G1-Th-Tea-and-SC-The-Teacher-as-a-Knower-of-Curriculum-BEED-2.pptx

Teacher and the Curriculum

1. CHAPTER 1 THE TEACHER AS A KNOWER OF THE CURRICULUM RAYMUND STEVE H. GAMOTIN ANGELICA MAE ESPIRITU SIMA L. SUMANGCAD KRIEZZA M. SALADAGA JULIET T. MERABUENO CHRISSA MAE C. RABANES EUGENE G. DELA CERNA THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

2. L ESSON 1 Definition , Nature and Scope of Curriculum

3. Whether curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a listing of subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals undergo while in school, we cannot deny the fact that curriculum affects all teachers, students, parents, politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or even the common people.

4. Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common definition of ‘curriculum’. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the word originates from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots raced.

5. The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of course in an educational institution or by a department . Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities . Curriculum means different things to different people.

6. Sometimes educators equate curriculum with the syllabus while a few regard it as all the teaching- learning experiences which the which the student encounters while in school . Numerous definitions indicate dynamism which connotes diverse interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, philosophies, political as well as cultural perspectives . Here are some of them:

7. Some Definitions of Curriculum 1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence ( Daniel Tanner, 1980 ).

8. 2. It is document that systematically planned, objectives, content, describes learning a written foals activities, evaluation procedures and so forth ( Pratt, 1980 ).

9. 3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society make up a curriculum ( Schubert, 1987 ). 4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice ( Hass, 1987 ).

10. 5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives ( Grundy, 1987 ).

11. 6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school ( Goodland and Su, 1992 ).

12. It provides answers to three questions ( Cronbeth, 1992) : What knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?

13. Some Points of View of Other Curricularists Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person’s point of view, this has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However when put together, the different definitions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever changing.

14. Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to the person’s philosophical, psychological and even sociological orientations. These views can also define what a curriculum is all about.

15. Curriculum from Traditional Points of View The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab . 1. Robert M. Hutchins (1952) views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs should be emphasized in basic education while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.

16. 2. Arthur Bestor (1953) as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.

17. 3. Joseph Schwab (1978) thinks that the sole source of curriculum is discipline, thus the subject areas include Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English, and many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics, among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development.

18. 4. Phillip Phenix (1977) asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.

19. Collectively from the traditional view of theorists, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social issues. From a traditional view, curriculum is mostly written documents such as syllabus, course of study, books and references where knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish intended goals.

20. Curriculum from Progressive Points of View On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and specific discipline does not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.

21. John Dewey (1956) believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application. Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell (1935) viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers . Othaniel Smith , William Stanley and Harlan Shore (1950) likewise defined curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

22. 4. Colin Marsh and George Willis (2003) also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.

23. The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person’s philosophical beliefs. Generally, curriculum is what is taught in school, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, and everything that goes within the school.

24. LESSON 2 Foundations of Curriculum Development

25. A. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum Philosophy provides educators, teachers, and curriculum makers with framework for planning, implementing, and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn, and what materials and methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision making.

26. F our educational philosophies presented in Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) Perennialism Aim : To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect Role : Teachers assist students to think with reason (HOTS). Focus : Classical subjects, literary analysis, and curriculum is constant Trends : Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and liberal arts

27. B. Essentialism Aim : To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent Role : Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area. Focus : Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects Trends : Back to basics, excellence in education, cultural literacy C. Progressivism Aim : Promote democratic social living Role : Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners. Focus : Interdisciplinary subjects, learner-centered, and outcomes-based Trends : Equal opportunities for all, contextualized curriculum, and humanistic education

28. D. Reconstructionism Aim : To improve and reconstruct society, education for change Role : Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms Focus : Present and future educational landscape Trends : School and curricular reforms, global education, collaboration and convergence, standards and competencies

29. B. Historical Foundation of Curriculum Here are the several curriculum theorists and how they view curriculum from a historical perspective. They are presented chronologicall from the time of Bobbit in 1876-1956 to Peter Oliva in 1992-2012.

30. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) • He started the curriculum development movement. • Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students’ needs. • Curriculum prepared learners for adult life. • Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified

31. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) •Like Bobbit , he posited that curriculum is a science and emphasizes on students’ needs. • Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives.

32. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 3. William Kilpatrick (1875-1952) • Curricula are purposeful activities which are child - centered. • The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and students plan the activities.

33. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) • Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered. • With statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcome. • Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance

34. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) • Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge, and learner’s interest. • Curriculum, instruction, and learning are interrelated. • Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interests.

35. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) • Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and interests. • Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills, and values. • The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

36. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 7. Hilda Taba (1902-1967) • She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of curriculum development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum. • She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.

37. Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles 8. Peter Oliva (1992-2012) • He described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor. • Teachers and curriculum specialists constitute the professional core of planners. • Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

38. C. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum?

39. T hree groups of learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive information processing theories; and humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins , 2004. C.1 Association and Behaviorism Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 1. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory or the S-R Connectionism Theory. • The key to learning in early years of life is to train individuals what you want them to become. • S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination

40. Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 2 . Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) • He championed the Connectionism Theory. • He proposed the three laws of learning: Law of Readiness Law of Exercise Law of Effect • Specific stimulus has specific response.

41. Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 3. Robert Gagne (1916-2002) • He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning follows a hierarchy. • Behavior is based on a pre-requisite condition. • He introduced taking in the formulation of objectives.

42. C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) • Theories - Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity: Sensorimotor stage (0-2), Pre-operational stage (2-7), Concrete operational Stage (7-11), and Formal operational (11-onwards) Keys to Learning: Assimilation (incorporation of new experience) Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation) Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)

43. C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 2. Lev Vygostky (1896-1934) • Theories: - Cultural transmission and development: Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage. - Learning precedes development. - Socio-cultural development theory • Keys to Learning: - Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development. - The child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

44. C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 3 . Howard Gardner (1902-1967) • Multiple Intelligences Theory Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are relatively independent of one another. - There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico —mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

45. C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 4 . Daniel Goleman (1992-2012) • Emotion contains the power to affect action. • He called this Emotional Quotient.

46. C.3 Humanistic Psychology Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 1. Gestalt • Theory Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of the problem. - Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of stimuli. • Keys to Learning: Learning is complex and abstract. - Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and non-essential data, and perceive relationships. - Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/how they perceive is related to their previous experience.

47. C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 2 . Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) • Theories: - He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory and Classic Theory of human needs. - A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world. - He put importance to human emotions based on love and trust. • Key to Learning: - Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow, and actualize his or her human self.

48. C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 3. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) • Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning. - Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and behavior in class. • Key to Learning: - Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.

49. D. Social Foundation of Curriculum Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The way school buildings are structured, the way classrooms and students are organized reflect the cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social foundation of curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions that educate society. The home, the family, and the community likewise educate the people in the society. But schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the world.

50. D. Social Foundation of Curriculum Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 1. Schools and Society • Society as a source of change. • Schools as agents of change. • Knowledge as an agent of change.

51. D. Social Foundation of Curriculum Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 2 . John Dewey (1859-1952) • Considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—to be major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality.

52. D. Social Foundation of Curriculum Proponents Contributions/Theories and Principles 3 . Alvin Toffler • Wrote the book titled Future Shock. • Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future. • Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of technology, not in spite of it (Home Schooling). • Foresaw schools and students work creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age.

53. LESSON 3 Elements and Types of Curriculum

54. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives A formal curriculum is embedded in a formal institution called schools. Schools are established institutions which are either run by the government or private sector. In the Philippine educational system, all primary, secondary, and tertiary schools should be guided by aims. Aims are broad descriptions of purposes or ends which are stated in general terms without criteria of achievement or mastery. They relate to educational aims and philosophy. They are programmatic and normally do not delineate the specific courses or specific items of content.

55. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives Based on Philippine 1987 Constitution, all schools shall aim to: 1. inculcate patriotism and nationalism; 2. foster love of humanity; 3. promote respect for human rights; 4. appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country; 5. teach the rights and duties of citizenship; 6. strengthen ethical and spiritual values; 7. develop moral character and personal discipline; 8. encourage critical and creative thinking; and 9. broaden scientific and technological knowledge; and 10. promote vocational efficiency.

56. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives The constitution mandates that each school therefore should be guided by its vision, mission, and goals and its curricula should also revolve around these. The school’s vision is a clear concept of what institution would like to become in the future. It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty, and students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts including curricula should be directed. The school’s vision can be very ambitious but that is a characteristic of a vision.

57. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives Examples of a school’s vision: A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skills, and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest. 2. Commits to the Exemplary Christian Education for Life and responsive to the needs of the total person and the world.

58. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives The school’s mission spells out how it intends to carry out its vision. The mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students will become after having been educated over a certain period of time. Examples of a school’s mission: To produce globally competitive lifelong learners. 2. Commits to the total development of individuals for life adjustment and to the upliftment of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality instruction, updated facilities, and curricula responsive to the needs of time.

59. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives The school’s vision and mission are further translated into goals which are broad statements or intents to be accomplished. Data for the sources of school goals may include the learners, the society, and the fund of knowledge. Examples of school goals: Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts 2. Efficient and effective administration responsive to the needs of the university and community

60. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner. These are called educational objectives. Benjamin Bloom (1956) and Robert Mager (1962) defined educational objectives in two ways: explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educative process; and 2. intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.

61. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives Benjamin Bloom and his associates classified three big domains of objectives. These are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Each domain is composed of specific skills, attitudes, and values which are presented in hierarchy. Cognitive Domain (Bloom et al., 1956) - domain of thought processes Knowledge - recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories, and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level. 2. Comprehension - ability to grasp the meaning of the material. It indicates the lowest form of understanding.

62. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives 3 . Application - the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation. 4. Analysis - the ability to breakdown material into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. 5. Synthesis - ability to put parts together to form a new whole. 6. Evaluation - ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria.

63. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives B. Affective Domain ( Krathwohl , 1964) - domain of valuing and appreciating. Receiving - students’ willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimulus, or classroom activity. 2. Responding - active participation on the part of student. 3. Valuing - concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomenon, object or behavior.

64. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives 4. Organization - concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system. 5. Characterization by a value or value complex - developing a lifestyle from a value system.

65. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives C. Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972) - domain on the use of psychomotor attributes. 1. Perception - use of sense organs to guide motor activities. 2. Set - refers to the readiness to take a particular type of action. 3. Guided response - concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills. Imitation and trial and error are some ways of doing. 4. Mechanism - responses have become habitual. Performance skills are with ease and confidence.

66. 1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives 5. Complex overt responses - skillful performance and with complex movement patterns. 6. Adaptation - skill well-developed that the ability to modify is very easy. 7. Origination - refers to creating new movement patterns to fit the situation. Creativity is evident.

67. 2. Content or Subject Matter All curricula have content, regardless of their designs or models. Content is more than simply information to be learned in school. To some curriculum specialists, content or subject matter is another term for knowledge. It is a compendium of facts, concepts, generalizations, principles, and theories. The fund of knowledge represents the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries due to man’s exploration of his world. This is the subject-centered view of the curriculum.

68. 2. Content or Subject Matter On the other hand, those who view knowledge as learner-centered relates knowledge to the individual’s personal and social world and how he or she defines reality. According to Jerome Bruner, “knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”. What subject matter will be taught in the different clusters in order to achieve the objectives? What criteria should be used in selecting the content? Content selection is a very crucial stage in curriculum development.

69. 2. Content or Subject Matter Here are some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter, content or knowledge for the curriculum. 1. Self-sufficiency. According to Scheffler (1970), the prime guiding principle for content selection is helping the learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning but in the most economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less learners’ effort but more results and effective learning outcomes.

70. 2. Content or Subject Matter 2. Significance. When content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and generalizations to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, then it is significant. It is also significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes, and attitudes. 3. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter selected is validity. With information explosion, oftentimes, knowledge selected for school content may become obsolete. Thus, subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals to determine if the content that was originally valid continues to be.

71. 2. Content or Subject Matter 4. Interest. For a learner-centered curriculum, this is the key criterion. A learner will value the content if it is meaningful to him or her. Students’ interests should be considered and adjusted taking into consideration maturity, prior experiences, educational and social value of their interest among others. 5. Utility. Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who is going to use it. Usefulness may either be for the present or future. Questions like “Will I use it in my future job?” “Will it add meaning to my life or develop my human potential?” or “Will the subject matter be useful in solving my current problems?”

72. 2. Content or Subject Matter 6. Learnability. Subject matter should be within the range of the experiences of the learners. This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundation of curriculum. There are ways of presenting the subject matter which can easily be learned. Optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of contents are the two ways by which these can be done.

73. 2. Content or Subject Matter 7. Feasibility. Can the subject matter be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the learners? Content selection should be considered within the context of the existing reality in schools, society, and government

74. 2. Content or Subject Matter There are other considerations that may be used in the selection of the learning content. It would be of great help if curriculum makers can use them. As a guide, subject matter can be selected for use if these are: frequently and commonly used in daily life; b. suited to the maturity levels and abilities of students; c. valuable in meeting the needs and the competencies of a future career; d. related to other subject areas; and e. important in the transfer of learning.

75. 3. Experiences This section will not discuss in detail the different instructional strategies that provide experiences. Instead it will link teaching strategies to curriculum experiences, the core or the heart of the curriculum. Instructional strategies and methods put into action the goals and use the contents in order to produce an outcome. They convert the written curriculum to instruction. Both the teacher and the learner take actions to facilitate learning. The actions are based on planned objectives, the subject matter to be taken, and the support materials to be used.

76. 3. Experiences These will include a multitude of teaching methods and educational activities which will enhance learning. Among these are the time-tested methods, inquiry approaches, constructivist, and other emerging strategies that complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational activities like field viewing, conducting experiments, field trips, and other experiential learning will also form part of the repertoire of teaching.

77. 3. Experiences Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guides for the selection and use. Here are some of them: Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objectives into action. 2. There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning objectives, the learners, and skills of the teacher.

78. 3. Experiences 3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social, and spiritual domains of the individual. 4. In the choice of teaching methods, students’ learning styles should be considered. 5. Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

79. 4. Assessment/Evaluation Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms: 1. Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and critical.

80. 4. Assessment/Evaluation 2. Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning. This can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and pre-supposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other’s work as reliably as staff. 3. Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on the students’ performance.

81. 4. Assessment/Evaluation Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative (expressing a judgment on the student’s achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an element of both, e.g., an assignment that is marked and returned to the student with detailed comments. Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks and grades. This helps the teacher make decisions about the progress or performance of the students.

82. 4. Assessment/Evaluation Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their work than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative tasks (including unseen examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if possible. Regardless of the methods and material evaluation that will be utilized, a suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduced. These are the steps:

83. 4. Assessment/Evaluation 1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be the subject area, the grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation. 2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation. 3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing, and retrieving data for interpretation.

84. 4. Assessment/Evaluation 4. Analyze the information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized. 5. Report the information. The result of the evaluation should be reported to specific audiences. Reporting can be done formally in conference with stakeholders, or informally through roundtable discussions and conversations. 6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification, and adjustments to be made.

85. Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum 1. Recommended or Ideal Curriculum. Almost all curricula found in our schools are recommended or ideal. For basic education, these are recommended by the Department of Education ( DepEd ), for higher education by the Commission on Higher Education ( CHEd ), and for vocational education by the Technical Education Skills and Development Authority (TESDA). These three government agencies oversee and regulate Philippine education. The recommendations come in in the form of memoranda or policies, standards, and guidelines. Other professional organizations or international bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.

86. Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum 2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education.

87. Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum 3. Taught Curriculum. The different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers.

88. Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum 4. Supported Curriculum. In order to have successful teaching, other than the teacher, there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos, and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning.

89. Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum 5. Assessed Curriculum. This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. Assessment tools like pencil and-paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized. 6. Learned Curriculum. This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor.

90. Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum 7. Hidden Curriculum. This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately plan but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curricula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher learner interaction, mood of the teachers, and many other factors make up the hidden curriculum.

91. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 1. Overt, Explicit or Written Curriculum. Is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling experiences. It may refer to curriculum documents, texts, films, and supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt curriculum is usually confined to those written understandings and directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often collectively.

92. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 2. Societal or Social Curriculum. As defined by Cortes (1981), this curriculum refers to the massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of the family, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches, organizations, occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that “educate” all people throughout their lives. This type of curriculum can now be expanded to include the powerful effects of social media (YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram , Pinterest , etc.) and how it actively helps create new perspectives and shape both individual and public opinions.

93. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 3. Hidden or Covert Curriculum. That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of what revolves around daily or established routines. Longstreet and Shane (1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term – the “hidden curriculum,” which refers to the kind of learning children derive from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators.

94. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 4. Null Curriculum. That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society. From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) curriculum.

95. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum Since it is physically impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. But Eisner’s position on the “null curriculum” is that when certain subjects or topics are left out of the overt curriculum, school personnel are sending messages to students that certain content and processes are not important enough to study.

96. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 5. Phantom Curriculum. The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media. These components and messages play a major part in the enculturation of students into the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or generational subcultures.

97. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 6. Concomitant Curriculum. What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. (This type may be received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.)

98. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 7. Rhetorical Curriculum. Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered by policymakers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curriculum may also come from those professionals involved in concept formation and content changes; or from those educational initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches, or from texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhetorical curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical knowledge.

99. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 8. Curriculum-in-Use. The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks, and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those “formal” elements are frequently not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher. 9. Received Curriculum. Those things that students actually take out of classrooms; those concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered.

100. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 10. Internal Curriculum. Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have little control over the internal curriculum since it is unique to each student.

101. Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum 11. Electronic Curriculum. Those lessons learned through searching the Internet for information, or through using e-forms of communication (Wilson, 2006). These types of curriculum may be either formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on ones’ views. Students who use the Internet and electronic media on a regular basis, both for recreational and informational purposes, are bombarded with all types of media and messages. What types of messages are they being exposed to through varied social media and online interactions?

102. LESSON 4 Curriculum Development Models and Processes

103. Curriculum development models are based on a clear and consistent understanding of various scholars of the nature of curriculum as a discipline and as a field of study. Different models are described based on the different views and processes of curriculum development they offer. In this context, well-known models that are found in major curriculum books are analyzed. In this lesson, the analysis points out various strengths and weaknesses of different models. A brief background and description of the processes involved in each model are presented. The models are treated as inimitable since each represents various ideas or theories on how to develop curriculum.

104. Linear Models of Curriculum Development The linear models of curriculum development prescribe a rational step-by-step procedure for curriculum development starting with objectives.

105. A. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model Figure 1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model Linear Models of Curriculum Development

106. Ralph Tyler, at the University of Chicago, developed the first model of curriculum development. This model was presented in his book Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949. Tyler argued that curriculum development should be logical and systematic. His model, as shown in Figure 1, presents a process of curriculum development that follows a sequential pattern starting from selecting objectives to selecting learning experiences, organizing learning experiences, and evaluation. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

107. Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum workers should respond to four basic questions: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives? 3. How can these experiences be organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Linear Models of Curriculum Development

108. Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources: society, students, and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study these sources carefully in order to develop a curriculum. He also pointed out the importance of philosophy of education and psychology of learning to screen the objectives that are included in the curriculum. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

109. B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba . Taba presented her model in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is a modified version of Tyler’s model. Taba argued that curriculum development should follow a sequential and logical process, and she suggested for more information input in all phases of curriculum development. She also claimed that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

110. In her model, Taba outlined seven steps that should be followed when developing a curriculum: Diagnosis of needs; 2. Formulation of objectives; 3. Selection of content; 4. Organization of content; 5. Selection of learning experiences; 6. Organization of learning experiences; and 7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

111. Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made successful if there was a diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum workers in understanding the needs of the learners. It would also help in the selection of the goals and objectives, and in the selection of contents. She pointed out that the nature of the objectives determines what learning is to follow. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

112. C. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model The standards-based curriculum development model was developed by Allan Glatthorn . The model was intended for developing curriculum standards for any discipline from basic education to higher education. As shown in Table 1, Glatthorn identified three phases to be followed in developing standards-based curriculum. Table 1 is an example of a linear model. It includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum development activities to develop standards Linear Models of Curriculum Development

113. C. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model Table 1. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model Linear Models of Curriculum Development

114. C. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model Glatthorn’s model is an example of a linear and rational curriculum development model. The model is rational and descriptive, stressing on the development of standards as the first activity in curriculum development. The model recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in developing curriculum standards. This model also recognizes teacher’s input in the development of standards, which are often neglected in curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation . Linear Models of Curriculum Development

115. C. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model In Glatthorn’s model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the overall curriculum developmental process. This makes the model incomplete. The model should recognize that developing curriculum standards is an integral part of the curriculum development process. This model does not include situational analysis or needs analysis. Unlike in other curriculum development models, situational analysis or diagnosis of needs is included as an important process. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

116. D. Understanding by Design Model ( UbD ) The model is also called backward design for putting emphasis on starting with the goals and objectives in designing curriculum. The model puts emphasis on designing curriculum to engage students in exploring and deepening their understanding of important ideas and the design of assessments (Wiggins & McTighe , 2002). Figure 1 shows the three stages in the backward design process. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

117. D. Understanding by Design Model ( UbD ) Figure 1. Stages in the Backward Design Process Linear Models of Curriculum Development

118. D. Understanding by Design Model ( UbD ) Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able to do. It also asks the questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring understandings are desired for the learners. This calls for examining current curriculum goals and established curriculum standards, and reviewing curriculum expectations. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

119. D. Understanding by Design Model ( UbD ) Stage 2 calls for designing assessment evidence ford documenting or validating whether the desired learning has been achieved. This model encourages the use of authentic assessment for assessing and evaluating students’ learning. Stage 3 includes planning learning experiences that are useful in implementing the curriculum. In this stage, teachers decide on the type of activities that the students will do and the materials that will be needed for the planned activities. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

120. E. Systematic Design Model Robert Diamond originally developed the Systematic Design model in the early 1960s. Since then, it has undergone major revisions but its structure is unchanged (Diamond, 1998). The model, as shown in Figure 2, has two basic phases: (1) project selection and design; and (2) production, implementation, and evaluation. Like some of the previous models, it follows a linear process of curriculum development. Diamond (1998) explained that ideally, some actions must precede others, and certain decisions should not be made until all relevant facts are known. It is imperative that all data must be complete before proceeding to the next step. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

121. E. Systematic Design Model Linear Models of Curriculum Development

122. E. Systematic Design Model As shown in its first phase, some curriculum influences and sources are also acknowledged in the process of curriculum development. These curriculum sources and influences are used to determine the objectives of the curriculum. The second phase of the model allows curriculum workers to design for the production and implementation of the curriculum and on the importance of the evaluation of instructional materials to ensure the smooth implementation of the curriculum. The model involves a series of tasks, which, if carefully followed, may result in a relevant and effective curriculum. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

123. E. Systematic Design Model Similar to the weaknesses of linear models presented earlier, Diamond’s model ends in Phase II. It assumes that the product, which is the curriculum, is final and good as planned. There is no provision where curriculum workers can review their actions and decisions in relation to the factors identified in Phase I. Probably, the data gathered were assumed to support the curriculum and are sufficient to ensure that the curriculum is relevant and effective. Evaluation and revision are only done in Phase II but in the level of instruction or the implemented curriculum. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

124. F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development Murray Print published his model in his book Curriculum Development and Design in 1993. His model, as shown in Figure 3, prescribes a sequential and logical approach to curriculum development to provide a useful and easy-to-understand process in developing curriculum. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

125. F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development Figure 3. Print’s Curriculum Development Model Linear Models of Curriculum Development

126. F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development The first phase of Print’s model recognizes the nature of the curriculum workers involved in the development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is important to pose the following questions that may influence curriculum development: Who are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything, do they represent? 2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them? 3. What underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers’ thinking? Linear Models of Curriculum Development

127. F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development The answers to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of curriculum that will be developed. The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum. The procedure is cyclical, which begins with a situational analysis, and continues with the aims, goals, and objectives, content, learning activities, and instructional evaluation, and then continuing to situational analysis again. Linear Models of Curriculum Development

128. F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates three major activities: (1) implementation of the curriculum, (2) monitoring of and feedback from the curriculum, and (3) the provision of feedback data to the presage group Linear Models of Curriculum Development

129. The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or continuous process of curriculum development. Cyclical models usually start with situational analysis that serves as the basis for all the succeeding process. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum Development An example of a cyclical model for curriculum development was developed by Nicholls and Nicholls (1978). The model emphasizes the cyclical nature of curriculum development. According to Nicholls and Nicholls (1978), curriculum development is a continuous process. Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

130. A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum Development Figure 4. Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

131. A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum Development The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The inclusion of situational analysis as part of the model is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It enables the curriculum workers to understand better the context in which curriculum is developed. By starting with situational analysis, curriculum workers will be able to collect data and the needed information from various curriculum sources and influences that are prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and objective. Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

132. A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curriculum Development Nicholls and Nicholls model also recognizes the influence and importance of contributing disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology in developing the curriculum. These disciplines are useful in selecting the curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. The importance of these three disciplines in developing curriculum is also recognized in the model of Tyler (1949). Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

133. B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model In his influential book Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented a cyclical process in which each element of the curriculum is related and interdependent (see Figure 5). Although this model is also rational in nature, each phase is a logical development of the preceding one. One cannot proceed to the next phase unless the preceding phase is done. Wheeler also emphasized the importance of starting from the development of aims, goals, and objectives. Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

134. B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model Figure 5. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

135. C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning was developed by Stark, Lowther , Bentley, Ryan, Martens, Genthon , Wren, and Shaw in 1990 as part of their study conducted at the University of Michigan National Center for Research to Improve Post-Secondary Teaching and Learning. This model appeared in the book Shaping the College Curriculum written by Stark and Lattuca , published in 1997. Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

136. C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning Content influences encompass faculty members’ background and associated disciplinary and educational beliefs. Contextual influences refer to the influences outside of the instructor’s immediate control that causes adjustments in the course plans such as student characteristics or instructional resources. Course decisions include the processes that are followed when designing a course (Stark & Latucca , 1997). Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

137. C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning Figure 6. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

138. C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning The Contextual Filters model is very teacher-centered. Given the influence of academic freedom, faculty members may plan the curriculum based on their own convenience. This model can be improved by putting students as part of the content influences. Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

139. The dynamic models describe how curriculum workers develop curriculum in various educational contexts. The dynamic curriculum development models are usually used in school-based settings. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development Decker Walker developed a model for curriculum development and first published it in 1971. Walker contended that curriculum developers do not follow the prescriptive approach of the rationale-linear sequence of curriculum elements when they develop curricula (Walker, 1971; Marsh & Willis, 2007; Print, 1993). In his model, Walker was particularly interested on how curriculum workers actually do their tasks in curriculum development. As shown in Figure 7, Walker was able to identify three phases, which he termed platform, deliberation, and design. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

140. A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development Figure 7. Walker’s Naturalistic Model Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

141. A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development In the Platform phase , Walker suggested that curriculum workers bring with them their individual beliefs, knowledge, and values. They have their own ideas about how to do their tasks and they are prepared to discuss and argue about them. The first phase is similar to the idea of Print (1993) of a curriculum presage. The Deliberations phase , on the other hand, involves identifying which facts are needed for means and ends, generating alternatives and considering the consequences of these alternatives. This phase is also used in weighing alternative costs and consequences, and choosing the best alternative for the curriculum tasks they are about to do. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

142. A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development The third phase, which is Curriculum Design , involves planning, decision-making, and the actual development of the curriculum. Walker’s model is a dynamic and descriptive model of curriculum development. It reflects the realities of how curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum. It recognizes the role and influence of curriculum workers in any curriculum development tasks. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

143. B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model In 1976, Malcolm Skilbeck came up with a model for developing a school-based curriculum in Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum development. When using this model, curriculum workers may start from any phase. However, as shown in Figure 8, each phase is interrelated and follows a systematic sequence. Skilbeck’s model includes a situational analysis that involves gathering data from the school, society, and the learners. The results of the situational analysis provide strong bases for making curricular decisions for all the succeeding phases of curriculum development. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

144. B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

145. C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development Elliot W. Eisner was a famous curriculum scholar. In 1979, he published the book The Educational Imagination where he presented his idea on how curriculum development should be done. Eisner (1979) believed that there is a need to develop a new theory that recognizes the artistry of teaching which is useful in helping teachers develop those arts. In his book, Eisner outlined how this artistic approach can also be used in curriculum development. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

146. C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development Table 1. Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

147. C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner (1979) stressed an artful process of arriving at a consensus about curricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging the participants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform or Schwab’s (1971) idea of deliberation. In selecting the content of the curriculum, Eisner (2002) considered the three sources of curriculum: individual, society, and subject matter as identified by Tyler (1949). Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

148. C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development In selecting learning opportunities, Eisner strongly favored providing students with a wide variety of learning opportunities. Accordingly, educational imagination must transform goals and contents into high-quality experiences for students (Eisner, 2002). This model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum development or in national curriculum projects. Eisner’s model is an open-ended process of a form of a dynamic model. It is descriptive in offering a general approach that can be followed by curriculum workers, yet the model is also prescriptive in offering suggestions about what should happen when developing a curriculum Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

149. D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum Pawilen (2011) developed this model as one of the major outputs of his doctoral dissertation in the University of the Philippines, Diliman . This model was developed to help curriculum workers in developing a curriculum that is relevant and appropriate to the Philippine context ( Pawilen , 2011). Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect curriculum development and decision-making in the macro-level. Posner (1995) suggested two levels of curriculum development: macro level, which includes the general or overall process of curriculum development; and the micro level, which focuses on specific phase/s or on specific context/s like school-based curriculum development. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

150. D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum There are three curriculum sources in the model: learners, society, and disciplines. These curriculum sources are based on the model of Ralph Tyler (1949). The learners as a curriculum source is very important. Knowing their interests, needs, learning styles, thinking styles, culture, socio-economic status, gender, and other variables are significant data for developing a curriculum. Understanding the nature of the learners is helpful for curriculum workers to make appropriate choices in curriculum decision-making (Print, 1993). Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

151. D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum Society is also considered as a source of curriculum. Knowledge about society provides better understanding of the context in which the curriculum will be implemented. Cultural values, beliefs, attitudes, political and economic systems, and the physical environment directly or indirectly affect curriculum development because the learners are an integral part of the society Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

152. D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum Figure 9. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

153. D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of the curriculum and decision-making in the micro-level. The idea of curriculum influences was adapted from the model of Stark and Lattuca (1997). Accordingly, these curriculum influences can be grouped into three: external, internal, and organizational. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

154. D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum External influences are social factors that directly influence curriculum decision-making. These factors are society, market demand, government, disciplinary associations, and alumni. Internal influences are those that are related to the school like faculty members, students, disciplines, and program mission. Organizational influences are school factors but they are more concerned with the governance of the program and support system like school resources, leadership, governance, and program relationship (Stark & Lattuca , 1997). These curriculum influences provide important data for conducting situational analysis. Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development

155. Processes for Developing a Curriculum 1. Situational Analysis - the first phase. It starts with analyzing the context in which the curriculum is developed. The situational analysis includes a study of the different curriculum sources (students, society, and disciplines or subject matter), and careful examination of the different curriculum influences (internal, external, and organizational) that affect curriculum development.

156. Processes for Developing a Curriculum 2. Selection of Goals and Objectives - results from situational analysis. In some cases, if the government or the university prescribes the curriculum goals and objectives, such features will be considered as part of the internal or external influences that will be studied in the situational analysis.

157. Processes for Developing a Curriculum 3. Development of Curriculum Standards— takes place after the situational analysis and selection of goals and objectives. The first phase of Glatthorn’s (1998) model was modified to simplify the task for developing curriculum standards: (a) develop a comprehensive set of content standards by examining various curriculum sources and influences; (b) align the standards with several criteria; (c) secure teachers’ input to revise and improve the standards; (d) ask experts to validate the standards; and (e) develop the final draft of standards, divided into content standards, skill standards, and values standards.

158. Processes for Developing a Curriculum 4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas— phase where the developed curriculum standards are used to select subjects or courses to be included in the curriculum. 5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences— includes selecting learning activities, organizing instructional plans, and selecting instructional materials to be used in implementing the curriculum. 6. Implementation— involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by faculty members. It is where the actual teaching and learning take place.

159. Processes for Developing a Curriculum 7. Evaluation— the final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the curriculum, including the design and selection of all the curriculum elements, are evaluated. After the result of the evaluation, the curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis to reexamine the needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and influences.

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