Epistemology and Learning for Researchers and Teachers

These slides are for teachers and researchers to know how to address student-centered learning
Inclusive learning
Critical thinking , these three dimensions are addressed in the slides. Please do share your thoughts.

1. Understanding How We Know What We Know~ An Exploration of Epistemologies Presentation by Dr.K.Prabhakar

2. Dedicated to Paulo Freire (1921—1997) Paulo Freire was one of the most influential philosophers of education of the twentieth century. He worked wholeheartedly to help people both through his philosophy and his practice of critical pedagogy. A native of Brazil, Freire’s goal was to eradicate illiteracy among people from previously colonized countries and continents. His insights were rooted in the social and political realities of the children and grandchildren of former slaves. His ideas, life, and work served to ameliorate the living conditions of oppressed people. This article examines key events in Freire’s life, as well as his ideas regarding pedagogy and political philosophy. In particular, it examines conscientização , critical pedagogy, Freire’s criticism of the banking model of education, and the process of internalization of one’s oppressors. As a humanist, Freire defended the theses that: (a) it is every person’s ontological vocation to become more human; (b) both the oppressor and the oppressed are diminished in their humanity when their relationship is characterized by oppressive dynamics; (c) through the process of conscientização , the oppressors and oppressed can come to understand their own power; and (d) ultimately the oppressed will be able to authentically change their circumstances only if their intentions and actions are consistent with their goal. ( https://iep.utm.edu/freire/ ) 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 2

3. The concepts that I, as a teacher, used but did not fully understand until I ventured into epistemology Student Centric learning Inclusive learning Critical thinking 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 3

4. What is the role of epistemology for teachers, and what questions do I wish to answer in this discussion? What is student centric learning? Eighty five percent of Indians are considered as functional illiterates? Is it different from what is being practiced for centuries? It is to promote critical thinking~ What to think and how to think? Now question is how to promote critical thinking? How individual student need to be taken through the path of learning? What are rubrics and how to prepare them for each course? 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 4

5. What is not? Student Centric learning is not just making everyone talk or just be noisy in the class or asking what is your opinion, or just asking questions in the class or just CP in class. Inclusive learning not just admitting students with disabilities or providing ramps. Critical thinking- Thinking beyond the syllabus. Syllabus is greatest hurdle for you. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 5

6. Pedagogy Pedagogy (/ˈ pɛdəɡɒdʒi , - ɡoʊdʒi , - ɡɒɡi /), most commonly understood as the approach to teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political, and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly as they reflect different social, political, and cultural contexts. Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes their actions, judgments, and teaching strategies by taking into consideration theories of learning, understandings of students and their needs, and the backgrounds and interests of individual students. Its aims may range from furthering liberal education (the general development of human potential) to the narrower specifics of vocational education (the imparting and acquisition of specific skills). Conventional western pedagogies view the teacher as knowledge holder and student as the recipient of knowledge (described by Paulo Freire as "banking methods"), but theories of pedagogy increasingly identify the student as an agent and the teacher as a facilitator. Instructive strategies are governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic method. ( Wikiwand ) 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 6

7. Pedagogy The term 'Pedagogy,' refers to the strategy of how educators teach, in practice and theory. Pedagogy is shaped by the teaching beliefs of a teacher and relates the interplay between culture and a variety of methods of teaching. Pedagogy relates to the study of teaching strategies and how they influence students. A thoughtfully considered and effective pedagogy is crucial for helping students to learn more successfully and in helping them develop high-order thinking skills. Flip learning presents unique challenges and opportunities for educators, and a strong pedagogy is essential for ensuring that students can learn effectively through online learning. This may include the use of age-appropriate teaching strategies and materials, as well as an understanding of the stages of child development and how these can affect learning. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 7

8. How does pedagogy affect the learning process? The most effective pedagogies encompass a range of teaching techniques, including a detailed guide for teachers, structured and whole-class group work, guided learning, assessment practice and individual activity. These pedagogies focus on improving higher-order thinking and meta-cognition and make good use of questioning and dialogue in doing so. At Structural Learning, we try to steer away from teaching fads such as learning styles (it was once thought that children should be labelled a visual learner, a kinesthetic learner or an aural learner). 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 8

9. Epistemology is theory of knowledge Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge, as well as the relationship between the mind and reality . It's also known as the theory of knowledge , and the term comes from the Greek words epistēmē ("knowledge") and logos ("reason"). 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 9

10. Why Epistemology for teachers? One popular pedagogy for teaching is Constructivist pedagogy , which emphasizes the importance of active learning and student engagement in the learning process. This approach emphasizes the idea that knowledge is constructed by the learner, rather than simply being transmitted by the teacher. Learning is social and collaborative . Students learn best by working together with others to share ideas and solve problems. Knowledge is constructed , not transmitted. Teachers act as facilitators of learning, rather than simply transmitters of information. Assessment is focused on understanding. Teachers assess student learning by looking for evidence of understanding, not just memorization. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 10

11. Higher-order thinking refers to the complex cognitive skills and mental processes They go beyond simple memorization and recall of information. It involves the ability to analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and create new knowledge or solutions . Higher-order thinking skills are essential for solving complex problems, making well-reasoned decisions, and promoting critical and creative thinking. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 11

12. Metacognitive knowledge This refers to the understanding and knowledge about one's own cognitive processes. It includes knowledge about oneself as a learner (strengths, weaknesses, preferences), knowledge about different tasks and strategies, and knowledge about when and why to use particular strategies. Metacognitive regulation: This involves actively monitoring and regulating one's cognitive processes while engaged in a task. It includes processes such as planning, monitoring progress, evaluating outcomes, and making adjustments as needed. Self-monitoring: Metacognition involves the ability to monitor one's level of understanding and task performance. This allows individuals to recognize when they are having difficulties and need to adjust their approach or seek additional information or support. Self-reflection: Metacognition involves reflecting on one's thinking processes, strategies, and outcomes. This reflection can lead to insights about how to improve and become a more effective learner or problem-solver. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 12

13. System Thinking System thinking involves identifying the relationships and interdependencies between the various elements that make up a system . It recognizes that each component is connected to and affects the behavior of the whole system. Seeing wholes: Rather than breaking things down into smaller parts, system thinking emphasizes looking at the entire system as a unified whole. This allows for a better understanding of how the system functions as an integrated entity. Exploring perspectives: System thinking encourages considering multiple perspectives and viewpoints when analyzing a system. It recognizes that different stakeholders may have different interests, goals, and perceptions of the system. Understanding complexity: Systems can be complex, with non-linear relationships, feedback loops, and emergent properties that arise from the interactions between components. System thinking helps in understanding and managing this complexity. Identifying patterns and behaviors: System thinking involves identifying recurring patterns and behaviors within a system, as well as understanding how these patterns emerge from the structure and interactions of the system components. Anticipating consequences: By considering the interconnections and feedback loops within a system, system thinking allows for better anticipation of the potential consequences of actions or changes within the system. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 13

14. Critical Thinking Rationality : Critical thinking involves using reason and logic to analyze information objectively and draw well-justified conclusions, rather than relying on emotions or anecdotal evidence. Self-awareness : It requires an awareness of one's own biases, assumptions, and preconceptions, and a willingness to challenge them and consider alternative perspectives. Open-mindedness : Critical thinkers approach issues with an open mind, consider diverse viewpoints, and are willing to change their stance when presented with compelling evidence. Evidence-based decision making : Critical thinking relies on evaluating the validity, reliability, and relevance of information and using it to support or refute arguments and conclusions. Questioning : It involves asking probing questions, challenging assumptions, and seeking clarification to gain a deeper understanding of issues. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 14

15. What is inclusion? The aim of inclusion is to ensure that all students, including those with disabilities and other differences in learning, experience an equitable access to education. This means a commitment to remove any obstacles that may prevent the student from thriving and reaching their full potential. Inclusion is based on the principles of respect, equity and recognition of diversity in society. All students benefit when an inclusive environment is fostered in the classroom. This involves creating a safe and supportive learning space where differences are valued, respected, and celebrated. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 15

16. Summary so far Whatever learning environment you are operating in, it's good practice to utilize the research that is available to us. We all share the same goal in enhancing the learning experience of children. Our focus has always been on developing deep learning experiences. This involves unpicking the learning process and designing effective teaching strategies that really get children thinking. Pedagogy plays a crucial role in determining the learning outcomes of students. A well-designed pedagogical approach can foster critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity among students. On the other hand, a poor pedagogical approach can lead to disengagement, boredom, and lack of motivation among students. Therefore, it is important for educators to understand the impact of pedagogy on the learning process and to continuously improve their teaching methods to ensure positive learning outcomes for their students.(Source: https://www.structural-learning.com/post/pedagogy-for-teaching-a-classroom-guide ) 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 16

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20. Introduction to Epistemology 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 20

21. Epistemology Epistemology  ( / ɪˌpɪstəˈmɒlədʒi /   ⓘ   ih -PISS- tə -MOL-ə- jee ; from  Ancient Greek   ἐπ ιστήμη  ( epistḗmē )  'knowledge', and  -logy ) is the  branch of philosophy  concerned with  knowledge . Epistemologists study the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge,  epistemic justification , the  rationality  of  belief , and various related issues. Debates in contemporary epistemology are generally clustered around four core areas: The  philosophical analysis  of the nature of knowledge and the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, such as  truth  and  justification ; Potential sources of knowledge and justified belief, such as  perception ,  reason ,  memory , and  testimony The structure of a body of knowledge or justified belief, including whether all justified beliefs must be derived from justified  foundational beliefs  or whether justification requires only a  coherent set of beliefs ; and, Philosophical scepticism , which questions the possibility of knowledge, and related problems, such as whether skepticism poses a threat to our ordinary knowledge claims and whether it is possible to refute skeptical arguments. ( Wikiwand ) 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 21

22. Elaboration E pistemology aims to answer questions such as "What do people know?", "What does it mean to say that people know something?", "What makes justified beliefs justified?", and "How do people know that they know?"  Specialties in epistemology ask questions such as "How can people create formal models about issues related to knowledge?" (in  formal epistemology ), "What are the historical conditions of changes in different kinds of knowledge?" (in  historical epistemology ), "What are the methods, aims, and subject matter of epistemological inquiry?" (in  metaepistemology ), and "How do people know together?" (in  social epistemology ). 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 22

23. Etymology of the word The etymology of the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē , meaning "knowledge, understanding, skill, scientific knowledge", and the English suffix -ology, meaning "the study or discipline of (what is indicated by the first element)". The word epistemology first appeared in 1847, in a review in New York's Eclectic Magazine :The title of one of the principal works of Fichte is ' Wissenschaftslehre ,' which, after the analogy of technology ... we render epistemology. The word was first used to present a philosophy in English by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. It was the title of the first section of his Institutes of Metaphysics: This section of the science is properly termed the Epistemology—the doctrine or theory of knowing, just as ontology is the science of being .... It answers the general question, 'What is knowing and the known?'—or more shortly, 'What is knowledge?' 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 23

24. Concepts The entry "Knowledge How" of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy mentions that introductory classes to epistemology often start their analysis of knowledge by pointing out three different senses of "knowing" something: "knowing that" (knowing the truth of propositions), "knowing how" (understanding how to perform certain actions), and "knowing by acquaintance" (directly perceiving an object, being familiar with it, or otherwise coming into contact with it). This modern teaching of epistemology is primarily concerned with the first of these forms of knowledge, propositional knowledge. All three senses of "knowing" can be seen in the ordinary use of the word. In mathematics, it can be known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person (e.g., knowing other persons, or knowing oneself), place (e.g., one's hometown), thing (e.g., cars), or activity (e.g., addition). 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 24

25. ONTOLOGY As a first approximation, ontology is the study of "what is”. Ontological statements are answers to questions of whether something fundamentally exists or not (e.g. numbers, institutions, or causal relations ). the most classical ontological question is the following: "Is there a God?" Ontological questions and assumptions are often determined prior to empirical research. They represent a set of beliefs about the nature of the world and to a certain extent influence the questions researchers ask, as well as the ways in which they do science. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 25 02-05-2024

26. A Priori and A Posteriori The terms “a priori” and “a posteriori” are used primarily to denote the foundations upon which a proposition is known. A given proposition is knowable a priori if it can be known independent of any experience other than the experience of learning the language in which the proposition is expressed, whereas a proposition that is knowable a posteriori is known on the basis of experience. For example, the proposition that all bachelors are unmarried is a priori, and the proposition that it is raining outside now is a posteriori. The distinction between the two terms is epistemological and immediately relates to the justification for why a given item of knowledge is held. For instance, a person who knows (a priori) that “All bachelors are unmarried” need not have experienced the unmarried status of all—or indeed any—bachelors to justify this proposition. By contrast, if I know that “It is raining outside,” knowledge of this proposition must be justified by appealing to someone’s experience of the weather. 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 26

27. Conceptual Clarity Numbers Institutions or organizations Causal relationships. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 27 02-05-2024

28. How we study Economics? Take the test. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 28 02-05-2024

29. Which problems are central to Economy? Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 29 02-05-2024

30. Central Problem or Problems addressed by economy – SCDU Scarcity:  Natural resources like land, capital, labour, and energy are scarce and therefore the economic problem lies in the processes of their distribution. Change:  Economic organizations are constantly evolving, the dynamics of this process are the distinctive aspect of economics. Dominance:  Power and domination of one group over another in material as well as social terms is the driving force of economic phenomena. Uncertainty:  The future is uncertain and our knowledge about it is fallible. Therefore, the beliefs we hold about the future in order to deal with uncertainty, and changes in these beliefs, are the central determinant of the economy. These problems give rise to Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity and Ambiguity. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 30 02-05-2024

31. Knowing this what kind of economics you will generate? Please write in a paper and submit to the coordinator. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 31 02-05-2024

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33. Where do we start? The Map of Things Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 33 02-05-2024

34. Things The "things" analysed range from the small (individuals) to the very large (systems). That does not mean that a systemic perspective denies the existence of individuals , but that according to such a perspective systems are more important when it comes to the economy. Micro:  Individuals and their motivations, relations, and actions. Meso :  Groups and organisations (or institutions such as embedded social norms) like firms, sectors, specific markets, as well as subsystems like the financial system. Macro:  Systems and structures like the environment or capitalism. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 34 02-05-2024

35. Individual and Economy Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 35 02-05-2024

36. Do things have independence from the surrounding? Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 36 02-05-2024

37. Atomist-Middle- Contexual Atomist : Things like individuals, groups or institutions have an independent existence. Their motivations and beliefs come from within themselves and their identity and essence does not change due to environmental alterations. Middle:   Actors exist as independent entities. Yet there are mechanisms at higher levels, like context, which influence these actors. An abstract analysis therefore has to respect both individual essences and those contextual elements, which can be identified as crucial. Contextual:  Things are always relational and interdependent, therefore there is no way to conceive of them as independent of their context, since without the interactions with the structure and other actors in which they exist they would be fundamentally different Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 37 02-05-2024

38. How do we consider time? This question asks whether it is more appropriate to conceive time in terms of states (e.g. time 1, time 2, …) and then compare and relate them or whether time is a continuous process, which is not reversible and where there is constant change and no convergence to a fixed point. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 38 02-05-2024

39. Static-Middle-Dynamic Static-Middle-Dynamic Static:  Time is a succession of states, which can be identified. Middle:  Both static and procedural elements are present in time. Dynamic:  It is of primary importance to think in a procedural way, things are constantly changing and evolving in time. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 39 02-05-2024

40. Epistemology Epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief. It is concerned with questions like: What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge? What are its sources? What is its structure, and what are its limits? It addresses what we can know and how we can arrive at knowledge. The way in which researchers answer these and other epistemological questions determines which assumptions they make regarding the nature of their knowledge claims about the world and the confidence they assign to these statements. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 40 02-05-2024

41. Realism -Constructivist Realism:  there is a real world independent of human conceptions and we can observe it. This definition of realism differs from the realism-instrumentalism dichotomy regarding assumptions that have been debated in economics following Milton Friedman's 1953  Essays in Positive Economics . Middle:  There is a real world, but also a discursive world. It is the latter in which scientific access to the real world takes place. The relationship between the two is interdependent and complex. Constructivist: What we can observe and talk about in the (social) sciences are only interpretations produced by ourselves. These interpretations give meaning and thereby create the world. Hence, the task of science is to understand those realms of meaning. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 41 02-05-2024

42. How you are going to drive your research or your pedagogical plan ? This question is concerned with whether a perspective wants to apply a generalized theoretical framework on many or all aspects of the economy or whether a specific issue or phenomena is considered to be very important and thus has to be analysed in depth while using different frameworks and theories. Perspective Driven:  a way of thinking about economic interactions (e.g. in terms of incentives, equilibria or relations of production) is deemed to be a good way of getting insights about different objects. It is assumed that this particular way of thinking is capable of yielding valuable insights about all kinds of economic and social phenomena. Contested:   Both tendencies are present. A particular object is of interest but a certain way of thinking is thought to be useful as well. There is a degree of conflict between those who try to move the perspective (or the discipline as a whole) to one of the two categories. Object Driven:  A particular object is deemed to be very interesting and decisive for economic understanding. Hence, the object is analysed from a wide array of different ways of thinking. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 42 02-05-2024

43. Methodology Methodology refers to the question of how to determine what counts as justified knowledge. Often, methodological discussions establish a set of rules or conditions that have to be met in order for something to be scientific . A certain methodological standpoint often advocates specific research methods over others, since they are perceived to meet the requirements for knowledge in a more satisfactory and appropriate way than alternative forms of inquiry. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 43 02-05-2024

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45. Which Methodology to use or what is your research design? Qualitative Quantitative Mixed methods Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 45 02-05-2024

46. Hypotheses Hypotheses are proposals for explaining or understanding a certain phenomenon. They can be derived from already existing theory (logic, for example), from empirical observations or from a combination of the two. Deductive:  New hypotheses are logically derived from a set of axioms and established laws. Middle:  Axioms, empirical observations and conceptualizations are intertwined and the researcher goes back and forth whilst developing the hypothesis (associated concepts are abduction, retroduction, dialectics). Inductive:  Empirical observations and generalizations based on observations lead to new hypotheses. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 46 02-05-2024

47. Abductive reasoning and Retrodiction Abductive reasoning  is to abduce (or take away) a logical assumption, explanation, inference, conclusion, hypothesis, or best guess from an observation or set of observations. Because the conclusion is merely a best guess, the conclusion that is drawn may or may not be true. Retrodiction is the provisional adoption of a hypothesis, because every possible consequence of it is capable of experimental verification, so that the persevering application of the same method may be expected to reveal its disagreement with facts, if it does so disagree. Retrodiction is the act of making a prediction about the past using information from the present or other past events. For example, climate models can "retrodict" climatic change by using past climatic data to predict current climate. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 47 02-05-2024

48. How can we generate and evaluate a theory or a hypothesis at the abstract level Answers to this question illustrate the importance different perspectives attach to logical coherence, formalism and long chains of reasoning when judging whether a hypothesis is scientific or not. Perspectives that reject these standards as criteria for science choose to engage in a broad variety of practices and reasoning, even though these might appear to be contradictory in the light of classical logic. Formalistic:  The hypothesis can be derived from axioms in a logical way. There were no logical mistakes made. Middle:  Formalistic logic as well as other forms of reasoning are applied. Broad reasoning:  Non-formalistic techniques such as counterfactuals, thought experiments, deconstruction, (changing) conceptualizations and fuzzy sets, heuristics, storytelling, etc. are applied in order to assess the validity of a hypothesis in a more crude and less exact manner. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 48 02-05-2024

49. How can we relate a theory or a hypothesis to reality? This question assesses how empirical observation is conceptualized by different perspectives. Some perspectives have very clear cut rules on how to collect and make sense of empirical observations and data. Others use ways that are less specified and may vary depending on the nature of the research. Standardised and prescriptive methodology:  Empirical testing is carried out in a standard and prescribed way, which can be justified by reference to both the philosophy of science and scientific practice. A prominent example is  the  scientific method. Middle : A combination of standardized ways of relating theory to the world and non-standard instruments. Idiosyncratic:  An adequate way of referring to reality depends on more research and is always context dependent. This category refers to methods which are only defined in very broad terms such as process tracing. Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 49 02-05-2024

50. Post Keynesian Economics Effective demand Tendency to instability ( e.g by animal spirits) Capitalist monetary production economy Macro economic paradoxes Fundamental uncertainty Hierarchy of markets Endogenous money creation Path dependency and historical time Non-neutrality of money Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 50 02-05-2024

51. Thank you 02-05-2024 Epistemologies for Faculty Development Programme for CUJ 51