Greek Humanism

Powerpoint slide presentation

1. Introduction: Greek Humanism

2. After the fall of Mycenaean civilization, Greece entered into a “Dark Age,” where most signs of civilization (writing; architecture, and art) were lost

3. In the 8th century BCE, civilization re-emerged, and the Greeks began forming independent city-states

4. Fiercely independent, the Greek city-states competed with one another in war, trade, and sport (the  Olympic games  were founded in the 8th century BCE)

5. They also experimented with a variety of forms of government (which is why so many of our words for government  -- monarchy, oligarchy, democracy -- derive from Greek), and the first democracy in history was established in Athens in the 5 th century BCE

6. The Greek’s worshipped a pantheon of gods who were believed to reside on Mount Olympus

7. In addition to the principal Olympian deities, there were scores of lesser gods, including the primeval gods who reigned before the Olympian deities, gods of the underworld, and personifications of abstract ideas (such as “Justice” or “Victory”) and human emotions or experiences (such as “Love” or “Indignation”)

8. Most of what we know about the Greek gods comes from mythology — ancient stories that were passed down orally through the ages, and later recorded in written texts

9. Most of these stories also featured mortal heroes, such as Odysseus, Achilles, Perseus , and Heracles, who were nearly god-like in their physical strength, cleverness, and beauty

10. Filled with action-packed drama and intriguing sub-plots, Greek myths explored universal themes such as the epic battle between good and evil, and the consequences of human actions

11. Like the comic-book heroes that thrill us today (Batman, Superman, and Wonder Woman are all based on Greek mythology), these stories would have been familiar to every Greek citizen, and provided an endless source of imagery for painting and sculpture

12. Procession of Twelve Olympian Deities, 1 st century BCE or CE (Hellenistic period) Walters Art Museum While Greek deities can be identified by their attributes (Zeus with his thunderbolt, Poseidon with his trident, or Athena with her helmet and gorgon medusa on her chest), they appear and act like ordinary humans

13. In most ancient societies, the gods were differentiated from humans with special attributes that distinguished them from mortal humans -- such as huge scale, horned crowns, or animal attributes

14. Bronze statue of Zeus from Artemesion c . 460 BCE National Archaeological Museum, Athens But Greek gods were not differentiated from humans at all

15. Poseidon, Apollo, and Artemis, on the Parthenon Frieze In literature and art, the Greek gods acted and appeared like ordinary men and women (they even exhibit human flaws such as anger, jealously, and lust), and they often mingled with mortal individuals, and intervened in human affairs

16. Attic black-figure amphora, c . 550-540 BC Attributed to Exekias Louvre If the gods resembled humans, the Greeks also believed that some humans could attain a god-like status, as seen in the myth of Herakles , who was a mortal, but performed such heroic feats that the gods accepted him as one of their own

17. In spite of their religious beliefs, the Greeks invented “philosophy,” which was an alternative method of understanding the nature of existence

18. Greek philosophers were in fact skeptical of religion, and preferred to rely on human reason rather than divine will as an explanation of the world

19. This focus on humanity rather than divinity is the essence of Greek Humanism, a system of thought that dispenses with religion as the sole means of explaining the universe

20. “ Greek humanism can be identified by a number of shared characteristics: it was materialistic in that it sought explanations for events in the natural world, it valued free inquiry in that it wanted to open up new possibilities for speculation, and it valued humanity in that it placed human beings at the center of moral and social concerns .” Austin Cline, “Humanism in Ancient Greece” http://atheism.about.com/od/abouthumanism/a/ancientgreece.htm

21. The Greek philosopher Protagoras summed up the concept of Humanism when he wrote:  “Man is the measure of all things, of the reality of those which are, and of the unreality of those which are not.”

22. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum The impact of this humanistic outlook on Greek art was profound

23. Sumerian Wall Plaque Showing a Libation Scene, c . 2500 BCE British Museum Image source: http://www.ancient.eu/image/2870/ Most of the art we have studied thus far was focused on the gods

24. Relief of Seti I offering maat to the god Amun -Re Image source: http://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/reliefs_inscriptions/index.php Even the powerful Pharaohs of the New Kingdom, who claimed to be gods in their own right, were obliged to make offerings to the gods who were more powerful than them

25. Ordinary humans were expected to serve the gods, or to serve the kings who acted as the human representative of the gods

26. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum But in Greek art, the human being became the focus – because the Greeks believed that humans were no different from the gods:

27. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum “The ancient Greeks believed there is a divine spark to be found within every mortal. Their gods looked and acted like humans, complete with human foibles and weaknesses. This is an essential difference between the Greeks and all previous societies, which stressed that good behavior must be enforced upon men by the threat of retribution from outside, superhuman forces. It was no coincidence that the Greek discovery of individual worth and freedom produced the most profound advances in art and sculpture. If the spark of divinity is to be found in man, then the form and appearance of man would inevitably be the proper subject matter of the artist.” Nicholas Gage, “Introduction,” The Greek Miracle: Classical Sculpture from the Dawn of Democracy , National Gallery of Art, 1992, p . 18

28. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum And this focus on the human individual also led to the establishment of the first democracy in 5 th century Athens

29. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum “The faith of Greeks in every person's unique capacity to reason and to impose self-control from within was a major force in creating that peculiar Athenian experiment, the world's first democracy, which involved every farmer, shepherd, and tradesman in the government. ‘The individual can be trusted,’ Perikles said. ‘Let him alone.’” Nicholas Gage, “Introduction,” The Greek Miracle: Classical Sculpture from the Dawn of Democracy , National Gallery of Art, 1992, p . 18

30. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum And so as we will see, Greek Humanism, with its focus on human experience and potential, will shape every aspect of Greek art and architecture, resulting in a form of artistic expression that is very different from anything seen in the ancient world

31. Thanks for listening!

32. Greek Geometric and Orientalizing Periods

33. Greek Geometric and Orientalizing Periods

34. Art historians divide Greek history into successive periods

35. Geometric 900 – 700 BCE Orientalizing 700 – 600 BCE Archaic 600-480 BCE Classical 480-400 BCE Late Classical 400-323 BCE Hellenistic 323-30 BCE

36. Geometric Krater from the Dipylon cemetary , Athens, c . 740 BCE
Metropolitan Museum The earliest phase of the development of Greek culture is called the Geometric period because of the stylized, geometric patterns used to decorate large ceramic vessels

37. Geometric Krater from the Dipylon cemetary , Athens, c . 740 BCE
Metropolitan Museum This large krater was used to mark a grave in the dipylon cemetery near Athens

38. The funerary ritual or “ prothesis ” is represented on the upper register. It shows the deceased lying on a raised funeral bier, surrounded by mourners

39. The small seated figure is probably the deceased’s wife, with their child on her lap

40. The lower register depicts warriors and chariots, suggesting that the deceased may have been a warrior

41. The figures are rendered in a highly stylized stick-figure format, with triangular shapes for torsos, and simple circles for their heads, with a dot to indicate the eye

42. Hero and Centaur ( Herakles and Nessos ?), from Olympia, c . 750-730 CE. Metropolitan Museum Sculpture from the Geometric period is generally small in scale, such as this bronze statue group that measures only 4 1/2″ high

43. Hero and Centaur ( Herakles and Nessos ?), from Olympia, c . 750-730 CE. Metropolitan Museum The statue depicts a male hero (possibly the mythological figure of Herakles ), and a centaur — a mythological figure that was part man and part beast

44. Hero and Centaur ( Herakles and Nessos ?), from Olympia, c . 750-730 BCE. Metropolitan Museum The schematic rendering of the figures is akin to the stick-figure  conventions of Geometric vase painting, but the nudity of the figures, and the attention to anatomical detail (such as the pronounced genitals) anticipates the focus on the human form that will dominate the Archaic and Classical periods

45. Terracotta dinos (mixing bowl), 630-615 CE. Metropolitan Museum During the Orientalizing Period, Greek artists came under increasing influence from Egypt and the Near East through expanding trade

46. Terracotta dinos (mixing bowl), 630-615 CE. Metropolitan Museum The heraldic animals on this vase (used for mixing wine) were clearly inspired by Egyptian sphinxes and Assyrian lamassu

47. This was also the period when Greek society began to form a sense of self-identity distinct from that of foreign cultures

48. “While the Greek city-states fiercely held onto their own independence, there was still an important sense of what it was to be Greek. Greeks were unified by a common language, culture, and religion. As Greeks came into contact with other cultures, they emphasized the difference between themselves and others. It is in Greek culture that the concept of the “barbarian” was invented. “Barbarian” ultimately is a Greek word. It was used by the Greek to identify a non-Greek speaker, one who speaks nonsense or “bar bar”. Dr. Allen Farber, Greeks and the Other 

49. “Otherness” in Greek art was often portrayed in the form of monstrous figures with animal attributes (such as Centaurs, Griffins, and the Gorgon Medusa), which will be increasingly contrasted to the “ideal” Greek male

50. Thanks for listening!

51. Greek Archaic Period

52. Statuette of Herakles , 6th c . BCE Metropolitan Museum A remarkable change took place in Greek art during the Archaic period, as can be seen in this statue of the Greek hero Herakles

53. Statuette of Herakles , 6th c . BCE Metropolitan Museum Although still small in scale, the work marks a significant departure from the stylized abstraction of the Geometric period Hero and Centaur ( Herakles and Nessos ?), from Olympia, c . 750-730 BCE. Metropolitan Museum

54. Statuette of Herakles , 6th c . BCE Metropolitan Museum Influenced by the highly developed art of Egypt and Mesopotamia, Greek artists began to explore a more naturalistic representation of the nude human figure, with an emphasis on youthful virility and beauty

55. Statuette of Herakles , 6th c . BCE Metropolitan Museum The nude male body was regarded by the Greeks as the epitome of ideal beauty, and refinements in figural sculpture were driven by this quest to depict “the perfect man.”  The focus on the human (male) body, as the embodiment of all that is beautiful and good, reflects the Humanist values of Greek society.

56. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum During the  Archaic period  life-size sculpture returned

57. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum This statue, standing a little over 6 feet tall, is known as the Metropolitan Kouros (or New York Kouros ), named for the museum where it can be seen today (that’s me in the photo, giving a sense of the scale of the statue)

58. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum A Kouros is an idealized representation of a male youth

59. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum Kouros statues were used for two purposes: to mark the grave of fallen warriors (generally belonging to an elite class) as votive statues in temples

60. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum This statue marked the grave of a young Athenian aristocrat

61. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum Carved from stone, traces of paint remain in the hair, indicating that the statue was originally painted

62. The statue’s rigid frontal pose, and youthful idealism recalls Egyptian Ka statues (which the Greeks encountered through trade)

63. In fact, the statue was probably made using a grid system similar to the Egyptian canon of proportions:  we see the same forward striding pose, with the arms straight at his side, and the hips and shoulders aligned with the horizontal axes of the grid

64. Although the statue was derived from Egyptian Ka statues, there are significant differences

65. The Greek figure is nude, rather than clothed, which focuses our attention on his humanity, rather than on his status or rank

66. In ancient art, clothing and other attributes generally indicated who you were, whether it be a Pharaoh, a king, or a worker – but in Greek art, nudity allowed the focus to be on the “individual” outside of class or rank

67. Even more importantly,  the Greek kouros is completely free-standing (there is no back pillar supporting him) – which means that he is literally standing on his own two feet

68. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum These differences are meaningful:  the Greeks took the clothes off their (male) figures to celebrate human beauty and individuality (reversing the ancient association of nudity with low status) – so there is a direct connection between the Greek appreciation of nudity and Greek Humanism

69. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum And the figure’s “liberation from the stone” (i.e. the elimination of the pillar support) became a potent expression of the Greek Humanist ideal of individual freedom, autonomy, and self-determination

70. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum The figure who can “stand on his own two feet” can literally determine his own future

71. Lady of Auxerre , c . 625 BCE Limestone, Louvre Statues representing young maidens are called  Kore

72. Lady of Auxerre , c . 625 BCE Limestone, Louvre This one was found in a necropolis on Crete, and probably served a funerary function

73. Like all Greek statues, she would have originally been decorated with paint, traces of which can still be found on her garments

74. The figure has similar features to the Metropolitan Kouros , including the rigidly frontal pose, and highly stylized features

75. They both have flat triangular faces, recalling the highly abstract features of Cycladic figurines

76. And both have hair that has been stylized into geometric patterns

77. Female statues differ from their male counterparts in two significant ways: they are clothed, rather than nude they do not stride boldly forward

78. This reflects women’s lower status in Greek society:  Greek women did not enjoy the freedom and independence that was available to their brothers, fathers, and husbands.  They were, for the most part, confined to the home where they were expected to carry out domestic duties such as spinning and weaving Women spinning and weaving, Terracotta lekythos (oil flask) Greek, Attic, black-figure, Archaic, ca. 550–530 B.C. Attributed to the Amasis Painter Metropolitan Museum

79. And so kore statues are more passive than their male counterparts (standing with their feet together), and they are clothed because the female body was not considered to be the pinnacle of human potential, the way the male body was

80. Kroisos , from Anavysos , c . 530 BCE Marble, 6’ 4” Nat’l Archaeological Museum, Athens Greek sculptures evolved rapidly

81. Kroisos , from Anavysos , c . 530 BCE Marble, 6’ 4” Nat’l Archaeological Museum, Athens This statue, dating from just 70 years after the Metropolitan Kouros , stands at 6’ 4” tall, and it marked the grave of a fallen warrior named Kroisos

82. When compared to the Metropolitan kouros , we can see that there has been a significant advancement in the naturalistic rendering of the human body

83. The pose has not really changed: both figures are in rigidly frontal poses, with their arms stiff at their sides

84. And both are idealized: they are youthful, and physically fit

85. But the proportions and the anatomy have become much more accurate, and convincingly life like

86. Kouros , c . 600 BCE, marble 6’ 1/2” Metropolitan Museum Let’s start with the proportions: when we look closely at the Metropolitan kouros , we notice that his head is impossibly large, and his hips are unnaturally narrow

87. The sculptor of the Kroisos of Anavyssos has come closer to approximating the normal proportions of the human body

88. And then, there is the treatment of the anatomy – or the musculature

89. The Metropolitan kouros has a triangular torso – recalling the stick-like figure cartoons of the Geometric period

90. And his musculature is indicated by incised lines, rather than resembling the way muscles naturally swell

91. In the Kroisos of Anyvyssos , those stylized lines have been replaced by softly swelling muscles

92. We see the swelling muscles of the pelvic girdle as they transcend to the hips and thighs, and we can make out the swelling muscles of his quads and calfs

93. Even the feet have become less boxy, and more like real human feet

94. Similarly, the facial plane has more relief, rather than being a flat triangle — and he even wears a smile, called the “Archaic smile,” which was the artist’s way of communicating the figure’s vitality

95. So over time, Greek statues became more lifelike – and the question is, why? Why were the Greeks so preoccupied with representing people as if they were alive?

96. The answer to this question has partly to do with the function of the statues, and partly to do with Greek Humanism

97. Ka statues served a very specific purpose in Egyptian society

98. They were placed in tombs, and they were designed to provide an eternal resting place for the Ka

99. This shaped their appearance: their rigid, geometrical qualities were intended to embody the idea of an unchanging eternity

100. This shaped their appearance: their rigid, “frozen” quality was intended to embody the idea of an unchanging eternity

101. Kouros statues served a very different function

102. Although both of these statues were made to mark graves, the Greeks did not believe in life after death

103. instead, they believed that immortality could be achieved by being  remembered  for heroic deeds, and a virtuous life

104. These statues were therefore commemorative : they were designed to help us remember the individual the way he wanted to be remembered:  young, strong, heroic, individual, and free

105. Peplos Kore , c . 530 BCE Acropolis Museum, Athens A similar evolution took place in female statues

106. Peplos Kore , c . 530 BCE Acropolis Museum, Athens This statue, called The Peplos Kore , is roughly contemporary with the Kroisos from Anavyssos

107. Peplos Kore , c . 530 BCE Acropolis Museum, Athens She is named after the belted garment that she wears, which is called a “ peplos ” (though the exact type of garment she is wearing is currently a topic of debate)

108. Like the Lady of Auxerre , she remains clothed, rather than nude; but there is a slight suggestion of naturalism nonetheless:  the forms of her body begin to swell underneath the drapery, and her hair falls naturally on her shoulders

109. The forms of her body begin to swell underneath the drapery, and her hair falls naturally on her shoulders

110. Her face, also, has more relief, rather than being a flat triangular plane, and like the Kroisos , she wears the “Archaic smile

111. While most Kore figures represented offerings to the gods in temple settings, recent scholars have proposed that she may represent a goddess – depending upon what she was holding in her left hand (now broken)

112. This image shows three versions of a possible reconstruction of the statue, with its original coloring

113. Thanks for listening!

114. Greek Classical Sculpture

115. In the last presentation we saw how Greek sculpture evolved towards an increasingly naturalistic representation of the human form during the Archaic period

116. An even more dramatic change took place in Greek culture during the  Classical period  ( c . 480-323 BCE)

117. Pitcher ( oinochoe ) with Greek warrior attacking Persian archer, Greek Classical, c . 450 BCE Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Many historians attribute this change to the Greek victory over the Persians in 490 BCE, which solidified Greek identity

118. In a series of campaigns, the Persian Empire sought to expand its control of Greek territories, but the Greeks banded together to defeat their common foe

119. The movie 300 is about the famous battle at Thermopylae, when King Leonidas of Sparta and 300 of his men held the pass for three days

120. Persian Warriors from the Palace of Darius at Susa Pergamon Museum, Berlin The Greeks were vastly outnumbered by the Persian army, which was highly trained and heavily armed

121. Pitcher ( oinochoe ) with Greek warrior attacking Persian archer, Greek Classical, c . 450 BCE Museum of Fine Arts, Boston But in the end, the Greeks prevailed – and they regarded their victory in universalizing terms

122. Pitcher ( oinochoe ) with Greek warrior attacking Persian archer, Greek Classical, c . 450 BCE Museum of Fine Arts, Boston As J.J. Pollitt writes: “The defeat of the Persians, against seemingly overwhelming odds . . .impressed many thoughtful Greeks as a kind of miraculous deliverance that had both a moral and a religious significance. In Aischylos ' drama The Persians, first performed in 472 B.C. . . . the destruction of the Persians' army is portrayed as a divinely sanctioned punishment for their arrogant pride and aggressiveness. In their drive toward unlimited power, as the Greeks saw it, the invaders had abandoned all sense of self-restraint and reverence, so much so that they had not hesitated to burn temples and defile the altars of the gods. The Greek cities, by contrast, were thought to have prevailed because they had learned to curb aggressive local self-interest in the interest of a greater common good and had adhered to a course of sophrosyne and eusebeia (moderation and respect for divine power).”

123. Pitcher ( oinochoe ) with Greek warrior attacking Persian archer, Greek Classical, c . 450 BCE Museum of Fine Arts, Boston To the Greeks, their victory could be attributed to their cultural and moral superiority over the Persians, whom they regarded “barbarian” Greek hoplite: Fights in the nude to reveal his physical perfection and implied moral superiority Persian warrior: Wears clothing that identifies his “otherness”

124. Pitcher ( oinochoe ) with Greek warrior attacking Persian archer, Greek Classical, c . 450 BCE Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The victory over the Persians marked the beginning of the Classical period, when a new sense of self-identity and cultural superiority gave rise to an extraordinary flowering of art and culture

125. Achievements of the Classical period include the great plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, the philosophy of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the establishment of Athenian democracy under the statesman Pericles in the 5th century; for the first time, too, artists were no longer anonymous, but became renowned for their accomplishments.

126. Kritios Boy, c . 480 BCE Marble, 2’ 10” Acropolis Museum This statue, known as the Kritios Boy , was found in the acropolis in Athens and is one of the earliest examples of the new Classical style

127. Kritios Boy, c . 480 BCE Marble, 2’ 10” Acropolis Museum For the first time, the human figure is represented in a natural pose – called the contrapposto pose

128. This was a dramatic break with the rigid frontal pose of Egyptian Ka statues, where the hips, shoulders, and arms aligned to an invisible grid

129. In the contrapposto pose the weight shifts to one leg, causing the hips to tilt, and the shoulders to tilt in the opposing direction as the figure turns just slightly to his right Weight-bearing leg Hips tilt Slight twist to the upper body

130. The pose is much more natural and relaxed, and gives the figure a human vitality that was lacking in the unnaturally rigid statues of the Archaic period

131. The anatomy is also much more sophisticated, with a much subtler handling of muscle groups – and a serene expression has replaced the artificial “Archaic smile”

132. As J.J. Pollitt explains, the result is a figure that has literally “come to life”: “As you look at . . . any  kouros  in a museum, it will seem to look past you.  By contrast, the “ Kritios Boy” . . . seems as if he might turn and ask you a question . . . . It seems conscious of its surroundings and faced with alternatives which ask for judgment and decision.  In short, it seems to live and think.” J.J. Pollitt , Art and Experience in Classical Greece, p . 17-18

133. While Greek Archaic art had produced the “idea” of the human form, Greek Classical artists were the first to render the impression of a living presence – the human individual, capable of movement and thought

134. Image source: http://watchfit.com/exercise/upper-body-workout-for-men/ The Greeks admired physical fitness, much as we do today

135. Stele relief depicting a wrestling competition between athletes, from Kerameikos necropolis, Athens, Grece , Circa 510 Greek athletes competed in the nude, and training for Olympic competitions was a form of military training

136. Stele relief depicting a wrestling competition between athletes, from Kerameikos necropolis, Athens, Grece , Circa 510 But it was also a means of achieving the “body beautiful”

137. Athletes were celebrities in Greek culture, as they are in our own society Derek Jeeter Image source: http://muzul.com/celebrity/derek-jeter/

138. Michael Jordan Image source: http://www.espn.com/chicago/photos/gallery/_/id/8932812/image/1/best-best-michael-jordan-50-greatest-moments Because athletes embody the Humanist ideal of what humans are capable of achieving

139. Greek Classical sculpture reflected these values in its focus on youthful, athletically fit young men

140. Their serene expression equally expressed a cultural ideal of self-discipline and self-control

141. Polykleitos , Doryphoros , Roman copy 450-440 BCE 6’ 11” Museo Archeologico Nazionale , Naples This statue by the renowned Athenian sculptor Polykleitos is called the Doryphoros , which is Greek for “spear-bearer”

142. Polykleitos , Doryphoros , Roman copy 450-440 BCE 6’ 11” Museo Archeologico Nazionale , Naples The statue was created to commemorate an Olympic champion in the spear-throwing competition

143. Polykleitos , Doryphoros , Roman copy 450-440 BCE 6’ 11” Museo Archeologico Nazionale , Naples Statues such as these were created as “trophies” to acknowledge an athlete’s achievement

144. The man represented is neither a god nor a king – rather, he is an ordinary citizen who embodies the humanist ideal of what any free individual is capable of achieving

145. Like the Kritios boy, the figure is standing in the contrapposto pose , with his weight shifted to one leg, and his hips and shoulders tilting in opposite directions

146. The figure turns just slightly, rather than facing rigidly forward, and his left arm is relaxed while his right arm is raised to hold a spear

147. While only tentative in the Kritios boy, Polykleitos ’ statue represents a full mastery of the contrapposto pose, and was copied for centuries to come

148. As lifelike as Greek Classical sculptures appear to be, they were not meant to be actual “portraits”

149. Instead, they depicted “idealized” figures that embodied Greek ideals of physical and mental perfection

150. Most humans are not “perfect” in reality

151. Some achieve it, but even celebrities rely on help from make-up artists, plastic surgeons, and photographers Channing Tatus Image source: https://www.thecut.com/2016/08/what-will-channing-tatum-look-like-as-a-merman.html

152. Idealism in art is kind of like a photo-shopped version of reality

153. The Greeks believed that ideal beauty could be derived from mathematically conceived measurements and proportions

154. The sculptor Poylkleitos published a treatise on art called “The Canon” in which he presented what he believed to be the ideal proportions for the “perfect” male body

155. The treatise is now lost, but ancient historians tell us that he made a sculpture to demonstrate, and the Doryphoros is believed to be that demonstration piece

156. Polykleitos ’ canon was different from the Egyptian Canon of Proportions, in that it was not based on a grid, or on fixed measurements

157. Rather, it was based on proportional relationships between parts of the body

158. In this illustration we see that the torso of the figure on the left is too long, and that the legs of the figure on the right are too long

159. But the proportions of the figure in the center are “just right” – and this is the set of perfect proportional relationships that Polykleitos set out to achieve

160. So Polykleitos ’ statue was meant to represent an “ideal” of the Olympic champion, rather than serve as a portrait of a specific individual

161. A bronze cast of Polykleitos ’ “canon” (The Spear Bearer) in the Pushkin Museum, Moscow Wikimedia The original statue of the Doryphoros was actually made of bronze, and is now lost (this photo is of a reconstruction that was created for the Pushkin Museum in Moscow)

162. Bronze can be melted down and re-used for other purposes, and many ancient statues were “re-cycled” in this way over the centuries

163. Polykleitos , Doryphoros , Roman copy 440 BCE 6’ 11”, Minneapolis Institute of Art Polykleitos , Doryphoros , Roman copy 450-440 BCE 6’ 11” Museo Archeologico Nazionale , Naples So even though Polykleitos was the most famous sculptor of the Classical period, all we have left of his work is Roman copies that were made after the Romans conquered Greece

164. Greek Gallery, Metropolitan Museum of Art In fact, MOST of what we know abut Greek art comes from Roman copies, rather than originals – which makes it confusing when you visit the Greek Galleries at the Metropolitan Museum; most of the statues are Roman copies, and you have to read the label to determine if you are looking at an original or a copy

165. But bronze was the favored medium of Greek Classical sculptors, mainly because the figure could be free-standing, and did not require intrusive supports

166. The tree stump that you see on this Roman copy is actually holding the statue up -- and the bridge between his wrist and hip is there to keep the arm from breaking off

167. The original bronze did not require these supports – the figure could stand entirely on its own, and engage with the world around it

168. Warrior from the Sea off Riace , 460-450 BCE, 6’ 6” high; Museio Archeologico Nazionales , Reggio, Calabria This statue was one of two statues discovered off the coast of Italy in 1972

169. Known as The Riace Bronzes , they probably represented two warriors, and they are a rare example of original Greek bronze sculptures Warriors from the Sea off Riace , 460-450 BCE, 6’ 6” high; Museio Archeologico Nazionales , Reggio, Calabria

170. The statues would have originally had accessories that identified them as warriors – including helmets, spears, and shields Warriors from the Sea off Riace , 460-450 BCE, 6’ 6” high; Museio Archeologico Nazionales , Reggio, Calabria

171. Warrior from the Sea off Riace , 460-450 BCE, 6’ 6” high; Museio Archeologico Nazionales , Reggio, Calabria The figures are standing in the Classical contraposto pose, and conform fairly closely to the Polykleitan canon

172. They are youthful, and physically fit – the epitome of what all male Greek citizens aspired to be

173. The heads are remarkably detailed, with copper inlay for details such as the lips, and inset eyes

174. Bronze casting made it possible to explore the figure in action Bronze statue of Zeus from Artemesion c . 460 BCE National Archaeological Museum, Athens Image source: John McGraw

175. Bronze statue of Zeus from Artemesion c . 460 BCE National Archaeological Museum, Athens Wikimedia This bronze statue represents the Greek god Zeus (or possibly Poseidon) in a “warrior pose” as he is about to throw his lightning bolt (or trident, if it is Poseidon)

176. Bronze statue of Zeus from Artemesion c . 460 BCE National Archaeological Museum, Athens Wikimedia His extended arms could never have been accomplished in stone

177. Bronze statue of Zeus from Artemesion c . 460 BCE National Archaeological Museum, Athens Wikimedia Warrior from the Sea off Riace , 460-450 BCE, 6’ 6” high; Museio Archeologico Nazionales , Reggio, Calabria The other thing that is extraordinary about this statue is that it represents a god, but there is nothing to differentiate him from humans

178. Image source: Alfred Molon He does not wear a crown, or animal attributes, nor does he tower over his human subjects

179. Bronze statue of Zeus from Artemesion c . 460 BCE National Archaeological Museum, Athens Wikimedia Warrior from the Sea off Riace , 460-450 BCE, 6’ 6” high; Museio Archeologico Nazionales , Reggio, Calabria This is, in many ways the essence of Greek Humanism: the gods were conceived as human, and humans had the capacity to achieve the same beauty and grandeur possessed by the gods

180. Myron, Diskobolos (Discus Thrower) Roman copy of Bronze original 5’ 1” Bronze enabled Greek sculptors to explore a much greater variety of poses and movements

181. Myron, Diskobolos (Discus Thrower) Roman copy of Bronze original 5’ 1” This statue commemorates another Olympic champion, and captures the moment before he throws the heavy discus

182. Myron, Diskobolos (Discus Thrower) Roman copy of Bronze original 5’ 1” The original was made of bronze, so it would not have had the intrusive supporting pillar

183. Myron, Diskobolos (Discus Thrower) Roman copy of Bronze original 5’ 1” The artist (the renowned sculptor Myron) has captured a sense of movement and time by depicting the athlete at the height of his movement (much like the upward swing of a pendulum clock)

184. SUMMARY: Greek art evolves towards increasing naturalism in the representation of the human form Greek Archaic Greek Archaic Greek Classical Greek Classical

185. SUMMARY: The discovery of the contraposto pose was a major breakthrough, because it enabled sculptors to portray the human figure as “alive” and actively engaging in the world around them Greek Archaic Greek Archaic Greek Classical Greek Classical

186. SUMMARY: The discovery of bronze as a medium was another breakthrough, because it enabled the exploration of a great variety of active “open” poses that did not require supports

187. SUMMARY: Greek sculptors did not distinguish between gods and men, expressing the humanist belief that men could be equal to the gods

188. SUMMARY: this is a dramatic departure from ancient art, where the gods towered over men, and where individuals were portrayed as anonymous subjects serving their god or king

189. SUMMARY: and finally, Greek art always focused on the ideal: men who were youthful, physically fit, and mentally composed

190. SUMMARY: These were the “super-heroes” of Greek society – the warriors and athletes who had achieved what all Greek citizens aspired to be

191. Thanks for listening!

192. Women Female statues become more naturalistic, but remain clothed Statue of Athena Parthenos (the Virgin Goddess)
Roman copy of the colossal statue of Athena, c . 438 BCE
Museum of Fine Arts Boston

193. Women Amazons – mythical race of warrior women Statue of a wounded Amazon,
Roman copy of a Greek bronze statue, ca. 450–425B.C.
Metropolitan Museum

194. Greek Archaic

195. Greek Archaic Archaic smile Rigid frontal pose Unnatural anatomy + proportions Stylized details Marble

196. Greek Classical

197. Greek Classical Serene expression (“mask of calm reserve”) More natural pose -- contraposto More naturalistic anatomy + proportions Bronze

198. Greek Archaic Archaic smile Rigid frontal pose Unnatural anatomy + proportions Stylized details Marble Greek Classical Serene expression (“mask of calm reserve”) More natural pose -- contraposto More naturalistic anatomy + proportions Bronze