types of partial reinforcement schedule . Interval schedule –when reinforcement is given based on time interval Ratio schedule –when reinforcement is given based on amount of response or work done.

41. Interval schedule Fixed interval schedule – reinforcement is presented after a prescribed time interval Variable interval schedule – the reinforcement is given after varying time interval Ratio schedule Fixed ratio schedule – reinforcement is presented after fixed amount f work is done Variable ratio schedule – The number of responses required for reinforcement varies around some average ratio.

42. 2. Cognitive Perspective Argued that causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions , as determinants of behavior. Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. 3. Developmental Perspective Emphasizes on psychology of cognitive development , since it defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education. 44

43. 4. Social Cognitive Perspective A highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist Albert Bandura. Recent research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of self-regulated learning (SRL) and metacognition. The premise of these theories is that, effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals , analyzing tasks , planning strategies and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners who are better at goal-setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and self-efficacy ; and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement. 45

44. CHAPTER FIVE Motivation in Relation to Teaching and Learning 6. 1 Meaning and Concept of Motivation Motivation:- is an internal state that arouses us to action, pushes us in a particular directions, and keeps us engaged in certain activities. desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior; and influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior. Learning enables us to acquire new knowledge and skills , and motivation provides the impetus for showing what we have learned . Therefore, more motivated people achieve at higher levels. 46

45. Cont… Motivation as a psychological construct affects learning and performance in the following ways: 1. Increases an individual’s energy and activity level. influences the extent to which an individual is likely to engage in a certain activity intensively or half-heartedly. 2. Directs an individual toward certain goal. affects choices of people make and the results they find rewarding. 3. Promotes initiation of certain activities and persistence in those activities. It increases the likelihood that people will begin something on their own, persist in the face of difficulty , and resume a task after a temporary interruption . 4. Affects the learning strategies and cognitive processes an individual employs. People will pay attention to something, study and practice it, try to learn it in a meaningful fashion and they will seek help when they encounter difficulty. In educational practices, motivation can be seen as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 47

46. 6.2 Difference Between Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation The need to perform something arises from the individual himself without any external influences . Therefore, students with intrinsic motivation demonstrate the desire to learn by themselves without the need of external inducements. Even if they encounter failure, they can take responsibility and strive to improve in the future. Extrinsic Motivation The need to perform something comes from some external influences. Therefore, marks, prizes, and other tangible rewards have been used to influence some student’s behavior. 48

47. Cont… 49

48. Sources of Motivational Needs 1. Behavioral/External Elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately connected stimulus Obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences 2. Social   Imitate positive models Acquire effective social competence skills Be a part of a group, institution, or community 3. Biological Increase/decrease stimulation (arousal) Activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.) Decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc. Maintain homeostasis, balance 50

49. 4. Cognitive Maintain attention to something interesting or threatening Develop meaning or understanding Increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium; uncertainty Solve a problem or make a decision Figure something out Eliminate threat or risk 5. Affective  Increase/decrease affective dissonance Increase feeling good Decrease feeling bad Increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem Maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm 51

50.   6. Conative  Meet individually developed/selected goal Obtain personal dream Develop or maintain self-efficacy Take control of one's life Eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream Reduce others' control of one's life 7. Spiritual  Understand purpose of one's life Connect self to ultimate unknowns 52

51. 6. 3 Theories (Perspectives) of Motivation: Explanation of Motivated Students Motivated students are obviously the most desirable to teach, it is well worth the time and effort for teachers (and future teachers or parents) to learn as much as possible about motivation. Early motivation theorists focused on hunger-thirst drives or sexual stimulation (e.g., Freud). Currently, the results of motivational research to education produced a greater emphasis on the cognitive aspects of motivation . Hence, causal attributions , self-efficacy , learned helplessness , test anxiety , locus of control , competitive versus cooperative activities , and intrinsic versus extrinsic rewards are all used to explain human motivation. 53

52. 1. Causal Attributions Bernard Weiner Even with the need to achieve, students will either succeed or fail. Then they search for specific causes for their success or failure. Example: The test was difficult, the teacher dislikes me, I am not good in the subject. Students’ attribution then serve as a guide to their expectations for future success or failure in a particular subject. Students who consistently do poorly in a subject expect to continue to do poorly. But before a teacher can hope to have success in changing a student’s performance, the teacher must know to what that student attributes about their performance . 54

53. 2. Anxiety and Motivation Anxiety can be defined as an unpleasant sensation that is usually experienced as feeling of apprehension and general irritability accompanied by restlessness, fatigue, and various somatic systems such as headaches, and stomachaches. Older students may develop dislike for school that affects their achievement. Younger students may develop school phobia , a psychological condition producing such physical manifestations as crying and vomiting before school in the morning thus hoping to avoid school avoidance. 55

54. Cont… Within the classroom setting, there are numerous sources of anxiety for students learning . Some are: teachers, examinations, peers, social relations, achievement settings, what girls think of boys, what boys think of girls, like or dislike of subjects…etc. Regarding the effect of anxiety on achievement : extremely intense motivation that produces high anxiety has negative effect on performance . moderate motivation seems to be the desirable state for learning complex tasks. 56

55. 3. Self- Efficacy and Its Role in Motivation Albert Bandura Self-efficacy: is persons’ belief in their own capabilities to exert control over aspects of their lives. is the product of one’s own performances, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion from others, and emotional arousal. Students who believe they are not efficacious in coping with environmental demands tend to focus on their inefficiency and exaggerate potential difficulties. Students who have strong sense of efficacy , however, tend to focus their attention and effort on the demands of tasks and minimize potential difficulties. 57

56. 4. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow : Popular American Psychologist Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all. Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation , management training , and personal development . Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. 58

57. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Motives) 59

58. Cont… Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied we are concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs. 1. Biological and Physiological needs:- air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs: - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs:- work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs:- self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Self-Actualization needs:- realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 60

59. The End of the Class for the Course “Educational Psychology, EPsy 2032” Thank you ! 61