How To Write A Scientific PaperHow To Write A Scientific PaperHow To Write A Scientific Paper

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1. How to write a scientific How to write a scientific
paperpaper
Dr. SrinivasaragavanDr. Srinivasaragavan
DLIS,BDUDLIS,BDU

2. 
A scientific experiment is not A scientific experiment is not
complete until the results have complete until the results have
been been publishedpublished and understood. and understood.

A scientific paper is a written A scientific paper is a written
and published report describing and published report describing
original research results.original research results.

3. What is Scientific WritingWhat is Scientific Writing

The purpose of scientific writing is to The purpose of scientific writing is to
communicate new scientific findings communicate new scientific findings

Thus it has to be clear, simple and Thus it has to be clear, simple and
well ordered communication to well ordered communication to
transmit new scientific findingstransmit new scientific findings

Scientific writing must use proper Scientific writing must use proper
English which gives the sense in the English which gives the sense in the
fewest short wordsfewest short words

4. Origins of Scientific WritingOrigins of Scientific Writing

Knowledge is lost without written recordsKnowledge is lost without written records

Cave paintings and inscriptions were the first Cave paintings and inscriptions were the first
attempts to leave recordsattempts to leave records

About 2000 BC, Papyrus paper was used as a About 2000 BC, Papyrus paper was used as a
medium of communication medium of communication

In 190 BC, parchment made from animal skin came In 190 BC, parchment made from animal skin came
into useinto use

In 105 AD, the Chinese invented paperIn 105 AD, the Chinese invented paper

Knowledge could not be widely circulated with no Knowledge could not be widely circulated with no
effective duplicationeffective duplication

In 1100 AD, the Chinese invented movable typeIn 1100 AD, the Chinese invented movable type

In 1455 AD, Gutenberg printed his 42-line Bible In 1455 AD, Gutenberg printed his 42-line Bible
from movable type on a printing pressfrom movable type on a printing press

By the year 1500 thousands of copies of hundreds By the year 1500 thousands of copies of hundreds
of books (called “incunabula”) were printedof books (called “incunabula”) were printed

In 1665, the first scientific journals were publishedIn 1665, the first scientific journals were published

5. IMRAD StoryIMRAD Story
(Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion)(Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion)

Early journals published Early journals published descriptivedescriptive papers (still papers (still
used in case reports, geological surveys etc..)used in case reports, geological surveys etc..)

By the second half of the 19By the second half of the 19
thth
century, century,
reproducibility of experimentsreproducibility of experiments became a became a
fundamental principle of the philosophy of science.fundamental principle of the philosophy of science.

The The methods sectionmethods section became all important since became all important since
Louis Pasteur confirmed the germ theory of diseaseLouis Pasteur confirmed the germ theory of disease

IMRAD organization of a scientific paper started to IMRAD organization of a scientific paper started to
develop develop

IMRAD format slowly progressed in the latter half of IMRAD format slowly progressed in the latter half of
the 19the 19
thth
century century

6. IMRAD FormatIMRAD Format

II = = IntroductionIntroduction, what question , what question
(problem) was studied(problem) was studied

MM = = MethodsMethods, how was the problem , how was the problem
studiedstudied

RR = = ResultsResults, what are the findings, what are the findings

AA = and = and

DD = = DiscussionDiscussion, what do these findings , what do these findings
meanmean

7. Organization of a scientific Organization of a scientific
paperpaper

The most common is the IMRADThe most common is the IMRAD

If a number of methods were used to If a number of methods were used to
achieve directly related results:achieve directly related results:
M + R = Experimental sectionM + R = Experimental section

The results are so complex that they The results are so complex that they
need to be immediately discussed:need to be immediately discussed:
R + D = Results and Discussion sectionR + D = Results and Discussion section

8. What is a scientific paperWhat is a scientific paper

A scientific paper is a written and published A scientific paper is a written and published
report describing original research results.report describing original research results.
1.1.It must be the first publication of original It must be the first publication of original
research results,research results,
2.2.In a form whereby peers of the author can In a form whereby peers of the author can
repeat the experiments and test the repeat the experiments and test the
conclusions, andconclusions, and
3.3.In a journal or other source document In a journal or other source document
readily available within the scientific readily available within the scientific
communitycommunity

9. Definition of Scientific paperDefinition of Scientific paper

An accepted original scientific publication An accepted original scientific publication
containing scientific information to enable peers:containing scientific information to enable peers:
1.1.To assess observationsTo assess observations
2.2.To repeat experimentsTo repeat experiments
3.3.To evaluate intellectual processesTo evaluate intellectual processes
4.4.Must have an impactMust have an impact
5.5.Available to scientific community without Available to scientific community without
restrictionrestriction
6.6.Available for regular screening by one or more of Available for regular screening by one or more of
the major recognized secondary services the major recognized secondary services
(Biological abstracts, Index Medicus, Pub Med (Biological abstracts, Index Medicus, Pub Med
etc…)etc…)

10. Some important Some important LanguageLanguage points: points:

Poor experimentation cannot be Poor experimentation cannot be
masked by brilliant writing; however, masked by brilliant writing; however,
poor writing can mask brilliant poor writing can mask brilliant
experimentationexperimentation

Avoid complex sentence structureAvoid complex sentence structure

Use simple and clear EnglishUse simple and clear English

Always keep in mind that Always keep in mind that the the
paragraphparagraph is the essential unit of is the essential unit of
thoughtthought

11. Before Starting to Write Before Starting to Write
the Paperthe Paper

Record your readings (results)Record your readings (results)

Make tablesMake tables

Draw graphsDraw graphs

Keep file to record summaries of results Keep file to record summaries of results
and any observation however insignificantand any observation however insignificant

Date the filesDate the files

Revise your readings, you may need to Revise your readings, you may need to
repeat an experiment while you still have repeat an experiment while you still have
the materials.the materials.

Write ideas when ever they come to youWrite ideas when ever they come to you

12. Essential Parts of a Scientific paperEssential Parts of a Scientific paper

TitleTitle: Describe concisely the core contents of the : Describe concisely the core contents of the
paperpaper

AbstractAbstract: Summarize the major elements of the paper: Summarize the major elements of the paper

IntroductionIntroduction: provide context and rationale for the : provide context and rationale for the
studystudy

MaterialsMaterials: Describe the experimental design so it is : Describe the experimental design so it is
reproduciblereproducible

MethodsMethods: Describe the experimental procedures: Describe the experimental procedures

ResultsResults: Summarize the findings without : Summarize the findings without
interpretationinterpretation

DiscussionDiscussion: Interpret the findings of the study: Interpret the findings of the study

SummarySummary: Summarize the findings: Summarize the findings

AcknowledgementAcknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped : Give credit to those who helped
youyou

ReferencesReferences: List all scientific papers, books and : List all scientific papers, books and
websites that you cited websites that you cited

13. The TitleThe Title

A good title is defined as the fewest possible A good title is defined as the fewest possible
words that words that adequately describeadequately describe the contents the contents
of the paper.of the paper.

The title is extremely important and must be The title is extremely important and must be
chosen with great care as it will be chosen with great care as it will be read by read by
thousandsthousands, whereas few will read the entire , whereas few will read the entire
paperpaper

Indexing and abstracting Indexing and abstracting of the paper of the paper
depends on the accuracy of the titledepends on the accuracy of the title. An . An
improperly titled paper will get lost and will improperly titled paper will get lost and will
never be read.never be read.

14. 
Titles should Titles should neither be too short nor too neither be too short nor too
long long as to be meaninglessas to be meaningless

Waste words (studies on, investigations on, Waste words (studies on, investigations on,
a, an, the etc) should not be used.a, an, the etc) should not be used.

Syntax (word order) must be very carefully Syntax (word order) must be very carefully
consideredconsidered

It should It should contain the keywords contain the keywords that reflect that reflect
the contents of the paper.the contents of the paper.

It should be meaningful and not generalIt should be meaningful and not general

It should be concise, specific and It should be concise, specific and
informativeinformative

It should capture the fundamental nature of It should capture the fundamental nature of
the experiments and the experiments and findingsfindings

15. ExamplesExamples
1.1.Action of Antibiotics on BacteriaAction of Antibiotics on Bacteria

Action: should be definedAction: should be defined

Antibiotics: should be listedAntibiotics: should be listed

Bacteria: should be listedBacteria: should be listed
2.2.Mechanism of Suppression of Mechanism of Suppression of
Nontransmissible Pneumonia in Mice Nontransmissible Pneumonia in Mice
Induced by Newcastle Disease VirusInduced by Newcastle Disease Virus
3.3.Evaluation of the methylation status of the Evaluation of the methylation status of the
promoter of prostate apoptosis par-4 gene promoter of prostate apoptosis par-4 gene
and its protein expression in Egyptian and its protein expression in Egyptian
cancer patientscancer patients
4.4.Effect of sunlight on leaf morphologyEffect of sunlight on leaf morphology

16. How to Prepare the TitleHow to Prepare the Title

Make a list of the most important keywordsMake a list of the most important keywords

Think of a title that contains these wordsThink of a title that contains these words

The title could state the conclusion of the paperThe title could state the conclusion of the paper

The title The title NEVER NEVER contains abbreviations, contains abbreviations,
chemical formulas, proprietary names or chemical formulas, proprietary names or
jargonjargon

Think, rethink of the title before submitting the Think, rethink of the title before submitting the
paperpaper

Be very careful of the grammatical errors due Be very careful of the grammatical errors due
to faulty word orderto faulty word order

Avoid the use of the word “using” Avoid the use of the word “using”

17. The AbstractThe Abstract

An abstract can be defined as a summary of the An abstract can be defined as a summary of the
information in a document information in a document

It is of fundamental importance that the abstract It is of fundamental importance that the abstract
be be written clearly and simplywritten clearly and simply, as it is the first and , as it is the first and
sometimes the only part of the manuscript read.sometimes the only part of the manuscript read.

It should provide a It should provide a brief summary of each of the brief summary of each of the
main sections (IMRAD) main sections (IMRAD) of the paper:of the paper:
1.1.State the State the principal objective and scope principal objective and scope of the of the
investigationinvestigation
2.2.Describe the methods usedDescribe the methods used
3.3.Summarize the results, and Summarize the results, and
4.4.State the State the principal conclusionsprincipal conclusions

It is easier to It is easier to writewrite the abstract the abstract after completion after completion
of the paperof the paper

18. Criteria of the AbstractCriteria of the Abstract

It should not exceed 250 wordsIt should not exceed 250 words

It should be written in one paragraph.It should be written in one paragraph.

It should be It should be written in the past tense written in the past tense as it refers as it refers
to work done.to work done.

Long words should be followed by its Long words should be followed by its
abbreviation which would be used through out abbreviation which would be used through out
the abstract and paper.the abstract and paper.

It should It should not cite any references not cite any references (except in rare (except in rare
cases)cases)

It should never give any information or It should never give any information or
conclusion that is not stated in the paperconclusion that is not stated in the paper

Must be accurate with respect to figures quoted Must be accurate with respect to figures quoted
in the main text.in the main text.

19. The IntroductionThe Introduction

The introduction should answer the The introduction should answer the
following questions:following questions:
1.1.What was I studying?What was I studying?
2.2.Why was this an important question?Why was this an important question?
3.3.What did I know about this topic What did I know about this topic
before I did this study?before I did this study?
4.4.What model was I testing? andWhat model was I testing? and
5.5.What approach did I take in this What approach did I take in this
study?study?

20. Suggested rules for a Suggested rules for a
good introduction:good introduction:

It should present the nature and It should present the nature and
scope of the problem investigatedscope of the problem investigated

Review the pertinent literatureReview the pertinent literature

State the method of investigationState the method of investigation

State the principal results of the State the principal results of the
investigationinvestigation

State the principal conclusion(s) State the principal conclusion(s)
suggested by the resultssuggested by the results

21. General rulesGeneral rules

Use the Use the present tense when referring to work present tense when referring to work
that has already been published, but past tense that has already been published, but past tense
when referring to own studywhen referring to own study..

Use the active voice as much as possibleUse the active voice as much as possible

Avoid lengthy or unfocused reviews of previous Avoid lengthy or unfocused reviews of previous
research. research.

Cite peer-reviewed scientific literature Cite peer-reviewed scientific literature or or
scholarly reviews. scholarly reviews. Avoid general reference works Avoid general reference works
such as textbooks.such as textbooks.

Define any specialized terms or abbreviations Define any specialized terms or abbreviations

22. How to write the Materials How to write the Materials
and Methods sectionand Methods section

Provide Provide full details so that the experiments are full details so that the experiments are
reproducible reproducible

If the peer reviewer has doubts that the experiments If the peer reviewer has doubts that the experiments
could be repeated, the manuscript will be rejected.could be repeated, the manuscript will be rejected.

Organize the methods under subheadingsOrganize the methods under subheadings, with , with
related methods described together (e.g. subjects, related methods described together (e.g. subjects,
experimental design, Measurement of…, Hormonal experimental design, Measurement of…, Hormonal
assays etc…).assays etc…).

Describe the experimental design in detailDescribe the experimental design in detail

Do Do not not mix some of the Results in this section

Write in the past tenseWrite in the past tense

23. MaterialsMaterials

Must identify accurately experimental animals, Must identify accurately experimental animals,
plants, and microorganisms used by genus, species plants, and microorganisms used by genus, species
and strainand strain

The source of subjects studied, number of individuals The source of subjects studied, number of individuals
in each group used, their sex, age, and weight must in each group used, their sex, age, and weight must
be clearly statedbe clearly stated

If human subjects are used, the criteria for selection If human subjects are used, the criteria for selection
should be described, and consentshould be described, and consent

For chemicals used, include For chemicals used, include exact technical exact technical
specifications and source or method of preparationspecifications and source or method of preparation..

Avoid the use of trade names of chemicalsAvoid the use of trade names of chemicals, generic , generic
or chemical names are preferred.or chemical names are preferred.

24. MethodsMethods

This part of the manuscript must be clear, precise This part of the manuscript must be clear, precise
and concise so that it can be reproducibleand concise so that it can be reproducible

If the method is new, If the method is new, all all details must be provided
If the method has been previously published in a
scientific journal, only the reference should be
given with some identification:
e.g. “cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as
previously described by …”. Preferable than “cells
were broken as previously described by …. “
Questions such as “how” or “how much” must be
answered and not left to be puzzled over
Methods used for statistical analyses must be
mentioned; ordinary ones without comments, but
advanced or unusual ones require literature
citation

25. How to write the ResultsHow to write the Results

Results section is written in the past tenseResults section is written in the past tense

It is the core or heart of the paperIt is the core or heart of the paper

It needs to be It needs to be clearly and simply stated clearly and simply stated since it since it
constitutes the new knowledge contributed to constitutes the new knowledge contributed to
the worldthe world

The purpose of this section is to summarize The purpose of this section is to summarize
and illustrate the and illustrate the findings in an orderly and findings in an orderly and
logical sequencelogical sequence, without interpretation, without interpretation

The text should guide the reader through the The text should guide the reader through the
findings, stressing the major pointsfindings, stressing the major points

Do not describe methods that have already Do not describe methods that have already
been described in the M&M section or that been described in the M&M section or that
have been inadvertently omittedhave been inadvertently omitted

26. Methods of Methods of presenting presenting
the datathe data
1.1.Directly in the textDirectly in the text
2.2.In a tableIn a table
3.3.In a figureIn a figure

All figures and tables All figures and tables mustmust be be
accompanied by a textual presentation accompanied by a textual presentation
of the key findingsof the key findings

Never have a table or figure that is not Never have a table or figure that is not
mentioned in the textmentioned in the text

27. Tables and figuresTables and figures

Tables are appropriate for large or Tables are appropriate for large or
complicated data setscomplicated data sets that would be difficult that would be difficult
to explain clearly in text.to explain clearly in text.

Figures are appropriate for data sets that Figures are appropriate for data sets that
exhibit trends, patterns, or relationships exhibit trends, patterns, or relationships that that
are best conveyed visually.are best conveyed visually.

Any table or figure must be sufficiently Any table or figure must be sufficiently
described by its title and caption or legend, to described by its title and caption or legend, to
be understandable without reading the main be understandable without reading the main
text of the results section.text of the results section.

Do not include both a table and a figure Do not include both a table and a figure
showing the same informationshowing the same information

28. How to write the How to write the
DiscussionDiscussion

It is the hardest section to write.It is the hardest section to write.

Its primary purpose is to show the Its primary purpose is to show the
relationships among observed factsrelationships among observed facts

It should end with a short summary It should end with a short summary
or conclusion regarding the or conclusion regarding the
significance of the work.significance of the work.

29. Components of the discussionComponents of the discussion

Try to present the principles, relationships, and Try to present the principles, relationships, and
generalizations shown by the Resultsgeneralizations shown by the Results

Point out any exceptions or any lack of Point out any exceptions or any lack of
correlation and define unsettled pointscorrelation and define unsettled points

Show how your results and interpretations Show how your results and interpretations
agree or contrast with previously published agree or contrast with previously published
workwork

Discuss the theoretical implications of your Discuss the theoretical implications of your
work, and any possible practical applications.work, and any possible practical applications.

State your conclusions as clearly as possibleState your conclusions as clearly as possible

Summarize your evidence for each conclusion Summarize your evidence for each conclusion

30. How to State the How to State the
AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments

You should acknowledge: You should acknowledge:
1.1.Any significant technical help that you have Any significant technical help that you have
received from any individual in your lab or received from any individual in your lab or
elsewhereelsewhere
2.2.The source of special equipment, cultures, or The source of special equipment, cultures, or
any other materialany other material
3.3.Any outside financial assistance, such as Any outside financial assistance, such as
grants, contractsgrants, contracts or fellowships or fellowships

Do not use the word “wish”, simply write “I thank Do not use the word “wish”, simply write “I thank
…..” and not “I wish to thank…”…..” and not “I wish to thank…”

Show the proposed wording of the Show the proposed wording of the
Acknowledgement to the person whose help you Acknowledgement to the person whose help you
are acknowledging are acknowledging

31. ReferencesReferences
What is referencing?
Referencing is a standardized way of acknowledging
the sources of information and ideas that you have
used in your document.

A list of ALL the references used in the text must be A list of ALL the references used in the text must be
written.written.

Reference format varies widely: Reference format varies widely:
–Harvard formatHarvard format (the name and year system) is the (the name and year system) is the
most widely usedmost widely used
–Alphabet-Number system is a modification of name
and year system
–Citation order system

32. In-text citations
In name and year system:

Citation in the text is followed by the author’s last Citation in the text is followed by the author’s last
name and year of publication between parentheses. name and year of publication between parentheses.
–If they were two authors then both last names are written. If they were two authors then both last names are written.
–If more than two then the only first author’s name is written If more than two then the only first author’s name is written
followed by the abbreviation followed by the abbreviation et alet al

If a single statement requires more than one citation If a single statement requires more than one citation
then the references are arranged chronologically then the references are arranged chronologically
from oldest to more recent, separated by semicolons.from oldest to more recent, separated by semicolons.
–If more than one reference share the same year then they are If more than one reference share the same year then they are
arranged alphabetically within the year.arranged alphabetically within the year.
In alphabet-number system:In alphabet-number system:

Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged
numbered reference list.numbered reference list.
In Citation order system:In Citation order system:

The references are numbered in the order they are The references are numbered in the order they are
mentioned in the textmentioned in the text

33. Reference ListReference List

Any papers not cited in the text should not be included.Any papers not cited in the text should not be included.

Reference lists allow readers to investigate the subject in Reference lists allow readers to investigate the subject in
greater depth. greater depth.
A reference list contains only the books, articles, and web
pages etc that are cited in the text of the document. A
bibliography includes all sources consulted for
background or further reading.

34. In name and year system:
The reference list is arranged alphabetically by author. If
an item has no author, it is cited by title, and included in
the alphabetical list using the first significant word of the
title.
If more than one item has the same author, list the items
chronologically, starting with the earliest publication.
Each reference appears on a new line.
There is no indentation of the references
There is no numbering of the references
In alphabet-number system:In alphabet-number system:
It the same as above in addition each reference is given a
number
In Citation order system:In Citation order system:
The reference list is arranged by the number given to the
citation by the order that it were mentioned in the text

35. 
BookBook
–1.  Okuda M, Okuda D. 1.  Okuda M, Okuda D. Star Trek Chronology: The Star Trek Chronology: The
History of the Future.History of the Future.  New York: Pocket Books;  New York: Pocket Books;
1993. 1993.

Journal or Magazine ArticleJournal or Magazine Article (with volume numbers) (with volume numbers)
–2.  Wilcox RV. Shifting roles and synthetic women 2.  Wilcox RV. Shifting roles and synthetic women
in Star trek: the next generation. in Star trek: the next generation. Stud Pop Culture.Stud Pop Culture.
1991;13:53-65. 1991;13:53-65.

Newspaper, Magazine or Journal ArticleNewspaper, Magazine or Journal Article (without (without
volume numbers)volume numbers)
–3.  Di Rado A. Trekking through college: classes 3.  Di Rado A. Trekking through college: classes
explore modern society using the world of Star explore modern society using the world of Star
trek. trek. Los Angeles TimesLos Angeles Times. March 15, 1995:A3.      . March 15, 1995:A3.      

Encyclopedia ArticleEncyclopedia Article
–4.  Sturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT, 4.  Sturgeon T. Science fiction. In: Lorimer LT,
editorial director; Cummings C, ed-in-chief; Leish editorial director; Cummings C, ed-in-chief; Leish
KW, managing ed. KW, managing ed. The Encyclopedia AmericanaThe Encyclopedia Americana. Vol . Vol
24. International ed. Danbury, Conn: Grolier24. International ed. Danbury, Conn: Grolier
  Incorporated; 1995:390-392.   Incorporated; 1995:390-392.

36. 
Book Article or ChapterBook Article or Chapter
–5.  James NE. Two sides of paradise: the Eden myth 5.  James NE. Two sides of paradise: the Eden myth
according to Kirk and Spock. In: Palumbo D, ed. according to Kirk and Spock. In: Palumbo D, ed. Spectrum Spectrum
of the Fantastic.of the Fantastic. Westport, Conn: Greenwood; 1988:219- Westport, Conn: Greenwood; 1988:219-
223. 223.

ERIC DocumentERIC Document
–6.  Fuss-Reineck M. 6.  Fuss-Reineck M. Sibling Communication in Star Trek: The Sibling Communication in Star Trek: The
Next Generation: Conflicts Between Brothers.Next Generation: Conflicts Between Brothers. Miami, Fla: Miami, Fla:
Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication
Association; 1993. ERIC Document Reproduction Service Association; 1993. ERIC Document Reproduction Service
ED364932. ED364932.

WebsiteWebsite
–7.  Lynch T. DSN trials and tribble-ations review. Psi Phi: 7.  Lynch T. DSN trials and tribble-ations review. Psi Phi:
Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site. 1996. Available Bradley's Science Fiction Club Web site. 1996. Available
at:at:
     http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep     http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep
     /503r.htm. Accessed October 8, 1997.      /503r.htm. Accessed October 8, 1997.

Journal Article on the InternetJournal Article on the Internet
–8.  McCoy LH. Respiratory changes in Vulcans during pon 8.  McCoy LH. Respiratory changes in Vulcans during pon
farr. farr. J Extr MedJ Extr Med [serial online]. 1999;47:237-247. Available [serial online]. 1999;47:237-247. Available
at:at:
     http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu.      http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/nysl_li_liu.
Accessed April 7, 1999.Accessed April 7, 1999.

37. How to Write a ThesisHow to Write a Thesis

A PhD thesis in the science is supposed to present A PhD thesis in the science is supposed to present
the candidate’s original research i.e. it is a the candidate’s original research i.e. it is a
scientific paperscientific paper

Unlike the scientific paper, the thesis may Unlike the scientific paper, the thesis may
describe more than one topic, and it may present describe more than one topic, and it may present
more than one approach to some topics.more than one approach to some topics.

The thesis may present all or most of the data The thesis may present all or most of the data
obtained in the student’s thesis related research.obtained in the student’s thesis related research.

Thus it is more involved and longer than a Thus it is more involved and longer than a
scientific paper.scientific paper.

Think of a thesis as a good thriller, and write in a Think of a thesis as a good thriller, and write in a
logical way so that a reader will find it interesting logical way so that a reader will find it interesting
and will not be bored. and will not be bored.

38. Ethics, Rights and Ethics, Rights and
PermissionsPermissions

Beware of originality and copyrights of Beware of originality and copyrights of
others.others.

Do not copy anything without giving Do not copy anything without giving
the credit to the owner by referencing the credit to the owner by referencing
it.it.

In some cases permissions are neededIn some cases permissions are needed

Repetitive publication of the same Repetitive publication of the same
data is considered plagiarismdata is considered plagiarism

39. ReferencesReferences

Robert Day (1995): How to write and Robert Day (1995): How to write and
publish a scientific paper. 4publish a scientific paper. 4
thth
Edition, Edition,
Cambridge University PressCambridge University Press

University of Queensland (2009) University of Queensland (2009)
References/Bibliography Harvard Style
http://www.library.uq.edu.au/training/http://www.library.uq.edu.au/training/
citation/harvard_6.pdfcitation/harvard_6.pdf