ELEMENTS OF TEXTS for Advanced Subsidiary Students Cambridge University .pptx

Useful pptx for AS English Language and Literature students

1. ELEMENTS OF TEXTS Purpose , genre / form , audience , context / voice and point of view / structure and techniques / lexis / style and register / grammar

2. The big Picture The writer or speaker begins with a purpose ( intention for the text ) and then chooses a genre ( type of writing). He/ She then thinks about how to shape the text for an audience ( the person / people who will listen/ read this text ). At the same time the writer or speaker needs to consider the context ( the situation in which the audience will receive the text ) Once that is done, the text creator must choose an appropriate form ( shape and length ) and start to consider appropriate words ( style ) in order to create an effective TEXT

3. LANGUAGE IN USE Grammar , punctuation , paragraphing and spelling are avoided in this first step of analysis This is NOT because they are unimportant , but because the primary function of the analysis you will be expected to do focuses on patterns of language and the social and cultural contexts in which language is used Your focus , therefore , is on LANGUAGE IN USE. So you will be asking yourself the following questions over and over again : What is the text trying to do? ( purpose ) Who is it trying to communicate these ideas to ? ( audience ) Where will the text appear ? ( context ) What does it look/ sound like ? ( Form / structure )

4. Purpose A text`s purpose is the reason it has been produced or the function it serves. Key purposes you should be familiar with are writing to : Persuade Argue Analyse Critique Narrate Describe Inform Instruct

5. a. Writing to persuade, argue, analyse or critique These purposes are related in that they all are clearly NON FICTION purposes , concerned with putting across ideas to an audience that may potentially disagree . In persuasive writing , you are trying to convince the audience to adopt your point of view . This kind of writing uses techniques to exploit the audience’s feelings , like rhetorical questions , emotive language to provoke strong feelings . Argumentative writing is less emotional and more logical . It prioritises the argument and is less concerned with getting the audience to agree . Clarity and reasoning are significant here . There is an emphasis on clear structure and sequencing , and on providing evidence to back up the argument or evaluate different views . Analytical and critical writing offer judgements , but analysis is much more in-depth than critical writing . Analytical writing includes texts analysing politics , economy or the law . It is intended to be read by experts and uses precise, expert language Critical writing - film, book or restaurant reviews - offers opinions and personal responses for consumers from a position of professional expertise .

6. Look at this example : Analysis of a novel: Review of a novel: The first - person voice is used by the writer to focus the reader`s attention on the narrator’s experience . I LOVED how the first - person narration kept me sharply focused on her feelings and experiences .

7. b. Writing to narrate or describe The purpose of both is to entertain . Narration is organising events into a story . In narrative writing , it is important to plunge your audience into a different versión of reality . Readers need to engage with characters in fiction and understand their motivations . Everything must make sense and be believable - everything must happen for a reason . It must be plausible and fit together . Narration aims to guide the reader through a story . It requires structure , order and causation Descriptions are lyrical , slow -paced and enjoyable . It is the kind of writing you savour . Here is where extensive vocabulary is used and more obscure imagery is enjoyed . Descriptions should not have a plot ; nor does it need a lot of action . It aims to take the reader to a place and immerse them in it - capturing a scene , a modo, an atmosphere

8. c.Writing to inform or instruct Both convey information , but their purposes are slightly different . Informative writing passes on facts that educate the reader Instructional writing enables the reader to do something Informative texts : documentaries, encyclopaedia entry , flyer Instructional texts include : YOUTUBE videos on how to build a boat , recipes , health leaflet Both need to be very clear ; they use headings , discourse markers ( firstly , next …), bullet points , numbering . These text may include technical language

9. GENRE   There are four major genres:  poetry   drama   fiction and  creative nonfiction POETRY: Emphasis on image or feeling, Organized through stanzas and lines, Does not require a plot or characters DRAMA: Meant to be performed to an audience, Character names indicate who is speaking ,Organized by Acts, Scenes, and Line Numbers, plot-based PROSE: Created from the imagination, May be inspired by real events or people, but not chained by the constraints of reality, Plot- based, Character based ,Organized through paragraphs and sentences CREATIVE NON-FICTION: True  (not fabricated, not from the imagination). Plot- based , Character based, Organized through paragraphs and sentences . GENRE: a category of artistic, musical, or literary composition characterized by a particular style, form, or content .

10. EXERCISE Author Person in charge of public safety audience Ordinary people purpose To warn people of the Hazard situation A public place Physical form A bright sign Constraints /rules No need for salutations , straightforward content Brief register Formal style Directly addresses the other person Written language Not in sentence form , cartoons can be used structure Short, simple sentences , CLARITY

11. Over to you Had a gr8 time tnx 4 ur presen. C u 2mrw : ) Author Audience Purpose Situation Physical form Constraints /rules Content Register Style Written language structure

12. Context and FORM A. Context Context is about physical location . In this sense , context affects the language we use in everyday life , not just in formal or professional writing . Form : besides the ones we know in written form , the oral can be TRANSACTIONAL or INTERACTIONAL TRANSACTIONAL conversations : they are about getting things done INTERACTIONAL conversations : cover a broader range of topics , but is mostly social Exercise : what differenes are there between how you speak in class and how you speak with your friends ? Yet another one :

13. TEXT AUDIENCE PURPOSE A broadsheet newspaper article about a new tren in gardening Readers of the paper interested in gardening Inform and entertain A highly illustrated book about the life of an actor Leaflet found in a doctor’s surgery about reducing the risk of heart disease People at risk of heart disease A conversation between Friends to plan a holiday trip transactional A Young- adult fantasy novel A piece describing a trip to Egypt , published on a travel blog Review of a hotel left on a travel website Scripted speech introducing a documentary about the wildlife in Serengeti

14. Different contexts cause different linguistic choices - selecting appropriate words and phrases to have the desired effect on an audience . Or it may be meeting the conventions of a specific form , which includes operating within a frame . Eg . LEAFLET

15. B: FORM Form is the type of text - a leaflet , an article , a letter , etc . Different types of text can be identified by their conventions . These are not rules as such but are established ways of writing that most texts of that type will follow . Conventions can include structure , context and language . Following are the most used forms :

16. FORM KEY FEATURES Commercial Advertisements , brochures , flyers , leaflets Headings , logos/ slogans, simple and clear text , short paragraphs , single sentences or bullet points Journalistic Editorials , news stories , articles , reviews , investigative journalism Headline / title , + internal features typical of each style of writing , as shown in the slide which follows : Online Blogs and podcasts Blogs: a website that displays articles on a central topic . Some blogs are essentially diaries related to a person`s experience , others provide info . They start with a heading , date, usually written in 1st person and tend to feature hyperlinks to other posts and external sites. Posts often end with a list of tags- brief description of the subject mentioned in the post Podcast: is an audio recording , again themed around a central topic , with one or more hosts to organise the contect . Some tell a story but most of them are informative. They feature interviews with guests and may include jingles and sound effects . Many have more tan one host, Both have a regular audience , they may address the audience directly , have strong links to social media ( cont on next slide )

17. Personal forms Letters , diaries, travel writing , autobiography , memoirs Letters and diaries- limited audience Travel writing - someone records a trip in descriptive writing . The audience may be oneself or for wider readership Autobiography and memoirs : share their life story with an audience FEATURES: likely to be written in 1st person , past tense, plenty of descriptive detail , events in chronological order . Diaries have dates to organise the info Formal texts Editorials and news stories , especially , essays and scripted speech Formal structure , with introduction and conclusion Clear evidence Strong sense of logic indicated through DISCOURSE MARKERS Scrpted speeches acknowledge the context in which the speech is being given by thanking or greeting / uses rhetorical devices Literary forms Narrative and descriptive Narrative: Clear sense of action or direction / must be told from the point of view of one of the characters , an external narrator or 3rd person / chronology / Descriptive: include detail to creatE atmosphere

18. Final task Choose one of the topics below or a topic you are passionate about : Wildlife Fashion Sport Produce two short texts about that topic , using 2 different forms . Try to make them as different as posible. Eg : if you are passionate for Reading, you may write . 1. a leaflet for parents on how to encourage your child to read more 2. a passage from your autobiography detailing how you felt when you first read a book on your own

19. VOICE/ POINT OF VIEW Every text we come across , unless it is mechanically generated , will create a relationship with the audience . It does this in part by establishing a voice , a personality that comes through as you read or listen . There are two fundamental ways of creating a voice in a piece of writing . When you aim at telling things from your own point of view , using the Word “I” You can also tell things in a rather more objective way , third - person narrative, where everything seems to be seen as a camera might take a picture , simply reporting what is seen . Both may involve you in talking about point of view , the stance that the narrator is taking in relation to the information he/ she wants to tell you . At times, you may wish to use the second person , talking to the reader directly on paper

20. First-person narrative Its advantage is that the writing has a sense of immediacy-the reader gets involved with the person that is talking to them right from the beginning . Eg : “ I come from Alabama. Somebody had to .” This beginning of a novel already tells you that the autor has a sense of humour “ You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of THE ADVENTURES OF TOM SAWYER, but that ain’t no matter ” There is a mixture of 1st and 2nd person narrative here . AIN’T NO MATTER gives us the impression that the narrator is quite simple, speaks truthfully and is not very educated As you read , you Will try to make sense of the writer’s voice , to work out whether the speaker is old or Young, rich or por, clever or stupid - the list can go on . It is your decisión whether you want to listen to this voice , whether you trust it or not . Advantage of voice in 1st person : we are allowed direct Access into the thoughts of the person writing Disadvantage : we have no means of knowing what other people might think about the events described or the narrator is telling the truth . “ Eg : Aunt Pegg”

21. THIRD- PERSON NARRATIVE In this case, the writer writes as though he is omniscient , with an all-seeing eye , someone who is telling the story and has the right to observe events and comment on them in very serious tone . Eg . “ A tale of two cities ” vs “ The curious incident of the dog in the night - time” Notice that the writer may wish to choose to be objective - non- judgmental about what is being said , or can offer a comment in which they express some opinión, which then makes the writing subjective . Again , THE TALE OF TWO CITIES is a clear example of subjective third person , whereas LAMB TO THE SLAUGHTER recreates - at the very beginning - a detached , objective third - personm , which Roald Dahl decides to change later .

22. Writing PATTERNS Writers think logically; they organize details in patterns. Patterns are meant to help readers follow ideas easily and improve understanding of the text. Transition words and phrases are also used to create patterns within the text A writing pattern is  a specific way of organizing ideas to convey a certain type of argument . Eg. Discursive essay patterns The writing pattern an author uses will vary based on the desired purpose. Below are some of the most common patterns of organization:

23. Writing Patterns The contents of this web page were developed under grant #P116F150077 from the U.S. Department of Education. However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Common Writing Patterns Type Description Signal Words Definition Explain the meaning of a word or phrase is, refers to, means, is defined as, is called, is characterized by, entails Classification Divide a topic into parts based on specific characteristics classified as, comprises, is comprised of, consists of, elements, kinds, types, stages, groups Generalization and Example P r ovide a g ener a l sta t emen t f ollo w e d by sp e cific ex a m pl e s to p r ove t h e sta t eme n t for example, for instance, to illustrate, such as Cause and Effect Show how things are related by explaining how one thing causes another c a u s e s, eff e c t s, is c a u s e d by, is p r oduc e d by, is t h e re s u lt o f , r e s u lts fr om, b e c a u s e , c o n s e q u en tly, a s a re s u lt Comparison/Contrast Compare and contrast two or more things to show how they are similar and/or different Similarity: like, similarly, likewise, resembles, same, in comparison, in the same way, both, share Difference: unlike, in contrast, differently, however, despite, whereas, on the other hand, on the contrary, differs from, rather than List Present lists of information also, in addition, another, additionally, furthermore, moreover, next, finally, first, second, third, etc. Sequence D e scribe a p r o c e s s , s er i e s of e v en ts, sp a ti a l ord er , or ord e r of i m portance f i r st, s e c o n d, b ef or e , a f t er , nex t, t hen , l a st, f i n a lly, st e ps, p h a s e s, sta g e s, d a t e s, tim e s, num b e r s, l e tte r s Summary Provide a condensed review of a topic or text in summary, in brief, in conclusion, in short, to sum up, to summarize

24. TEXT STRUCTURE How a writer organizes the ideas in a piece of writing is called the  text structure . Understanding, identifying, and analyzing the text structure aids comprehension and allows for a deeper synthesis of the ideas. Writers use text structures to help bring clarity and purpose to their writing. The text structure is a way to reinforce a writer's ideas So…what is the difference between TEXT STRUCTURE and TEXT TECHNIQUES? The structure is the plan, the overall blueprint of a house to be built The techniques are individual bricks used to build the same house

25. TEXT STRUCTURE IN PARAGRAPHs What is the text structure of a paragraph? A paragraph typically consists of three elements:  a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence . In the topic sentence (which is often the first sentence), the topic or focus of the paragraph is presented.

26. Sentence structure The most basic form is the simple sentence . You need ONE verb , and you need to demonstrate tense( when something happened ) and number ( how many people were doing something ). Remember ! ONE VERB, SIMPLE SENTENCE : The elephant ate grass . The grey elephant slowly ate green grass , old leaves and apples - BOTH SENTENCES ARE SIMPLE Two or more verbs - COMPOUND SENTENCE The elephant ate grass and wandered into the forest

27. Sentence structure ( cont.) If a sentence has subordinate clauses , it is COMPLEX: The elephant , which was getting rather old , ate green grass and the apples that had been left by the visitors Why do writers use different sentence structure ? Adding sentence variety can give writing life and rhythm . Too many sentences with the same structure can grow monotonous for readers Varying sentence structure can also reduce repetition and add emphasis

28. LEXIS LEXIS deals with the study of words - it is , strictly speaking , the study of the text through vocabulary . Examining the lexis as a whole will allow you to comment on the TONE of the text and its AUDIENCE When you think about words in texts you also need to think about how to characterize them : Formal/ informal; descriptive/ factual; modern / archaic ; simple/ complex ; literal/ metaphorical ; evaluative/ analytical .

29. LEXIS ( cont ) When discussing lexis , we need to focus on PARTS OF SPEECH- has the writer used Nouns Adjectives Verbs Adverbs Prepositions Interjections Conjunctions pronouns , etc ? Has he used lots of … adjectives , for instance ? Why ?

30. Lexis ( cont ) The writer has used lots of adjectives to help create the mood / describe a character / set a scene Why do some writers avoid adjectives ? The fewer words you use, the more powerful your sentences are. The more you say in fewer words the more you communicate in a shorter amount of time Why do writers use specific actions?The use of strong verbs make your writing more effective . In the SHOW NOT TELL technique , strong verbs are used

31. Lexis ( cont ) Word choice creates the tone of a piece of writing . You will quickly discover the following : CONVERSATION has a high density of verbs NEWS REPORTS and other INFORMATIVE WRITING tend to have density of nouns because they are content - driven As ADJECTIVES are linked to nouns , texts with high frequency of nouns tend to also have high frequency of adjectives As ADVERBS are linked to verbs , there will be a tendency to see them more in CONVERSATION and FICTION LITERARY WRITING has a high density of adjectives and adverbs

32. Figurative Language vs literal meaning Literal meaning means you understand exactly what the words say - no additional meaning is meant to be drawn from them In figurative meaning , the audience is supposed to understand something other tan the exact meaning of the words being used . The most common are METAPHOR SIMILE PERSONIFICATION HYPERBOLE EG. “ Pull up your socks !” Literal ??? Metaphorical ???

33. WHY DO WRITERS USE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE? The reader is made to imagine and feel emotions . Figurative language will drive the reader to drown into the topic , making him / her understand the situation that could not be expressed through words in a dictionary And imagery ? to create the right atmosphere for the audience , to share the same sentiments of some characters in their story

34. REGISTER REGISTER relates to the level of formality a text may have , depending on the audience . Levels of formality may be: Ultra- coloquial ( Street language , GONNA , `cause, in general vocabulary used by the Young) Colloquial ( or conversational ) Modified formal ( obeys the rules of standard English; use of contractions ; CHILD and not KID; DISMISS and not fire ; WHY and not HOW COME) Formal ( scholar vocabulary / varied grammar / complex grammar /