6 Genesis of Marginal Utility
spite of being a deist, showed during his entire lifetime, a
deep sympathy for Presbyterianism.8
The author of the Wealth of Nations believed that the
hidden hand of Providence must be guiding economic ac
tion in order to insure just prices. Fair prices are reached
if the amount of labor in the exchanged goods is the same.
Like many other defenders of the labor theory, Adam
Smith combined the Calvinistic glorification of labor with
the Aristotelian-Scholastic theory of the fair price. No
doubt Locke and Smith, both of whom studied in the Brit
ish stronghold of Aristotelianism, Oxford, knew the writ-
8 Adam Smith was born in the town of Kirkcaldy, whose inhab
itants had fought for the Covenant in the battle of Tippermuir.
See Francis Hirst, Adam Smith (London, 1904), p. 1. He was
baptized in the Scottish Presbyterian church, not in the Anglican
church, as I falsely assumed in an earlier paper. See James Bonar,
A Catalogue of the Library of Adam Smith (2nd ed.; London,
1932), p. 208, registry of baptism. ("The established Church of
Scotland is called in this registry the "Kirk.") In the Burgh School
of Kirkcaldy he came into contact with young Scottish Presby
terians, for instance, John Drysdale, who held twice "the helm of
the Scotch Church as Moderator of its general Assembly . . ."
(Hirst, op. cit., p. 3). His mother wanted him to become an
Episcopalian clergyman; with the help of the Snell Exhibition, he
was sent to Oxford. However, he refused to become a clergyman
(ibid., p. 8). He signed the Westminster Confession before the
Presbytery of Glasgow when he became professor at Glasgow in
1750 (ibid., p. 23). His deep sympathy for the Presbytery is
plainly expressed in The Wealth of Nations (Oxford, 1928, n,
453): 'There is scarce, perhaps, to be found anywhere in Europe,
a more learned, decent, independent, and respectable set of men
than the greater part of the Presbyterian clergy of Holland, Geneva,
Switzerland and Scotland." Already in his time his favorable atti
tude toward Presbyterianism was noted and unfavorably criticized
by one of his friends, Hugh Blair: "You are, I think, by much,
too favorable to Presbytery." (Letter of Hugh Blair to Adam Smith,
Edinburgh, April 3, 1776, quoted in W. R. Scott, "A Manuscript
Criticism of the Wealth of Nations," Economic History, hi, 52.)
These remarks are not made to prove that Adam Smith was a
pious man in the sense of denominationalism, but to show how
far he was exposed to the Scottish brand of Puritanism.