FRENCH AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

This presentation provides a detailed information about french and industrial revolution all together collected from different sources.

1. INSTITUTE FOR EXCELLENCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION SESSION :2021-22 SUBJECT :SOCIOLOGY TOPIC : THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION SUBMITTED BY:- NEETI CHATURVEDI B.A. SOCIOLOGY HONOURS 3 rd year SUBMITTED TO:- DR. DEEPIKA GUPTA DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

2. This is to certify that Ms. NEETI CHATURVEDI of class B.A. SOCIOLOGY HONOURS 3 rd YEAR has successfully completed the sociology assignment titled “ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION”. It is further certified that this assignment is the individual and bonafied work of the student during the session 2020-21. To the best of my knowledge, it is an original piece of work. SUBJECT TEACHER: DR. DEEPIKA GUPTA CERTIFICATE

3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It would be my utmost pleasure to express my sincere gratitude towards DR. DEEPIKA GUPTA ma’am for her valuable support who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful assignment titled “ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ” . It helped me in getting better knowledge about the topic. In accomplishment of this assignment successfully, many people have bestowed upon me their blessings and the heart pledged support. I am thankful to my parents for their kind co-operation and encouragement which helped me in the completion of this project. I am also thankful to my friends who shared valuable information. NEETI CHATURVEDI

4. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

5. PHOTO GALLERY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION LOUIS XVI LOUIS XVI AND MARIE ANTOINETTE

6. DESCENDANTS OF LOUIS XVI GUILLOTINE MACHINE

7. NAPOLEAN BONAPARTE MAXIMILIEAN ROBESPIERRE

8. BASTILLE VERSAILLE PALACE

9. INTRODUCTION The French Revolution is one of the great turning-points in history . The French Revolution of 1789 had far-reaching effects on the social and political life of people. The revolution shook France between 1787 and 1799 . During this period, French citizens razed and redesigned their country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries old institutions such as absolute monarchy and feudal system. The disruption was caused by widespread discontent with the French monarchy ( kingdom ) and the poor economic policies of Louis XVI, who met his death by guillotine as did his wife Marie Antoinette.

10. FRANCE IN THE 1780s The two most important characteristics the inhabitants of eighteenth-century France had in common were that they were the king’s subjects, and that 97 per cent of them were Catholic. The rural economy was essentially a peasant economy: that is, household-based agrarian production which had a primarily subsistence orientation. The peasantry made up about four-fifths of the ‘Third Estate’ or ‘commoners’ but across the country it owned only about 40 per cent of the land outright. Eighteenth-century France was a land of mass poverty in which most people were vulnerable to harvest failure. It is this which explains what historians have called the ‘demographic equilibrium’, in which very high birth rates (about 4.5 per hundred people) were almost matched by high mortality rates (about 3.5). Men and women married late: usually between 26 and 29 and 24 and 27 years respectively.

11. A MONARCHY IN CRISIS When Louis XIV was on his death bed, he had recognized the inefficacy of war as a mean to realize his aims. He had, in the process of achieving his ambitions involved France in series of war, had taxed his people to their utmost capacity and drained away the wealth of nation and had brought untold misery to them. So when he was nearing his end he called his great-grandson, the future Louis XV and advised him to take a lesson from his failures and to wage any more wars and to relieve the people from the burden of taxation. But he and his successor Louis XVI unheeded the advice and gradually the political, social and economic conditions so degenerated that the situation got out of control and precipitated a great Revolution which brought untold misery to millions of people and uprooted numerous families and wars, calamitous to the monarchy which involved France in long and bloody wars. As the 18 th century drew to close, France costly involvement in the American Revolution and extravagant spending by Louis XVI and his predecessor had left the country on the brink of bankruptcy. In the fall of 1786, Louis XVI controller general, Charles Alexander de Calonne , proposed a financial reform package that included a universal land tax from which the privileged classes would no longer be exempt.

12. • In France, people were divided into three estates :- – First Estate: • Clergy - High-ranking members of the Church • Privileged class – Second Estate: • Nobility • Privileged class – Third Estate: • Everyone else – from peasants in the countryside to wealthy bourgeoisie merchants in the cities • Unprivileged class SOCIETY UNDER THE OLD REGIME

13. THE THREE ESTATES The first estate among the 3 estates was- 1) FIRST ESTATE: POPULATION - Circa 130,000, High-ranking clergy. PRIVILEDGES - Collected the tithe ,Censorship of the press, Control of education , Kept records of births, deaths, marriages, etc. , Catholic faith held honored position of being the state religion (practiced by monarch and nobility) , Owned 20% of the land. EXEMPTIONS - Paid no taxes , Subject to Church law rather than civil law . BURDENS - Moral obligation (rather than legal obligation) to assist the poor and needy , Support the monarchy and Old Regime.

14. THE THREE ESTATES UNDER THE OLD REGIME

15. 2) SECOND ESTATE: POPULATION - Circa 110,000 , Nobles. PRIVILEDGES - Collected taxes in the form of feudal dues, Monopolized military and state appointments , Owned 20% of the land. EXEMPTIONS - Paid no taxes. BURDENS - Support the monarchy and old regime. 3) THIRD ESTATE: POPULATION - Circa 25,000,000 , Everyone else: artisans, bourgeoisie, city workers, merchants, peasants, etc., along with many parish priests . PRIVILEDGES- None. EXEMPTIONS- None. BURDENS- Paid all taxes ,Tithe (Church tax) , Octrot (tax on goods brought into cities ) , Corvée ( forced road work) ,Capitation (poll tax) , Vingtiéme ( income tax ) , Gabelle ( salt tax) , Taille (land tax ) , Feudal dues for use of local manor’s winepress, oven, etc.

16. Economic conditions under the old regime of France were as follows- France’s economy was based primarily on agriculture. Peasant farmers of France bore the burden of taxation. Poor harvests meant that peasants had trouble paying their regular taxes Certainly could not afford to have their taxes raised. Bourgeoisie often managed to gather wealth but were upset that they paid taxes while nobles did not. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS UNDER THE OLD REGIME

17. As economic conditions were not too good of France, France faced financial crisis from the year 1783 to 1788. Soon after, France was declared bankrupt in the year 1989 , to be precise. The king (Louis XVI) lavished money on himself and residences like VERSAILLES. Queen Marie Antoinette was seen as a wasteful spender. Government found its funds depleted as a result of wars Including the funding of the American Revolution. DEFICIT SPENDING – a government spending more money than it takes in from tax revenues. Privileged classes would not submit to being taxed. Only unprivileged class submitted tax which created a burden on them. FRANCE IS BANKRUPT

18. ESTATES GENERAL OF 1789 The Estates-General was divided into three parts; the FIRST for members of the CLERGY , SECOND for the NOBILITY , and THIRD for the "COMMONS". Each sat separately, enabling the First and Second Estates to outvote the Third, despite representing less than 5% of the population, while both were largely exempt from tax. ABBE SIEYES , A political theorist and priest elected to the Third Estate, argued it should take precedence over the other two as it represented 95% of the population. As separate assemblies meant the Third Estate could always be outvoted by the other two, SEIYES sought to combine all three. On 17 June, 1789 , third estate was joined by over 100 members of the First Estate, and declared themselves the NATIONAL ASSEMBLY . On 20 June, the Assembly met in a tennis court outside Versailles and swore not to disperse until a new constitution had been agreed (popularly known as TENNIS COURT OATH ). By 27 June , they had been joined by the majority of the First Estate, plus forty-seven members of the Second, and Louis backed down.

19. CARICATURE OF THE THIRD ESTATE CARRYING THE FIRST ESTATE (CLERGY) AND THE SECOND ESTATE (NOBILITY) ON ITS BACK. MEETING OF THE ESTATES GENERAL ON 5 MAY 1789 AT VERSAILLES.

20. CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY (1789- 1792) ABOLITION OF THE ANCIEN REGIME AND STORMING OF THE BASTILLE On 14 th July 1789, many soldiers of the National Assembly protested against the king Louis XVI, and attacked the BASTILLE , a royal fortress with large stores of arms and ammunition. The governor DE LAUNAY surrendered after several hours of fighting that cost the lives of 83 attackers. As a potent symbol of the ANCIEN REGIME ,its (BASTILLE) destruction was viewed as a triumph and BASTILLE DAY is still celebrated every year. After that, The breakdown of law and order and frequent attacks on aristocratic property led much of the nobility to flee abroad. In response, the Assembly published the AUGUST DECREES which abolished feudalism and other privileges held by the nobility, notably exemption from tax. Other decrees included equality before the law, opening public office to all, freedom of worship, etc.

21. THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE ON 14 JULY 1789; THE ICONIC EVENT OF THE REVOLUTION, STILL COMMEMORATED EACH YEAR AS BASTILLE DAY.

22. CREATING A NEW CONSTITUTION Assisted by Thomas Jefferson , Lafayette prepared a draft constitution known as the declaration of rights of the man and of the citizens, which echoed some of the provisions of the Declaration of independence. REVOLUTION AND THE CHURCH The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Catholic Church to the state. The August decrees abolished tithes (is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a compulsory tax to government), and on 2 November 1789 , the Assembly confiscated all church property. FALL OF THE MONARCHY The new constitution was opposed by significant elements inside and outside the Assembly, itself split into three main groups. 245 members were affiliated with Barnave's Feuillants , constitutional monarchists who considered the Revolution had gone far enough, while another 136 were Jacobin leftists who supported a republic, led by Brissot and usually referred to as Brissotins . The remaining 345 belonged to La Plaine , a central faction who switched votes depending on the issue. On 10 th August , Louis and his family took refuge with the Assembly and shortly after 11:00 am, the deputies present voted to 'temporarily relieve the king', effectively suspending the monarchy.

23. THE DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN OF 26 AUGUST 1789. IN THIS CARICATURE, MONKS AND NUNS ENJOY THEIR NEW FREEDOM AFTER THE DECREE OF 16 FEBRUARY 1790. THE STORMING OF THE TUILERIES PALACE, 10 AUGUST 1792.

24. FIRST REPUBLIC(1792-1795) PROCLAMATION OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC AND THE NATIONAL CONVENTION The former Brissotins now split into moderate Girondins led by Brissot , and radical Montagnards , headed by MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE . On 20 September , the French army won a stunning victory over the Prussians at Valmy . Emboldened by this, on 22 September the Convention replaced the monarchy with the French First Republic and introduced a new calendar, with 1792 becoming " Year One ”. On 17 January 1793 , the Assembly condemned Louis to death for "conspiracy against public liberty and general safety”. The sentence was carried out on 21 January on the Place de la Révolution , now the Place de la Concorde. Horrified conservatives across Europe called for the destruction of revolutionary France. POLITICAL CRISIS AND FALL OF THE GIRONDINS The Girondins hoped war would unite the people behind the government and provide an excuse for rising prices and food shortages, but found themselves the target of popular anger. Many left for the provinces.

25. EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI IN THE PLACE DE LA CONCORDE, FACING THE EMPTY PEDESTAL WHERE THE STATUE OF HIS GRANDFATHER, LOUIS XV PREVIOUSLY STOOD. NINE ÉMIGRÉS ARE EXECUTED BY GUILLOTINE, 1793.

26. REIGN OF TERROR The Reign of Terror began as a way to harness revolutionary fervour , but quickly degenerated into the settlement of personal grievances. At the end of July, the Convention set price controls over a wide range of goods, with the death penalty for hoarders, and on 9 September 'revolutionary groups' were established to enforce them. On 17th , the Law of Suspects ordered the arrest of suspected "enemies of freedom", initiating what became known as the "Terror". According to archival records, from September 1793 to July 1794 some 16,600 people were executed on charges of counter-revolutionary activity. In mid-October, Marie Antoinette was found guilty of a long list of crimes and guillotined; two weeks later, the Girondist leaders arrested in June were also executed. Soon after, Girondists reinstated as deputies, and the Jacobin Club was closed and banned. AFTER THE REIGN OF TERROR, IN 1794 , ROBESPIERRE AND 21 SUPPORTERS WERE GUILLOTINED. IN THE YEAR 1795, NAPOLEAN BONAPARTE BRUSHES LAST LOYALIST REVOLT.

27. THE EXECUTION OF ROBESPIERRE ON 28 JULY 1794 MARKED THE END OF THE REIGN OF TERROR.

28. FRENCH REVOLUTION ENDS: NAPOLEAN’S RISE On August 22, 1795 , the National Convention, composed largely of Girondins who had survived the Reign of Terror, approved a new constitution that created a bicameral legislature for first time in France. Executive power would lie in the hands of a five member Directory appointed by the parliament, Royalists and Jacobins protested the new regime but were swiftly silenced by the army, now led by a young and successful general named NAPOLEON BONAPARTE . On November 9, 1799 , as frustration with the leadership reached a fever pitch, Bonaparte appointed himself as France’s first consul for the first time and the for the consul for life. The event marked the end of French Revolution and the beginning of Napoleonic era.

29. CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION Now, if we talk about the causes of French Revolution, they can be divided into 4 categories namely: SOCIAL CAUSES ECONOMICAL CAUSES POLITICAL CAUSES INTELLECTUAL CAUSES There are many different causes of French Revolution, and to sum them all up, they all can be categorised under these 4 categories.

30. CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

31. 1) SOCIAL CAUSES French society was divided into three estates during the Ancien Regime, they were: CLERGY [1 LAKH PEOPLE- 10% LAND] NOBILITY [4 LAKH PEOPLE- 25% LAND] FARMERS, ARTISANS,WORKERS,TRADERS,ETC. [2.7 CRORE PEOPLE] This division within society caused differences in tax paying, lifestyle, etc. The main social causes of French Revolution were- No tax on 1 st and 2 nd estate. Lavish lifestyle of nobility. High point of French culture- 18 th century 3 rd estate- drowning in various taxes as they were the only tax payers. Educated middle class- Bourgeoisie. Urban workers- poor conditions.

32. 2) ECONOMIC CAUSES These were the triggering economic causes of the French Revolution- Rising population – Year 1700- 2 crore population Year 1789- 2.8 crore population Rise in population and no grains to feed them. 2) High debt of war lead to large interest payments- half of total national budget went to debt repayments. 3) Harsh winters lead to crop failure which lead to increase in food prices which eventually lead to famine. 4) Angry peasants and common people due to lack of food grains for survival.

33. 3) POLITICAL CAUSES Some of the political causes of French Revolution are as follows- The Bourbon dynasty included Louis 14 th , 15 th that fought many battles and total 7 years of war was going on, in France due to which France was in huge debt. Louis XVI (1774-92) came in as king. He had Austrian wife Marie Antoinette who was a very bad advisor. France helped Americans in fighting wars which ruined France’s economy. Louis XVI lived in Versailles palace lavishly without caring enough for the population.

34. 4) INTELLECTUAL CAUSES Following are some of the intellectual causes of the French Revolution- Development of rational thinking, philosophy and science. AGE OF ENLIGHTMENT- 17 TH and 18 th century. Famous thinkers and philosophers like- John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau- people’s sovereignty Immanuel Kant Montesquieu- separation of church and state Voltaire- freedom of speech and expression These intellectuals questioned king’s right to rule, his mandate from god, role of catholic church. 4) These ideas spreaded via newspapers, books.

35. LEGACY OF FRENCH REVOLUTION The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of French Revolution. It inspired the Germans, Italians and Austrians to overthrow their oppressive regimes. Colonised people of Asia and Africa were deeply influenced by the French Revolution. They demanded liberty, equality and justice from their colonial master which finally led to the beginning of national movement in their respective countries. The declaration of the rights of man and citizen gave rights such as right to life, freedom of speech, equality before law, etc. The French Revolution put into practise the idea that sovereignity comes from the people and not from rulers. Women actively participated in revolution. It marked the beginning of women movement across France and world.

36. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

37. INTRODUCTION The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from between 1760 to 1820 and 1840 . Goods that had once been painstakingly crafted by hand started to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other industries. TEXTILES were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. Fueled by the game-changing use of steam power, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain and spread to the rest of the world, by the 1830s and ‘40s. Modern historians often refer to this period as the First Industrial Revolution, to set it apart from a second period of industrialization that took place from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and saw rapid advances in the steel, electric and automobile industries.  

38. ETYMOLOGY The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution" appears to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy LOUIS-GUILLAUME OTTO . FRIEDRICH ENGELS in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society“. REQUIREMENTS Six factors facilitated industrialization: High levels of agricultural productivity to provide excess manpower and food, A pool of managerial and entrepreneurial skills, Available ports, rivers, canals and roads to cheaply move raw materials and outputs, Natural resources such as coal, iron and waterfalls, Political stability and, A legal system that supported business; and financial capital available to invest.

39. ENGLAND: BIRTH PLACE OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION To begin with, Britain had a long history of producing textiles like wool, linen and cotton. But prior to the Industrial Revolution, the British textile business was a true “cottage industry,” with the work performed in small workshops or even homes by individual spinners, weavers and dyers. Starting in the mid-18th century, innovations like the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, the water frame and the power loom made weaving cloth and spinning yarn and thread much easier. Producing cloth became faster and required less time and far less human labor. In addition to textiles, the British iron industry also adopted new innovations.  Chief among the new techniques was the smelting of iron ore with coke (a material made by heating coal) instead of the traditional charcoal. This method was both cheaper and produced higher-quality material, enabling Britain’s iron and steel production to expand in response to demand created by the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) and the later growth of the railroad industry. 

40. WHY BRITAIN IS KNOWN AS THE BIRTH PLACE OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION? Possible reasons why industrialization began in Britain include: 1) Shortage of wood and the abundance of convenient coal deposit. 2) Commercial-minded aristocracy, limited monarchy. 3) System of free enterprise, limited government involvement. 4) High literacy rates. 5) Rule of law, protection of assets. Global forces influencing the development of industrialization in Britain include: 1) Britain’s location on the Atlantic Ocean. 2) British colonies in North America, which provided land, labor, and markets. 3) Silver from the Americas, used in trade with China. 4) Social and ideological conditions in Britain, and new thoughts about the economy, that encouraged an entrepreneurial spirit.

41. IMPORTANT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies: TEXTILES – Mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50. Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen. STEAM POWER – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation. Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800. IRON MAKING – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost. INVENTION OF MACHINE TOOLS – The first machine tools were invented.

42. TEXTILE MANUFACTURE DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION COTTON Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle-East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. TRADE AND TEXTILE By the mid-1760s cotton was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available. WOOL The earliest European attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant but was far less than that of cotton.

43. HANDLOOM WEAVING IN 1747, FROM WILLIAM HOGARTH'S INDUSTRY AND IDLENESS IN 1750 BRITAIN IMPORTED 2.5 MILLION A MODEL OF THE SPINNING JENNY IN A MUSEUM IN WUPPERTAL. INVENTED BY JAMES HARGREAVES IN 1764, THE SPINNING JENNY WAS ONE OF THE INNOVATIONS THAT STARTED THE REVOLUTION.

44. INVENTION OF TEXTILE MACHINERY In 1764 in the village of Stanhill , Lancashire, JAMES HARGREAVES invented the SPINNING JENNY , which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles. It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in 1792, and was used mainly by home spinners. The SPINNING FRAME OR WATER FRAME was developed by RICHARD ARKWRIGHT who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright. SAMUEL CROMPTON'S SPINNING MULE was introduced in 1779. Mule implies a hybrid because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame. Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities. SILK Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721.

45. THE ONLY SURVIVING EXAMPLE OF A SPINNING MULE BUILT BY THE INVENTOR SAMUEL CROMPTON. THE MULE PRODUCED HIGH-QUALITY THREAD WITH MINIMAL LABOR. BOLTON MUSEUM, GREATER MANCHESTER. LOMBE'S MILL SITE TODAY, REBUILT AS DERBY SILK MILL.

46. STEAM POWER DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp. The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to THOMAS SAVERY in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines. The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by THOMAS NEWCOMEN before 1712. Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Cornish engineer RICHARD TREVITHICK and the American OLIVER EVANS began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.

47. A WATT STEAM ENGINE. JAMES WATT TRANSFORMED THE STEAM ENGINE FROM A RECIPROCATING MOTION THAT WAS USED FOR PUMPING TO A ROTATING MOTION SUITED TO INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. WATT AND OTHERS SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED THE EFFICIENCY OF THE STEAM ENGINE NEWCOMEN'S STEAM-POWERED ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE WAS THE FIRST PRACTICAL PISTON STEAM ENGINE. SUBSEQUENT STEAM ENGINES WERE TO POWER THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

48. IRON INDUSTRY DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Bar iron was the commodity form of iron used as the raw material for making hardware goods such as nails, wire, hinges, horse shoes, wagon tires, chains, etc., as well as structural shapes. Cast iron was used for pots, stoves and other items where its brittleness was tolerable. Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron. IRON PROCESS INNOVATIONS A major change in the iron industries during the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, mining coal required much less labor than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, and coal was much more abundant than wood. By 1750 coke had generally replaced charcoal in the smelting of copper and lead, and was in widespread use in glass production. Another factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows. This limitation was overcome by the steam engine. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.

49. THE IRON BRIDGE, SHROPSHIRE, ENGLAND, THE WORLD'S FIRST BRIDGE CONSTRUCTED OF IRON OPENED IN 1781.

50. MACHINE TOOLS DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen—millwrights built water and windmills, carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms, machine screws, bolts and nuts. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers. Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly. The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine invented by John Wilkinson in 1774. The effect of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts.

51. MAUDSLAY'S FAMOUS EARLY SCREW-CUTTING LATHES OF CIRCA 1797 AND 1800.

52. OTHER IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION CHEMICALS- The large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman JOHN ROEBUCK IN 1746 . Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulfuric acid included pickling (removing rust from) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth. GAS LIGHTING- Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch. The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur , ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820.

53. AGRICULTURE- The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy. Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine. MINING- Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Thomas Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. TRANSPORTATION- The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed 50% between 1750 and 1830.

54. CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1760s, largely with new developments in the textile industry. Some of the main causes of INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION are as follows- Before that time making cloth was a slow process. After wool was gathered it had to be spun into yarn and then woven into fabric by hand. A machine called a SPINNING JENNY , first conceived by James Hargreaves in 1764 , made it easier to spin yarn. In 1793 ELI WHITNEY invented the cotton gin , which helped clean cotton after it was picked. These and other devices permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy. Whitney also came up with the idea of interchangeable parts. Before a worker would spend a great deal of time making a single product by hand. Whitney discovered that a machine could make many copies of the individual parts of a product at once. The parts could then be assembled by any worker. This meant that many goods could be produced quickly.

55. SPINNING JENNY THE SPINNING JENNY INVENTED BY JAMES HARGREAVES COULD SPIN EIGHT THREADS AT THE SAME TIME; IT GREATLY IMPROVED THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY.

56. Other changes that helped bring about the Industrial Revolution included the use of steam, and later of other kinds of power, in place of the muscles of human beings and of animals. Another key development was the adoption of the factory system . This system of manufacturing is based on the concentration of industry into specialized—and often large—establishments. The use of waterpower and then the steam engine to mechanize processes such as cloth weaving in Britain in the second half of the 18th century marked the beginning of the factory system.

57. GLASS FACTORY (FACTORY SYSTEM) WORKERS MAKE BOTTLES AT A GLASS FACTORY IN LANCASHIRE, ENGLAND, IN THE MID-1800S

58. EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution brought about sweeping changes in economic and social organization: These changes included a wider distribution of wealth and increased international trade. Managerial hierarchies also developed to oversee the division of labor. By the late 1700s, many people could no longer earn their living in the countryside. Increasingly, people moved from farms and villages into bigger towns and cities to find work in factories. Cities grew larger, but they were often dirty, crowded, and unhealthy. Machines greatly increased production. This meant that products were cheaper to make and also cheaper to buy. Many factory owners became rich.

59. Although the machines made work easier in some ways, factory work created many problems for the laborers. Factory employees did not earn much, and the work was often dangerous. Many worked 14 to 16 hours per day six days per week. Men, women, and even small children worked in factories. Workers sought to win improved conditions and wages through labor unions . These organizations helped establish laws to protect workers. Such laws, for instance, limited the number of work hours for employees and guaranteed they would be paid a certain amount. The process of industrialization continues around the world, as do struggles against many of its negative effects, such as industrial pollution and urban crowding.

60. MAJOR TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Broadly speaking, Industrial revolution can be classified into three main types. They are as follows: THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION : THE AGE OF MECHANICAL PRODUCTION. THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION : THE AGE OF SCIENCE AND MASS PRODUCTION. THE THIRD INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION : THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION. These three industrial revolutions transformed our modern society. With each of these three advancements—the steam engine, the age of science and mass production, and the rise of digital technology—the world around us fundamentally changed. Let’s understand them in detail.

61. To begin with, As it turns out, when you heat up water, you get steam. And beginning around 1760, through the advent of the steam engine, steam was powering everything from agriculture to textile manufacturing. Society used to be largely agrarian, which is a fancy way of saying that life used to be centered around farming. But with steam power, those agrarian societies gave way to urbanization. The world began to rely on steam power and machine tools, And what emerged as the new center of community life? The factory. But factory life was difficult. Unskilled factory laborers were cheap and plentiful. They were made to work long hours, often in unsafe conditions. Even children worked in factories, putting in 14-hour shifts alongside adults. Such conditions endured into the 20th century. Ultimately, advancing industrialization created a middle class of skilled workers. Cities and industries grew more quickly than ever before, and economies grew along with them. THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE AGE OF MECHANICAL PRODUCTION

62. STEAM ENGINE AT THE TIME OF FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION .

63. Things started to speed up with a number of key inventions. Think gasoline engines, airplanes, chemical fertilizer. All inventions that helped us go faster and do more. That’s science. But advancements in science weren’t limited to the laboratory. Scientific principles were brought right into the factories. Most notably, the assembly line, which effectively powered mass production. By the early part of the 20th century, Henry Ford’s company was mass producing the groundbreaking Ford Model T, a car with a gasoline engine built on an assembly line in his factories. People followed the jobs, and the early 1900s saw workers leaving their rural homes behind to move to urban areas and factory jobs. Along with increasing urbanization, inventions such as electric lighting, radio, and telephones transformed the way people lived and communicated. THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE AGE OF SCIENCE AND MASS PRODUCTION

64. WORKERS IN A AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY DURING THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

65. THE THIRD INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE AGE OF DIGITALISATION So, if you’re reading this, you’re experiencing some of the wonders of the digital revolution right now. You’re enjoying the cloud, the Internet, and some kind of handy device that lets you access both. You can even be reading this on your phone. So, Hello there. Welcome to the digital revolution. Beginning in the 1950s, the third industrial revolution brought semiconductors, mainframe computing, personal computing, and the Internet—the digital revolution. Things that used to be analog moved to digital technologies, like an old television you used to tune in with an antenna (analog) being replaced by an Internet-connected tablet that lets you stream movies (digital). The move from analog electronic and mechanical devices to pervasive digital technology dramatically disrupted industries, especially global communications and energy. Electronics and information technology began to automate production and take supply chains global.

66. TODAY, WE ARE CONNECTED TO WHOLE WORLD THROUGH DIGITALISATION, THAT IS THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION.