Ibn Khaldun - Al Muqaddimah

dla Le

THE MUQADDIMAH

Abd Ar Rahman bin Muhammed ibn Khaldun
Translated by

Franz Rosenthal
Table of Contents

Chapter

Table of Contents

Introductory material

Anuroductory material

Introductory material of Book One, Kirab al Yhar
INVOCATION
‘FOREWORD
wsTgoDLCTION

Preliminary Remarks

Book One of the Kitab al-'Ibar

The nature of civilization. Bedouin
and sented life, the achievement of superiority,
gainful occupations, ways of making a living, sciences,
crafts, and oll he other things that affect
(civilization). The causes.
and reasons thereof.

TT SHOULD be known that history, in matter of fat, is information about
human social organization, which itself is identical with world civilization, I deals
with such conditions affecting the nature of civilization as, for instance, savagery
and sociability, group feelings, and the different ways by which one group of human
beings achieves superiority over another It deals with royal authority and the
‘dynasties that result (inthis manner) and with the various ranks tha exist within
them. (It futher deals) with the different kinds of gainful occupations and ways of
making a living, with the sciences and crafts that human beings pursue as part of
their activities and efforts, and with al the other institutions that originate
‘civilization through its very nature.

Untruth naturally afflicts historical information. There are various reasons
(hat make this unavoidable. One of them is partisanship for opinions and school. I
the soul is impartial in receiving information, it devotes to that information the share
of critical investigation the information deserves, and its truth or untruth thus.
becomes clear. However, if the soul is infected with partisanship for a particular
‘opinion or sect, it accepts without a moment hesitation the information that is
agreeable to it Prejudice and partisanship obscure the critical faculty and preclude
‘ritical investigation, The resul is that falsehoods are accepted and transmited,

Another reason making untruth unavoidable in historical information is
reliance upon transmitters. Investigation of his subject belongs to (the theological
discipline of) personality criticism?

Another reason is unawareness of the purpose of an event. Many a
‘ransmiter does not know the real significance of his observations or of the things
e has leamed about orally. He transmits the information, attributing to it the
significance he assumes or imagines it 10 have. The resul is falsehood.

Another reason is unfounded assumption as tothe truth of a thing. This is
frequent. I results mostly from reliance upon transmitters.

Another reason is ignorance of how conditions conform with reality. 2
Conditions are affected by ambiguities and arúficial distortions. The informant
reports the conditions as he saw them but on account of artificial distortions he
himself has no rue picture of them.

Another reason is the fact that people as a rule approach great and high-

ranking persons with praise and encomiums. They embellish conditions and spread
the fame (of great men). The information made public in such cases i not truthful
Human souls long for praise, and people pay great atlention ta this world and the
positions and wealth it offers. As a rule, they feel no desire for virtue and have no
special interest in virtuous people.

Another reason making untruth unavoidable - and this one is more powerful
than all he reasons previously mentioned is ignorance of the nature of the various
‘conditions arising in civilization. Every event (or phenomenon), whether (it comes
into being in connection with some) essence or (athe result of an) action, must
inevitably possess a nature peculiar to its essence as well as to the accidental
‘conditions that may attach themselves to i. If the student knows the nature of events
and the circumstances and requirements in the world of existence, it will help him to
‘distinguish truth from untruth in investigating the historical information critical
"This is more effective in critical investigation than any other aspect that may be
brought up in connection with i

Students offen happen to accept and transmit absurd information that, in tun,
is believed on their authority. AlMasudi for instance, reports such a story about
‘Alexander. Sea monsters prevented Alexander from building Alexandria, He took a
‘wooden container in which a glass box was inserted, and dived in it to the bottom of
the sea, There he drew pictures of the devilish monsters he saw. He then had metal
<ffigis of these animals made and set them up opposite the place where building
‘was going on. When the monsters came out and saw the effigies, they fle,
Alexander was thus able to complete the building of Alexandria,

lis a long story, made up of nonsensical elements which are absurd for
various reasons. Thus, (Alexander is said) to have taken a glass box and braved the
sea and its waves in person, Now, rulers would not take such a risk À Any ruler who
‘would attempt such a thing would work his own undoing and provoke the outbreak
of revolt against himself, and (he would) be replaced by the people with someone
‘else, That would be his end. People would not (even) wait one moment for him to
return from the (dangerous) risk be is taking.

Furthermore, the jinn are not known to have specific forms and effigies.

‘They are able to take on various forms. The story ofthe many heads they have is
intended to indicate ugliness and frightfulnes. It is not meant to be taken literally.

Al this throws suspicion upon the story. Ye, the element in i hat makes the
story absurd for reasons based on the facts of existence is more convincing than all
the other (arguments). Were one to go down deep into the water, even in a box, one
would have too little air for natural breathing, Because of that, one's spirit® would
quickly become hot. Such a man would lack the cold air necessary to maintain a
‘well-balanced humor of the lung and the vital spirit, He would perish on the spot
“This isthe reason why people perish in hot baths when cold air is denied to them. It
also isthe reason why people who go down into deep wells and dungeons perish
when the air there becomes hot through putrefaction, and no winds enter those places
Lo str the air up. Those who go down there perish immediatly. This also isthe
reason why fish die when they leave the water, for the ai is not sufficient for (a fish)
to balance its lung. (The fish) is extremely hot, and the water to balance it's humor is
cold. The air into which (the fish) now comes is hot. Heat, thus, gains power over its
animal spirit and it perishes at once. This also is the reason for sudden death, and

lar things
Al-Mas‘udi reports another absurd story, that of the Statue ofthe Staring in

Rome” On a fixed day ofthe year, starlings gather at that statue bringing olives
from which the inhabitants of Rome get thet oi. How lite this has to do with the

natural procedure of getting oi!

Another absurd story is reported by al-Bakri, It concerns the way the so-
called "Gate City” was bill. That city had a circumference of moe than a tity
‘days journey and had tn thousand goes, Now. cities are used for security and
protection, as will be mentioned.” Such a city, however, could not be controlled and
‘would offer no security or protection,

“Then, there is also al-Mastadi' story of the "Copper City." 10 This is sid to
bea city built wholly of copper in the desert of Sijilmasah which Musa b, Nusayr LL
‘crossed on his raid against the Maghrib. The gates of (the Copper ity) are sad to
te closed. When the person sho climbs the walls ofthe city im oder to enter
reaches the top. he claps his hand and tows himself down and never returns, All

isan absurd story. belongs to the idle talk of storytellers. The dese of

Sijimasa has Been crossed by travelers and guides. They have not come across any
information about such a city 2 All the details mentioned about it are absurd, Gif
compared with the customary state of affairs, They contradic the natural facts that
apply to the building and planning of cis. Metal exists at best in quantities
‘ficient for utosls and furnishings. Is cleanly absurd and unlikely that there
‘would be enough to cover a ity with it

‘There 13 are many similar things. Only knowledge of the nature of
«iviliztion makes critical investigation of them possible. I is the best and most
reliable way to investigate historical information critically and to distinguish truth
and falsehood init I is superior o investigations that ely upon eritiism ofthe
personalities of transmiters. Such personality criticism should not be resorted 10
‘nti ichas been ascertained whether a specific piece of information isin itself
possible, or not. I itis absurd, there is no use engaging in personality criticism,
Critical scholars consider absurdity inherent in the literal meaning of historical
information, or an interpretation not acceptable to the intellect, as something that
makes such information suspect. Personality criticism is taken into consideration
only in connection with the soundness (or lack of soundness) of Muslim religious
information, because this religious information mostly concerns injunctions in
accordance with which the Lawgiver (Muhammad) enjoined Muslims to act
‘whenever it ean be presumed that the information is genuine. The way to achieve
presumptive soundness is o ascertain the probity 'adalah) and exactness of the
transmite

‘On the other hand, to establish the tuth and soundness of information about
factual happenings, a requirement to consider is the conformity or lack of
‘conformity of the reported information with general conditions). Therefore, itis
necessary to investigate whether itis possible that the (reported facts) could have
happened. This is more important than, and has priority over, personality criticism,
For the correct notion about something that ought to bel can be derived only from
{personality criticism), while the correct notion about something that was can be
«derived from (personality criticism) and external (evidence) by (checking) the
‘conformity (of the historical report with general conditions),

115 ass, he normative method for disingulsting ight om wrong it
historical information on the ground of ner) posabi ADs so.
investigate human social organization, which is denia) with ization, We must
disiguish he condition ha atch themselves tothe essence of ciation as
feted by is very ature: the things tha are cidenal o Colin) and cana
te counted on and the things that cannot possibly tach (home oi I we do
tht we shal have a normative method or ding ight fom wrong and

truth from falschood in historical information by means of a logical demonstration
that admits of no doubts. Then whenever we hear about certain conditions occurring
in civilization, we shall know what o accept and what to declare spurious. We shall
have a sound yardstick with the help of which historians may find the path of truth
and correctness where their reports are concerned.

‘Such 16 is the purpose of this first book of our work. (The subject) is in a
‘way an independent science. (This science) has its own peculiar object-that i,
human civilization and social organization. I also has its own peculiar problems,
{ha is, explaining the conditions that attach themselves to the essence of civilization,
‘one after the other. Thus, the situation isthe same with this science as itis with any
‘other science, whether it be a conventional 12 or an intellectual one.

It should be known thatthe discussion of this topic is something new.
‘extraordinary, and highly useful. Penetrating research has shown the way to it It
‘does not belong to rhetoric, one of he logical disciplines (represented in Aristotle's
Organon), the subject of which is convincing words by means of which the mass is
inclined 10 accept particular opinion or not o accept it? It is also not politics,
because politics is concerned with the administration of home or city in accordance
‘with ethical and philosophical requirements, for the purpose of directing the mass
toward a behavior hat will result in the preservation and permanence ofthe (human)
species

“The subject here is different from that of these two disciplines which,
however, ate often similar to it In a way, itis an entirely original science. In fact 1
have not come across a discussion along these lines by anyone. 1 do not know if this
is because people have been unaware of it, but there is no reason to suspect them (of
having been unaware of it). Perhaps they have written exhaustively on this topic,
and their work did not reach us 1? There are many sciences. There have been
‘numerous sages among the nations of mankind, The knowledge that has not come
‚down tous is larger than the knowledge that has. Where are the sciences of the
Persians that ‘Umar ordered wiped out at the time of the conquest!20 Where are the
sciences of the Chaldaeans the Syrians, and the Babylonians, and the scholarly
products and results that were theirst Where are the sciences of the Copts, their
predecessors! The sciences of only one nation, the Greek, have come down o us,
because they were translated through al-Mamun's etfors. (His efforts in this
direction) were successful, because he had many translators at his disposal and spent
much money in this connection, Of the sciences of others, nothing has come to our
attention

“The accidents involved in every manifestation of nature and intellect deserve
study. Any topic that is understandable and real requires its own special science. In
this connection, scholars seem to have been interested (mainly) in the results (ofthe
individual sciences). As far as Ihe subject under discussion is concemed, the result,
as we have seen, is just historical information, Although the problems it raises are
important, both essentially and specifically, (exclusive concer for it) leads to one
result only: the mere verification of historical information. This is not much.
“Therefore, scholars might have avoided the subject

God knows better. "And you were given but little knowledge." 21

In the field under consideration here, we encounter (certain) problems,
treated incidentally by scholars among the arguments applicable o their particular
sciences, but that in object and approach are of the same type as the problems (we
are discussing) In connection with the arguments for prophecy. for instance.
scholars mention that human beings cooperate with each other for their existence

and, therefore, need men to arbitrate among them and exercise a restraining

influnes-22 Or, in the science ofthe principles of jurisprudence, in the chapter of
argument forthe necessity o languages, mention is made ofthe Fact that people
need means to expres their intentions because by their very nature, cooperation and
social organization are made caer by proper expressions 2 Or, in connection with
{he explanation that laws have their reason inthe purposes they are o serve, the
jurists mention that adllery confuses pedigrees and destroys the (human) species:
that murder, 00, destoys he human species that injustice invites the destruction of
civilization with the necessary consequence that the (human) species will be
‘estroyed.24 Other similar things are sated in connection with the purposes
<mbedded in laws. Al (laws) are based upon th effort co preserve civilization,
‘Therefor, (he laws) pay atemion to the things that Delong to cvilizaion: This is
obvious from our references to these problems which are mentioned as
representative (ofthe general situation).

We als finda few of the problems of the subject under discussion (read)
in scatered statements by he sages of mankind. However they did not exhaust the
subject or instance, we have the speech of the Mobedhan before Bahram b.
Bahram in the tory of the ow! reported by al: Masud runs: O King, the might
of royal authority materializes only through the “religious law, obedience toward
God, and compliance with His commands and prohibitions. The religious law
persists ony through royal authority, Mighly royal authority is accomplished only
through men. Men persist only withthe help of property: The only way to property
is though culivation The only way to culation is through justice. Justice is a
balance set up among mankind, The Lord set it up and appointed an overseer fort
and that (overseer) isthe ler

“There also is a statement by Anosharwan Zo the same effect: "Royal
authority exists through the army, the army through money, money through taxes,
taxes through cultivation, cultivation through justice, justice through the
improvement of officials, the improvement of officials through the forthrightness of
swazirs, and the whole thing in the first place through the ruler’ personal supervision
‘of his subjects condition and his ability to educate them, so that he may rule them,
and not they bi

In the Book on Politics that is aeribed to Aristotle and has wide circulation,
we find a good deal about (the subject which is under discussion here). (The
Arealment) however, isnot exhaustive, nor isthe topic provided with all the argu-
ments it deserves, and its mixed with other things, Inthe book, (the author)
referred to such general (ideas) "Sas we have reported on the authority ofthe
‘Mobedhan and Anosharwan. He arranged his statement in a remarkable cicle that
he discussed at length. It runs as follows: 22"The world is a garden the fence of
‘hich is the dynasty. The dynasty isan authority through which life is given to
proper behavior. Proper behavior isa policy directed by the ruler. The ruler is an
institution supported by the soldiers, The soldiers are helpers who are maintained by
money. Money is sustenance brought together by the subjects, The subjects are
servants who are protected by justice. Justice is something familia, and through
the world persists. The world isa garden ..”, and then it begins again from the
beginning. These are eight sentences of political wisdom. They are connected with
‘each other, the end of each one leading into the beginning ofthe next. They are held
together in a circle with no definite beginning or end. (The author) was proud of
‘what he had hit upon and made much of the significance of the sentences.

‘When our discussion in the section on royal authority and dynasties “Las

been studied and due critical attention given toi, it wll be found to constitute an
‘exhaustive, very clear, fully substantiated interpretation and detailed exposition of
these sentences. We became aware ofthese things with God's help and without the
instruction of Aristotle or the teaching of the Mobedhan.

‘The statements of Ibn al-Muqañfa? and the excursions on political subjects
in his treatises also touch upon many of the problems of our work. However, (Iba al-
Mugaffa) did not substantate his statements with arguments as we have done. He
‘merely mentioned them in passing in the (flowing) prose style and eloquent verbiage
of the rhetorician.

Judge Abu Bak at-Tutusti alo had the same idea in he Kitab Siraj a
Mk, He divide the work ino chapters that come close tothe chapters and
problems of our work. However, he did not achieve his aim or relie his intntion
He di not exhaust he problems and did not bring clear profs. He sets sde à
special chapter for a paricuar problem, but then he tll great nunber of stories
and traditions and he reports scattered remarks by Persian sages such as
Burusjnie4and the Mobedhan, and by Indian ages as well as materi
transmited onthe authority of Daniel, Hermes, and other great men, He does not
verily his statements or clarify them withthe help of natural arguments, The works
merly a compilation of transmited matra similar mans in ts inspirational
purpose. Ina way, a Turush ime atthe right idea, Dt id not hit He did ot
realize his intention or exhaust his problems

We, on the other hand, were inspired by God, He cl us 1 science whose
truth we ruthlessly set forth.3$ If have succeeded in presenting the problems of
{this science) exhaustively and in showing how it dir in its varius aspects and
«<haracteistis from al other ca, his i de o divine guidance If, onthe other
hand, Ihave omitted some pont orf the problems ol (his science) have got
‘confused with something els the task of coreting remain forthe discering ei,
ut the mer is mine since cleared and marked ihe way

‘God guides with His light whomever He wants (to guide).

In 22 this book, now, we are going to explain such various aspects of
civilztion ta affect hama being in tei socal organization, s royal amboriy,
Final occupation, since, and cas (al) ght of various argument that
Nil show the ru nate of the varied Kaowledge ofthe le and the common
people, repel misgivings, and remove doubs. We say chat man is distinguished from
Be ote ving beings by certain quals peculiar o him, namely: (1) Te scence
And crafts which result fom tht ability fo think which distinguishes man fromthe
‘other animals and exalts him as a thinking being over all creatures. (2) The need
for revising Inflocnce and src autori, sos man, lone of lle anal,
sanar eit tet tea Its te, somero es bon sad (a tis connection
Shove bers and eus However icy hve something lb, comes to em
through inspiration ot trough thinking or reflection, (3) Man ffs to make a
living and hs concer wi he Various ways of cbsiaing and acquing the means
‘of (ie). This isthe eal of mans need or food 1 keep alive and subsist which
God inilled in im guiding him to desire and seek avelinood, God si: “He
save everything is natura characteristics, and then guided i.” 04) Civilization
‘This means that human beings have to dul in common and see together in ees
And hats fr the comfort of companionship a for the satiation of human
reds, as resul ofthe natural disposition of human Being toward co-operation in
ner be abl to make a ving, we sal expan, Civilization may be eher
‘Scien (Bedouin) cations Found in omying regions and mountain. a hamlets

‘near suitable) pastures in waste regions, and on the fringes of sandy deserts. Orit
may be sedentary civilization as found in cities, village, towns, and small
“communities that serve the purpose of protection and fortification by means of wall.
In al these diferent conditions, there are things that affect civilization essentially in
as far as i is social organization.

‘Consequenty.*l the discussion inthis work falls naturally under six chapter
headings:

(1) On human civilization in general, ts various kinds, and the portion of the
‘earth hat is civilized.

2) On desert civilization, including a report on the tribes and savage nations

3) On dynasties, the caliphate, and royal authority, including a discussion of
government ranks.

48) On sedentary civilization, countries, and

(5) On crafts, ways of making a living, gainful occupation, and their various
aspects. And

(6) On the sciences, their acquisition and study.

have discussed desert civilization first, because iti prior to everything
else, as will become clear late on. (The discussion of) royal authority was placed
before that of countries and cities forthe same reason. (The discussion of) ways of
making a living was placed before that of the sciences, because making a living is
necessary and natural, whereas the study of science isa luxury or convenience M2
Anything natural has precedence over luxury. I lumped the crafts together with
sainful occupations. because they belong to the later in some respects as far as
‘ivilization is concerned, as will become clear later

God gives success and support

ntroductory material of Book One. Kitab al bar
Preliminary Remarks

Chapter! Human civilization in gener
RS PREEATORY DISCUSSION

‘SECOND PREEATORY DISCUSSION: The par of he cat where ciation
{sound Some infomation about ocean ets a ones

RD PREEATORY DISCUSSION: The tempera and teinempera one.
“he nene he ar won the cok human gs ad on many thet
specs oft contin
u CUSSION; The nace of ei (lima) upon
Truman chance

‘SETH PREEATORY DISCUSSION: Direct regandnhundaos ad
Sarit of Fo in the varius nie oa (an) an ow hey affect
‘the human boy ad character

SISTHLPREENTORY. DISCUSSION: The varius types of human beings who
Tae peral pen eher oh a) dp ehh
necia pecado bya icin limpian ad an ion

Chapter th

Bedouin civilization, savage nations and tribes and their conditions
of life, including several basic and explanatory statements

1 Ba Bois aod tar pple mau ss
2 The Ants eas soup ith sd

alain als
4 din ae ln ej ol an man poule
$ Bedi ae mu po cuna tan sera poko

1 Tias say gl ion ls dsc ide a
Beraten

2 Ole hed get gu el cn in beds

| Cool ro aly Pa Mond laos or thing
Er

fio nag oo ly ao sta Arba es
ca

0 Mas cage ese coa

AL Leal econ o sb in venu sig an ut be ei
in se nose sme dss

% or
sobs ss a al hiss av honing
cuota Deus ne

3 Usas" sd ali come os and alors sy ah hie
ae a sl ong tim descent

A Piss at ot gain none aes

(2 long aci is ci aa hat ia

Anuroductory material

ntroductory material of Book One. Kitab al bar

Preliminary Remarks

ChapiscL Humancivilizationin general

Chapecil ‘Bedouin civilization. savage nations and tibes and their cond
‘aie. including several basic and explanatory statment

Chapter IIL On dynasties, royal authority, the caliphate, government ranks, and

all that goes with these things. The chapter contains basic and
supplementary propositions

Anuroductory material

ntroductory material of Book One. Kitab al bar

Preliminary Remarks

ChapiscL Humancivilizationin general

Chu ‘Bedouin civilization. savage nations and tibes and their condi
‘aie. including several basic and explanatory statment

Chapter Ill On dynastics. royal authority. the caliphate, govcmment ranks. and
alLthal goes with these hings. The chapter contains basic and
‘supplementary propositions

Chapter IV Countries and cities, and all other forms of sedentary civilization,

“The conditions occurring there, Primary and secondary
‘considerations in this connection

Dynes u iota ons andes Towns an is ae second,
lila aci

Anuroductory material

ntroductory material of Book One. Kitab al bar

Preliminary Remarks

ChapiscL Humancivilizationin general

Chapecil ‘Bedouin civilization. savage nations and tibes and their cond
‘aie. including several basic and explanatory statment

Chapter Ill On dynastics. royal authority. the caliphate, govcmment ranks. and
alLthal goes with these hings. The chapter contains basic and
‘supplementary propositions

Chapter IV Countries and cities and all other forms of sedentary civilization,
“The conditions oscurring then. Primary and secondary
‘Somsidesations in bis connection

Chapter V_ On the various aspects of making a living, such as profit and the

ra. The conditions that occur in this connection. À number of
problems are connected with tis subject

Anuroductory material

ntroductory material of Book One. Kitab al bar

Preliminary Remarks

ChapiscL Humancivilizationin general

‘Chapter ‘Bedouin civilization. savage nations and wibes and lic conditions
‘aie. including several basic and explanatory statment

Chapter Ill On dynastics. royal authority. the caliphate, govcmment ranks. and
allihat goes wich these things. The chapter contains basic and
supplementary propositions

Chapter IV Countries and cities. and all other forms of sedentary civilizatis
“The conditions ascutring there. Primary and secondary
‘Somsidesations in bis connection

Chapter ¥—Onshe various aspects of making a living. uch as profit and the

ious kinds of sciences, The methods of instruction. The
ns that obtain in these connections. The chapter includes a
profatory discussion and appendices

A Maia ink

2 dupe and is uso betas ans BI sen af

CONCLUDING REMARKS

We almost strayed from our purpose. It is our intention (now) to stop wi
this First Book which is concerned with the nature of civilization and the accidents
‘that go with it, We have dealt - as we think, adequately - withthe problems
‘connected with tha. Perhaps some later (scholar, aided by the divine gifts of a
sound mind and of solid scholarship, will penetldte into these problems in greater
detail than we did here. A person who creates a new discipline does not have the
task of enumerating (all) the individual) problems connected with it. Hi task isto
specify the subject of the discipline and its various branches and the discussions
connected with it. His successor, then, may gradually add more problems, until the
(discipline) is completely (presented)
‘God knows, and you do not know." 1261

“The author ofthe book - God forgive him!-says: I completed the
‘composition and draft of this first part, before revision and correction, in a
period of five months ending in the middle ofthe year 779 [November, 1377]
“Thereafter, [revised and corrected the book, and {added to it the history ofthe
(various) nations, as I mentioned and proposed to do at the beginning of the work.

Knowledge comes only from God, the strong, the wise.

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m

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and Appendices

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uctory material
TRANSLATORS INTRODUCTION

problems ane connected with this subject |

Chapter VI the sari bind: a The menda the
‘ondiions hat chain in hese conneciions. The chapicr includes a
refit discussion and appendices

‘Concluding Remarks

INVOCATION

INTHE NAME OF GOD; THE MERCIFUL, THE COMPASSIONATE. PRAY, O
‘GOD, FOR OUR LORD MUHAMMAD AND HIS FAMILY AND THE MEN
AROUND HIM.

THE SERVANT of God who needs the mercy of God who is so rich in His
kindness,"Abd-ar-Rahman b. Muhammad b. Khaldua al-Hadrami-God give him
suecess!-says:t Praised be God! He is powerful and mighty. In His hand, He holds
royal authority and Kingship 2 His are the most beautiful names and attibutes. His
knowledge is such that nothing, be it revealed in secret whispering or (even) let
‘unsaid, remains strange to Him. His power is such that nothing in heaven and upon
‘earth is 100 much for Him or escapes Him.

He created us from the earth as living, breathing creatures. He made us to
settle on it as races and nations, From it, He provided sustenance and provisions for
us.

“The wombs of our mothers and houses ar our abode. Sustenance and food
keep us alive. Time wears us out Our lives final terms, the dates of which have
been fixed for us i the book (of desiny), claim us. Bu He lass and persists. He is,
the Living One who doesnot die

Prayer and blessings upon our Lord and Master, Muhammad, the Arab
prophet, whom Torah and Gospel have mentioned and described: im for whose
birth the world that is was (already) in labor before Sundays were following upon
Saturday in regular sequence and before Saturn and Behemoth had become
separate him to whose truthfulness pigeon and spider bore witness 2

(Prayer and blessings) also upon his family and the men around him who by
being his companions! and followers gained wide influence and fame and who by
supporting him found unity while their enemies were weakened though dispersion
Pray, O God, for him and them, fr as long as Islam sal continue to enjoy its lucky
fortune andthe frayed rope of unbelief hal remain cut! Give manifold blessings (o
im and them!

FOREWORD

HISTORY is a discipline widely cultivated among nations and races. His
‘eagerly sought after, The men in the street, the ordinary people, aspire to know i
Kings and leaders vie for

Both the learned and he ignorant are able fo understand it, For on the
surface history is no more than information about political events dynasties, and
‘occurrences ofthe remote past, elegantly presented and spiced with proverbs. It
serves to entertain large, erowded gatherings and brings 10 us an understanding of
human affairs. (It shows) how changing conditions affected (human affairs), how
‘certain dynasties came to occupy an ever wider space in the world, and how hey
settled the earth until they heard the call and thei time was up

“The inner meaning of history, on the other hand, involves speculation and an
“attempt fo get atthe truth, subtle explanation of the causes and origin of existing

ngs, and deep Knowledge of the how and why of events. (History. therefor. is

firmly rooted in philosophy. I deserves to be accounted a branch of (philosophy)

“The outstanding Muslim historians made exhaustive collections of historical
‘events and wrote them down in book form. But, then, persons who had no right to
‘occupy themselves with history introduced into those books untrue gossip which
they had thought up or freely invented, as well as false, discredited reports which
they had made up or embellished. Many of their successors followed in thie steps
and passed that information on o us as they had heard it. They did not look for, or
pay any atention to, the causes of events and conditions, nor did they eliminate or
reject nonsensical stores.
tle effort is being made to get at Ihe truth. The critical eye, as a rule, isnot
sharp. Erors and unfounded assumptions are closely allied and familiar elements in
historical information. Blind trust in tradition i an inherited tai in human beings.
‘Occupation withthe (Scholarly) disciplines on the par of those who have no right is
‘widespread. But the pasture of stupidity is unwholesome for mankind. No one can
stand up against the authority of truth, and the evil of falsehood is to be fought with
enlightening speculation. The reporter merely dictates and passes on (the material). I
takes critical insight o sort out the hidden truth: it takes knowledge to lay tr bare
and polis it so that eritical insight may be applied toi

Many systematic historical works have been composed, and the history of
nations and dynasties in the world has been compiled and writen down. But there
are very few (historians) who have become so well known as to be recognized as
authontes and who have replaced the products of their predecessors by their own
‘works. They can almost be counted on the fingers of the hands: they are hardly more

imerous than the vowels in grammatical constructions (which are just three). There

ae, for instance, Ihn Ishag; 10 at-Tabari Ibn al-Kalbi;l2 Muhammad b, "Umar al-
Wagidi:L Sayf b. Umar al-Asadi-L a1-Masudi.L3 and other famous (historians)
Who are distinguished from the general run (of historians)

Itis well known to competent persons and reliable experts that the works of
al-Masudi and al-Wagidi are suspect and objectionable in certain respects 8
However, their works have been distinguished by universal acceptance of the
information they contain and by adoption oftheir methods and their presentation of
material, The discerning critic is his own judge as to which part of theie material he
finds spurious, and which he gives eredence to. Civilization, in its (different)

canins, consis (fret cemento wich hivoricl information may be
‘ited and wih which rors and historical mail may be hechos

Mos of the histories by tes (authors) over everthing cause fe
nivel geoprpkica extension of he two cris tr dynasties and
bres ofthe very wid skin of source of which they dl or not make we
Some of these authors, such as ale Mavi and historians of his type, gave an
“nine history ofthe presi dynasties and ations nd of ler (pre
Islamic) affairs in genera Some ner trans on the ober and, showed a
tendency oward grater rein. esting tobe o geral and compose
“They brought together the happenings of thr own period ad save exhaustive

torial Infomásin about her own par ofthe word, The feste themelves

to the history of their own dynasties and cities. This was done by Ibn Hayyan, the
historian of Spain and the Spanish Umayyads,18 and by Ibn ar-Ragig. the historian
‘of Iigiyah andthe dynasty in Kairouan (al-Qayrawan) 12

“Te ater historians wee al radtion-bound and dll of nature and
intelligence, or, (at any rate) did not try not to be dull. They merely copied 22 the
(older sons) nd followed ir example. They disregarded th changes in
«ondo nd in he customs of nations and races ht the psig of me had
brought aout Thos they presented historical information about nas and
stories ol events rom te carly period as mere forms without substance, Blades
‘without cabane, as knowlege that mist be considered ignorance, because is
Det known what otis extraneous and what genuine. Cir information)
‘oncems happening the oiga al which are nt known. I concems species the
{eter of which ae oot ken no consideration and whose (peti ferences
are no verd 2 With the infomation they set down they merely repeated
Historical material which tin any ease, widely Known, and followed the carr
Historia who worked on. They negicid he importance of change over the
feterations ner eaten of de (trat materia), Because hey had no ne
Who coud re it for hem, Ther works, therefore, give no explanation fo
‘When they then tu tothe description of a parla nas they repo the
historia Information abo (mechanical) ad ak creo prserve Was had
teen passed on downto them, be it imaginary or tre. They donot tun to he
beginning ofthe dynasty. Nor o theyll why unfurl Banner and was bl 0
Be prominence fo hs elim, ot what ead to come a op nen Kal
Faced ts erm, The stud, us, hs il serch forthe Degininge of
Conditions and for he principles o) organization of (he various dynasties). He
ist (msc vestige Why the various dynes brought presas 1 ear upon
‚each other and why they succeeded each other. He must search for a convincing
“planation ofthe clement that made or maul separation or contact among the
mantis. AN this willbe dealt with in the ndo to his work

‘Other hiorians, then, same with 10 bre a presentation (of history), They
ent to th exten ol being satisfied wih he name figs, wihout any
Fricalogical or oa information, nd wih only a mena! ination of the
length of reigns.22 This was done by Ibn Rashig in the Mizan al-'amal.23 and by
(hose ls sheep who followed his method. No rene can be give o what Oxy
say, They ae mo consid wostworhy, ori ir tral consered worthy ol
‘resto, for thy caused weh marl o los and damaged he methods
and customs acknowledged (as sound and practical) by historians.

When had ead the works of thers and probed ino the recess of
yesterday and today book melo f a down, complacency and sleepiness.
‘Although not much of a writer 241 exhibited my own literary ability as well as I

‘could, and, thus, composed a book on history. In (his book) I ited the veil from
‘conditions as they arise inthe various generations. | arranged tin an orderly way in
‘chapters dealing with historical facts and reflections. In it showed how and why
‘dynasties and civilization originate. I based the work on the history ofthe two races
that constitute the population of the Maghrib at his time and people its various
regions and cities, and on that of thei ruling houses, both Iong- and short-lived,
including the rulers and allies they had in the past. These two races are the Arabs
and the Berbers. They are the two races known to have resided in the Maghrib for
such a long time that one can hardly imagine they ever lived elsewhere, for its
inhabitants know no other human races.

1 corrected the contents of the work carefully and presented ito the
judgment of scholars and the elite. followed an unusual method of arrangement
and division into chapters. From the various possibilities, [chose a remarkable and
original method. In the work, | commented on civilization, on urbanization. and on
the essential characteristics of human social organization, in a way that explains to
the reader how and why things are as they are, and shows him how the men who
‘constituted a dynasty First came upon Ihe historical scene. As a result, he will wash
his hands of any blind trust in tradition. He will become aware of the conditions of
periods and races that were before his time and that will be aftr i

1 divided the work into an introduction and three books:

“The Introduction deals with the great merit of historiography. (offers) an
appreciation of its various methods, and cites errors of Ihe historians.

“The First Book deals with civilization and its essential characteristics,
‘namely, royal authority. government, gainful occupations, ways of making a
living, crafts, and sciences, as well as with the causes and reasons thereof.

The Second Book deals with the history, races, and dynasties of the
‘Arabs, from the beginning of creation down to this time. This will include
references to such famous nations and dynasties - contemporaneous wit
them as the Nabatacans 26 the Syrians, the Persians, the Israelites, the
Cops. the Greeks. the Byzantines, and the Turks.

“The Third Book deals with the history of the Berbers and of the Zanatah
‘who are part of them; with their origins and races; and, in particular, with the
royal authority and dynasties in the Maghrib,

Later on, there was my trip to the East, in order to find out about the
‘manifold illumination it offers and to fulfill the religious duty and custom of
‘cicumambulatng the Ka'bah and visiting Medina, as well as o study the systematic
‘works and tomes on (Eastern) history. As a result, was able to fill he gaps in my
historical information about the non-Arab (Persian) rulers of those lands, and about
the Turkish dynasties inthe regions over which they ruled. I added this information
to what I had writen here (before in this connection). 1 inserted it into the treatment
of the nations of the various districts and rulers ofthe various cities and regions that
‘were contemporary with those (Persian and Turkish) races. In this connection I was
brief and concise and preferred the easy goal to the difficult one. I proceeded from
general gencalogical (tables 210 detailed historical information,

‘Thus, (this work) contains an exhaustive history of the world. It forces
stubborn stray wisdom to return (othe fold. It gives causes and reasons for
happenings in the various dynasties. It turns out to be a vessel for philosophy, a
receptacle for historical knowledge. The work contains the history of the Arabs and!

the Berbers, both the sedentary groups and the nomads. It also contains references 10
the great dynasties that were contemporary with them, and, moreover. clearly
indicates memorable lessons to be learned from carly conditions and from
subsequent history. Therefore, I called the work "Book of Lessons and Archive of
Early and Subsequent History, Dealing with the Political Events Concerning the
Arabs, Non-Arabs, and Berbers, and the Supreme Rulers Who Were Contemporary
with Them” 28

omitted nothing concerning the origin of races and dynasties, concerning
the synchronism of the earliest nations, concerning the reasons for change and
variation in past periods and within religious groups, concerning dynasties and.
religious groups, owns and hamlets, strength and humiliation large numbers and
small numbers, sciences and crafts, gains and losses, changing general conditions.
nomadic and sedentary life, actual events and future events, all things expected to.
‘occur in civilization treated everything comprehensively and exhaustively and
‘explained the arguments for and causes of i(s existence).

Asa result, this book has become unique, as it contains unusual knowledge
and familiar i hidden wisdom. Sul after all has been said, Lam conscious of
{imperfection when (look a) the scholars of (past and contemporary) times 2 1
‘confess my inability to penetrate so difficult a subject. wish that men of scholarly
‘competence and wide knowledge would look a Ihe book with a critical, rather than
a complacent eye, and silently correct and overlook the mistakes they come upon.
The capital of knowledge that an individual scholar has to offer is small. Admission
(of one's shortcomings) saves from censure. Kindness from colleagues is hoped for
is God whom I ask to make our deeds acceptable in His sight. He suffices me. He
is a good protector 22

INTRODUCTION

The excellence of historiography. An appreciation of
the various approaches to history. «A glimpse atthe
differen kinds of errors 10 which historians are liable.

Something about why these errors occur

IT SHOULD BE KNOWN that history is a discipline that has a great
ber oF (diferent) approaches. Is useful aspects are very many. Is goal is
inguished.

(History) makes us acquainted with the conditions of past nations as they are
reflected in their national) character. It makes us acquainted with the biographies of
the prophets and with the dynasties and policies of rulers. Whoever so desires may
thus achieve the useful result of being able to imitate historical examples in religious
and worldly matters.

“The (writing “of history) requires numerous sources and greatly varied
Knowledge. It also requires a good speculative mind and thoroughness. (Possession
of these two qualities) leads the historian tothe truth and keeps him from slips and
‘errors. I he trust historical information in its plain transmitted form and has no.
‘lear knowledge of the principles resulting from custom, the fundamental facts of
politics, the nature of civilization, or the conditions governing human socia!
‘organization, and if, furthermore, he does not evaluate remote or ancient material
‘through comparison with near or contemporary material, he often cannot avoid
stumbling and slipping and deviating from the highroad of truth, Historians. Qur'an
‘commentators and leading transmitters have committed frequent errors inthe stories
and events they reported. They accepted them in the plain transmitted form, without
regard for its value, They did not check them with the principles underlying such
historical situations, nor did they compare them with similar material. Alo, they did
‚not probe (more deeply) with the yardstick of philosophy, with the help of
knowledge of the nature of things, or withthe help of speculation and historical
insight, Therefore, they strayed from the truth and found themselves los in the
‘desert of baseless assumplions and errors.

"This is especially the case with figures, either of sums of money or of
soldiers, whenever they occur in stories. They offer a good opportunity for false
information and constitute a vehicle for nonsensical statements, They must be
‘controlled and checked with the help of known fundamental facts.

For example, al-Mastud and many other historians report that Moses
‘counted the army of the Israelites inthe desert. He had al hose able 10 carry
“arms, especially those twenty years and older, pass muster. There tumed out to be
600,000 or more, In this connection, (al-Masudi) forgets to take into consideration
‘whether Egypt and Syria could possibly have held such a number of soldiers. Every
alm may have as large a militia as it can hold and support, but no more. This fact
is attested by well-known customs and familiar conditions. Moreover, an army of
this size cannot march or fight asa unit. The whole availabe territory would be 100.
small for it, 1Fit were in balle formation, it would extend two, tree, or more times.
beyond the field of vision. How, then, could two such partes fight with each other,
‘or one battle formation gain the upper hand when one flank does not know what the

caer flanks doing! The situation atthe present day tesis to the cometnes of
this statement. The past resembles the future more than one (drop of) water naher,

Furthermore, he realm of the Persians was much greater than that of the
Israelites. This fact is attested by Nebuchadnezzar's victory over them. He swallowed
up their country and gained complete contol over it. He also destroyed Jerusalem,
thei religious and polfica capital And he was merely one of the oficial ofthe
province of Fars. It is said that he was the governor of the westem border region.
The Persian provinces of the two ‘rags. Khurasan, Transoxania, and the region of
erben on the Caspian Serú were much larger than the realm ofthe Isacits
Yet the Persian army did at tan such a number or even approach #. The grees
‘concentration of Persian troops, st alQadiiyah, amounted to 120,000 men, all of
‘whom had their retainers. This is according to Say 22 who sad hat with hei
reine they amounted to over 200,000 persons: According Lo “Ashah and a7-
avi ie troop concentration with which Rustam advanced against Sadat l-
adisiyah amounted to only 6,000 men, all of whom had thei retainers.

“Then, ifthe Isaeites had relly amounted to such a number, the extent of
the area under their ule would have been larger, forthe sizeof administrativo wots
and provinoes under a particular dynasty f indirect proportion 0 the size of is,
mila and the groups that support the (dymsty), as will be explained in the section
‘on provinces in the frst book À? Now, itis well known tat the territory of the
(loci) did not comprise an are larger than the Jordan province and Palestine in
Syria and the region of Medina and Khaybar in the Hijaz AD Also, there were only
three generations between Moses and Isl, according tothe bestinformed
scholars. Moses was the son of Amram, the son of Kohath (Qahat or Qahit), the son
Of Lev (Leni or Lathe son of Jacob whois Ircl-Allah. This is Moses"
genealogy in the Torah.4 The length of time between Israel and Moses was
inated by al-Masud when he sai: “ral entered Egypt wih is children the
tees, and their children when they came to Joseph numbering seventy sous. The
length oftheir stay in Egypt until che left with Moss forthe desert was two
hundred and twenty years During those years, the Kings ofthe Cpt, the Pharaohs,
passed them on (as their subjects) one to the other." ft is improbable that the
‘escendantsof one man cool branch out ino such a number within four
generations 5

Juas been assumed tht this mumber of soldiers applied othe time of
Solomon and his successors. Again, this is improbable Between Solomon and
Israel, there were only eleven generations, that i: Solomon, the son of David, the
som of Jess, the son of Obed ( Ubi, or Ufid) the son of Boaz (ala, or Bu),
the son of Salmon, the son of Nalshon, the son of Amminadab (Amminddhab, or
Hamminddhab), he son of Ram, the son of Hezron(Hadkrun, or Hasran), he son
of Perez Baras or Bayran, Ah son of Judah the son of Jacob, The descendants of
‘one man in eleven generations would not branch ou nto such a number, as as been
Sssumed. They might, indeed reach hundreds or thousands. Ths often happens. But
an increase beyond that to higher figures! is improbable. Comparison with
Gbservable present-day and well-known nearby facts proves the astmption and
opor to be unis. According to th definite statement ofthe race Strics #2
Solomon’ amy amounted o 12,000 men, and his horses numbered 1.400 horses.
‘which were sabled at hs plac, Tis I the correct information, No stention should
te paid to nonsensical statement by the common run of informants. Inthe days of
Solomon, the Iruelite state saw is greatest flourishing and their realm its widest

Whenever? contemporaries speak about the dynastic armes oftheir own or
recent mes, and whenever they engage in discussions about Muslim or Christian
Soldiers or when they get to figuring te fax revenue andthe money spent by the
ovement, the outlays of extravagant spenders and the gods that ich and
Frosperous men have instock, hey are quite generally Found to exaggerate, to go
Beyond the bounds of the ordinary, and to succumb othe temptation of
sensationalism. When the oficial in charge are questioned about thr armies, when
the goods and asses of wealthy people are assessed and when the outlays of
‘extravagant spenders are looked tm ordinary light the figures wil be found 10
amount to a tenth of what those people have sid. The reason is simple. Ii the
‘common desire for sensationalism, the ease with which one may jst mention a
higher figure, and the disregard of reviewers and cites This leads to fie to
serie self-criticism about one errs and intentions, to demand from oneself
Inoderation nd faimess in reporting o apply onset to study and research. Such
historians It homscves go and made feast of une siemens. They procure
for themselves entertaining stores in order to Tea (thers) stay {rom the path of
God." This is a bad enough business.

It äl may be said that the increase of descendants to such a number would be
presented under ordinary conditions which, however. donot apply to the Isai
(The increase in ther asc) would bea miracle in accordance with he trado
‘which sid that one ofthe things revealed other forefthors, the prophets
Abraham, sae, and Jacob, was that God woul cause their descendant to increase
‘nti they were more mumeros than the star o heaven and he pebble ofthe cat.
God fue his promise o them as an act of divine grace bestowed upon tem and
5 an exaordinary miel in her favor. Thus, ordinary conditions could not hinder
(Such an even) and nobody should speak against

‘Someone might come out against this tradition wth the argument that it
occur only inthe Torah which, 25 well known, was altered bythe Jews. (The
reply to this argument would be that) the statement conceming the alteration (the
‘Torah by the Jews) is unacceptable to thorough scholars and cannot be understood
init plain meaning, since custom prevents people who have a (revealed) religion
from dling with her divine sergtres in such manner. This was mentioned by
al-Bukhari in the Sahih “2 Thus, the great increase in numbers in the case of the
Isracites would be an eutmrdinary miracle, Custom, in the proper meaning of he
‘wor, would preven anything ofthe sort rom happening to other peoples.

Its tus tata (co-ordinated bate) movement in (such a lage group) would
Fary be posible, bu non took place, and there was no need for one ti aso ue
that each realm a particular number of milita (and no more). Bu the acts
At frst were no militimen and had no dynasty. Ther numbers increased that much
so that they could gain power over the land of Canaan which God had promised
them and ie tery of which He ad purified fr them, All these things are
miracles, Gad puesto he tut,

“The history ofthe Tubhas, the kings ofthe Yemen and of the Arabian
Peninsula, as itis generally transmited is anther example of sll statements by

istorans. iy said that rom their home inthe Yemen, the Tubba') used o aid
Ha andthe Berbers o the Maghrib. Afrique b Qaysb. Say one o ther great
carly Kings who lived i the time of Mose or somewhat cartier said to have
raided ya. He eased a great slaughter among the Berbers. He gave them he
name of Berbers when he heard their jargon and asked what that "barbara" was 5

“This gave them the name which has remained with hem since thal time. When he
left the Maghrib, he is said to have concentated some Himyar tribes there. They
remained thre and mixed with the native population, Their (descendants) are the
Sinhajah and the Kutamah. This Jed at-Tabari, al-Jurjani.36 al-Mas'udi, Ibn al
Kalbi.Zand al-BayhagiS$ to make the statement that the Sinhajah and the Kutamah
belong tothe Himyar. The Berber genealogists do not admit this, and they ae right,
Al-Masudi also mentioned that one of the Himyar kings after Afiqus, Dhul- Adar,
‘who lived in the time of Solomon, raided the Maghrib and forced i into submission,
Something similar is mentioned by al-Masudi conceming his son and successor,
Yasir2 He is said to have reached the Sand Riverin the Maghrib and to have
teen unable to ind passage through it because of the great mass of sand. Therefore,
he returned.

ikewise, it is said that the last Tubba’£L As'ad Abu Karib, who lived in the
time ofthe Persian Kayyanid king Yastasb$2 ruled over Mosul and Azerbaijan. He
is sid to have met and routed the Turks and t have caused a great slaughter among
thom, Then he raided them again a second and atid time, After that, he i sad
have sent hee of his sons on ais, (one) against he county of Fs (one) against
the country ofthe Sophias, one ofthe Turkish nations of Transoxani, and (oe)
against the county ofthe Rum (Byzantines) The first brother ook possesion of
the couniry up to Samarkand and crosed the dese into China. There, he found is
Second brother who had raided the Soghdins and had arivd in China before him.
“The two together caused great slaughter in China and retired together wih their
booty They lett some Himyar tribes in Tibet, They have been here dawn otis
time, The thi rober i sa to have reached Constantinople. He li siege to it and
forced the county ofthe Rum (Byzantines) ino submission. Then, he returned

All his information s remote from the ruth Its rooted in basles and
«roncows assumptions. His mare Hi the fiction of storytellers, The realm ofthe
“Tubbs was estrited othe Arabian peninsula, Their home and set was San in
the Yemen. The Arabian peninsula is surrounded bythe ocean on the sides: the
Indian Osean on the south, he Persian Gulf juin out of he Indian Ocean toa
Basra onthe est, and the Red Sea jung out of the Indian Oven to Suez in Egypt
‘onthe west. This can be sen on he map. Thee is no way from the Yemen tothe
‘Maghrib except via Suez. The distance between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean
is two day’ journey or les. His unit tht the distance cod be wave by a
feat ruler with large army unless be controlled tha region. This sa rule is
¡impossible In that region her were the Amalkies and Canaan in Syria, and
Egypt the Cops. Later on. he Amaektes took posession of Egypt. and the
Israel (ook possession) of Syria. There is however, no report thatthe Tuba
ever fought against one of these nations oF tht they had possesion of any part of
this region. arbore, the distance fom the Yemen to the Maghrib is great, and
an army requires much food and fod. Soldiers taveing in regions ater than
their own have to requisition grain and Hvetock and o plunder Ihe contri they
pas through, Asa rue, such a procedure doesnot ici enough food and fod er On
the ther hand, i they attempted 1 ake along enough provisions from thir own
region they would not have enough animals for transportin, So, their whole ine
‘of match necessarily takes them trough regions the must take possesion of and
force into submission in rderto obtain provisions from them. Again, le would Be a
most unlikely and impossible assumption that such an army could pas through al
‘hone nations without diserbing them, obtaining ts provisions by pesccfl
egotiation. This shows that al Such information (about Tubbs expeditions to the
“Machi is silly or ction

Mention ofthe (allegedly) impassable Sand River has never been heard in
the Maghrib although the Maghrib has often been crossed and its rads have been
‘explored by travelers and raiders at al times and in every direction. Because of the
“unusual character ofthe story, there is much eagerness 10 pas it on.

With regard tothe (alleged) rad ofthe Tubba's against the countries ofthe
Fast and the land ofthe Turks, it must be admitted thatthe lin of march in his case
is wide than the (arrow) passage at Suez, The distance, however, i greater, and
the Persian and Byzantine nations are interposed onthe way tothe Turks. There is
0 report that he Tubba's ever took possession ofthe counties ofthe Persians and
Byzantines. They merely fought the Persians on he border ofthe Ira and ofthe
Arab counties between al-Bahrayn and al-Hirah, which were border regions
common to both nations These wars took place between the Tubbs’ Dhul-Adbar
and the Kayyanid king Kaygawus, and again between the Tubb al-Asghar © Abu
Kari and the Kayyamid Yastasb(Bishtasp. There were other wars later on with
rulers ofthe dynasties that succeeded the Kayyanids, and. in tum. with their
successor, the Sassanians It would, however, ordinarily have been impossible for
the Tubba' to traverse the land of the Persians on their way to raid the counties of
the Turks and Tibet, because of the nations that are interposed on the way t the
“Turks, because of the need for food and fodder, as well as the great distance,
mentioned befor. ll information to this effect i ily and fictitious. Even ifthe
vay this information is transmited were sound. the points mentioned would cast
suspicion upon i. All the more then must he information be suspect since the
manner in Which it has been transmited isnot sound, In connection with Yathrib
(Medina) and the Aws and Khazsaj bn Ishagó? says thatthe lst Tuba’ traveled
‘eastward to th rag and Persa, ut rad by the Tubbas against the counties of the
Turks and Tibet isin no way confirmed bythe established facts. Assetions to this
effect should not be trusted: all such information shouldbe investigated and checked
with sound norms 8 The result wil be that it will most beauifully be demolished

God i the guide to that which is correct.

ven more unlikely and more deply rooted in ases assumptions is he
common interpretation ofthe following verse ofthe Sura al.) "Did You not se
what your Lord dd with "Ad lam, that ofthe pillars? 20

“The commentators consider the word ram the name ofa city which is
¿described as having plas thats, columns, They repo that Ad Us b am had
‘wo sos, Shad and Shaddi who ruled after hin. Shadid perished. Shaddad
became te ole rule ofthe realm, and the kings here submited to is authority.
When Shaddad heard a description of Paradise, be sad: "sal build something ike
it” And be built the city of ram inthe desert of Aden over a period of three
hundred years, He himself lived nine hundred year. It ix ai 10 have been a large
«ity, with canes of gold and ser and columns of emerald and hyacinth,
‘omtining all Kinds of tres and fcly lowing vives, When the contraction of (he
539) was completed, Shaddad went there with the people of hs realm. But «when be
vas he distance of only one day and night away fom i, God senta clamor rom
heaven, and all o them perished. This is reported by at-Tabar Thai LL az-
Zamakhshari,22 and other Qur'an commentators. They transmit the following story
‘on the authority of one of the men around Muhammad, “Abdallah b. Qilabah 23
‘Whe he went out in search of some of bis camels, he it upon (he city) and took
away from tas much a he could erry. His sory reached Mwah, who had
brought to him, and he told the story, Maw sent for Ka' lsahbar 24 and asked
im about it, Ka ai," ram, that of the pillars ram will be entered in Your

time by a Muslim who sofa reddish, uy color, and sho, with a mole this
‘eyebrow and one on his neck who goes out in sarc of some of his camels” Hk
then turned around and, seen lbn Qilabah he said "Inda, be à that ma.”

No information about this iy has since become available anywhere on earth
‘The dese of Aden where the city is supposed to have Been built es in the middle
ofthe Yemen. as been inhabited continuously. and traveler and guides have
‘explored its roads in every direcion. Yet. o information about the city has been
reported. No antiquarian, no nation has mentioned tf the commentators) said that
ithad disappeared ik athe antiquities, he story would be more key, Du they
expres sa that i sil exists, Some identi it with Damascus, because Damascus
Svan in the possession af the people of Ad. Others go so far in their era talks to
maintain that he ety es hidden from sensual perception and can be discovered
¿nl hy tained (magicians) and sorcerer. Al hese ae asumptons that would
batter be termed nonsense,

All these suggestions proffered by Quran commentators wer the result of
rama considerations, for Arabic grammar requires he expression, “ha of he
Pilar,” 1 be an auribute of fram. The word "pillars" was undersood to mean
‘Columns. Thus, ram was narrowed down in is meaning to some sr of building.
{The Quéan commentators) were influence in thei interpretation by the reading of
Ion az-Zabayrl who rad (not Adi with munation but) a genitive construction: ‘Ad
‘of Tram, They thn adopted these tries, which are bete called ictitous fables and
‘which ae que similar to the (Quran) interpretations of Sayfawayh which are
related as comic anecdotes 26

Ain fact) however, tbe “pillars” are ent poles. "columns" were intended by
the word it would not be farfetched. as the power of (he people of Ad) was wel
mov, and they could be described as people with buildings and columns in the
general way, But it woud be frfetched o say that special building in ome or
noir specific city (was intended). Hit sa genitive construction, as would be the
‘ine according to th reading of Ihn -Zabayr it would he a genitive consnetion
Ad to express tribal relationships, such as, fr sance, the Quray of Kinanah, or
the ys of Madar or the Rabiah of Nizr. There is no need for such an implausible
interpretation which uses frit string pont ily stories ofthe sor mentioned,
‘which cannot be imputed (othe Quran because they are so implausible

Another Fictitious story oF the historians, which they all report, concerns the
reason for ar-Rashids destruction of the Barmecides. I is the story of al~’Abbasah,
ar-Rashid’s sister, and Jar b. Yahya b. Khalid, his client. Ar-Rashid is sai to have
‘worried about where to place them when he was drinking wine with them. He
wanted to receive them together in his company. Therefore, he permitted them to
‘conclude a marriage that was not consummated, Al-'Abbasal then tricked Uae) in
er desire to be alone with im,22 for she had falle in love with him. Jafar finally
had intercourse with berit is assumed, when he was drunk-and she became
pregnant. The story was reported 10 ar-Rashid who flew into a rage,

“This story is irreconcilable with al-'AbbasalYs position, her religiousnes
er parentage, and her exalted rank. She was a descendant of "Abdallah b. ‘Abbas
14 separated from him by only four generations, and they were the most
distinguished and greatest men in Islam after him. AL’Abbasah was the daughter of
Muhammad al-Mahdi, the son of Abu Jafar ‘Abdallah al-Manslr, the son of
Muhammad as-Sajjad, the son of the Father of the Caliphs ‘Ai Ali was the son of
“Abdallah, the Interpreter ofthe Quran, the son of the Prophets uncle, al-'Abbas. Al-
“Abbasah was the daughter ofa caliph and the sister ofa caliph, She was born to
royal power, into the prophetical succession (the caliphate), and descended from the

men-troend- Muhammad aril his cs. She was connected by birth with the
Icadrahip of Islam. the Hight ofthe eveation, and the place where the angels
descend to bring the revelation She was clos intime to the desen side of true
Arab, to ha simple state of Ila sl far from the habits o luxury and usb
pastures of sin, Where should one lok for chat and modesty, if she did not
Possess them? Where could elanliness and parity be found if they no longer
‘existed in her house? How could she link her pedigree with that of) Jar b. Yahya
And sain her Arab nobility with a Persian client? His Persian ancestor had been
Acquired asa save, o taken as a cient by one of her ancestors an uncle ofthe
Prophet and noble Qurashite, and all (Ja'far) did was that he together with his father
was dragged along (by the growing fame of the ‘Abbisi dynasty and thus prepared
For and elevated os position of nobility. And how coud it be that ar Rand, with
his high mindedness and great pide, would permit himself to become related by
mariage to Persian clients! If rial person looks at his tryin al mess and
‘compares a Abbasah withthe daughter of à great rule of his own time, he must
find dispsting and unbclcvable at she could have done such hing wilh one of
the clients of her dynasty and while her family was in power, He would Insis that
the story be considered untrue. And who could compare with l“Abbasah and are
Rashid m dignity!

“The reason for he destruction ofthe Barmecides was ther atempt to gain
‘control over the dynasty and hir retention ofthe ax revenues This went 0 far cat
when ar-Rashid wanted even a litle money. be could ot get They took his
fs out of his hands and shared wit him in bis authority. He had no say with
them nth af of his realm. Their influence grew, and her Fame specad. They
filled the postions and ranks of the goverment with their own children and
‘atures who became high oficial and thos bared al ther rom the postions of
‘aie, secretary, army commander, doorkeeper (ha), and tom the military and
Shin administration. Its said tha nthe palace ofa-Rashid there were twenty=
five high oficial both military and civilian, al children of Yahya, Khali. Ther,
they crowded the people ofthe dynasty and pushed them out by fore. Thy could
‘do that cause ofthe positon of her father. Yahya mentor to Haran both as
“crown prince and as caliph Harum pracal grew up ins lap and ot al is
Satin rom im. (Harn) let him hale bi fairs and sed to cal him ft
Asa result, the (Barmecides, and not the government, wielded al the influence Zt
‘Their presumption grew. Their poston became more and more influential. They
became the center of attention Al abeyed them. All hopes ere addresse to hem
From the fartex orders, presents and gifts of rulers and amis were sent o them
The tax money found ts way into her treasury. to seve as an induction o
and to procure ther favor: They gave gi to and bestowed favors upon the men
the CALid) Shah and upon important relatives (of the Prophet). They gave the
poor from the noble familie (related 1 the Prophet) something to cam. They Feed
the captives, This, they were given prise as was ot given to ther caliph, They
showered privileges and ifs upon hose who came o sk favors rom them They
{sind control over villages and estates inthe open country and (nr) the main
ities in every province

Eventual, the Barmecidesimitaed the inner circle. They caused resentment
among the elit and aroused the displeasure of high officals. Jealousy and ey of
All ons began to show themselves and he scomions of intrigue cep int thir oft
us in the government. The Qabtahfamiy, Jars maternal cles ed the
inrigues agains them, Feelings for blood es and relationship could ot move or
sway them (he Qahtabah family fom the envy which was so heavy on her beat
This joined with ther master’ inciient jealousy, wih his dis of restrictions and
(ot ein tated with ighhandednes, and with his laten resentment aroused by

small cts of presumtuousnss on the prt ofthe Banmecdes. When they conimed
to ours as they dd, they were lodo gross insubordination, ai shown. lor
instance by thei action in the ease of Vaya b. Abdallah b Hasan Dallas b
"AN Abi Talib the brother of the Pre Soul” (an-Nafs az-Zakiya), Muhammad
<l-Mahd, who had revolted against al-Mansur 82

This Yahya had ben brought back by alFadl b. Yahya fom the county of
the Daylam under a af: conduct of ar Rashi writen in his own hand. According lo
Tab (al-Fa had pad ot a milion dirhams in his mate, Ae Rashid
Handed Yahya over 1 far Keep him imprisoed in is house and under Bt eyes.
He held him for a while but, prompted by presumption, Ja'far freed Yahya by his
con decision, out of rexpet fr ie blood ofthe Propo’ family a he thug and
in order to show his presumption again te goverment. When the mater was
reported oar Rashi he ake Jar about (Yay), Jer understood and sid hat
Be had I him go. Ar Rashid outwardly indicated approval and Ket his eros to
Binel, Ts, Jar himself paved the way for is wn and is anys undo,
Vich ended wit th collapse of ther exalted positon, wi Ih heavens ling in
Upon them andthe ert sinking with chem an et house Tei day of glory
care ating of he pat an example to Ir generations,

Cote examination oftheir story, scrutinizing the ways of govemmen and
ther own conduct, discloses that al his was natural and i easily explained.
Looking at In ‘Abdhabbilsrepon Son ar-Raskids conversation wih is great
srandincle Dawud “Al concemin the desucion ofthe Bammecides as weil a
A Asa evening cases la Ras and al Fadl be Yaa os mentioned ln
the clap on pocs In he Tg one understand that lt was onl lousy nd
Saga or contol onthe arto! he caliph and his subordinates ht Kile he.
‘nother Factor was the vers hat enemies ofthe Barmecdes among te inc ile
Surrpiously gave the singers rece inthe intention ta the caliph should hear
thew and is Nood-op animosity gun them be aroused. These ae the venis

Would that Hind could Flt her promise o us

And delivers from ou pcia,

And for nce act on he own,

“The impotent person is he who never acts on his own 34

‘When ar-Rashid heard these verses, he exclaimed: "Indeed, 1 am just such an
impotent person.” By this and similar methods, the enemies of the Barmecides
‘eventually succeeded in arousing ar-Rashid' latent jealousy and in bringing his
terrible vengeance upon them. God is our refuge from men's desire for power and
from misfortune,

“The stupid story of ar-Rashid' winebibbing and his getting drunk in the
‘company of boon companions is really abominable. I does not in the least agree

th ar-Rashid' attitude toward the fulfillment of the requirements of religion and

justice incumbent upon caliphs, He consorted with religious scholars and saints. He
had discussions with alFudayl b. Iyad.£S Ibn as-Sammak £ and al-'Umari and he
‘corresponded with Sufyan 5 He wept when he heard their sermons. Then, there is
his prayer in Mecca when he circumambulated the Ka'bah 2 He was pious, observed
the times of prayer, and attended the morning prayer at its earliest hour. According
10 at-Tabari and others, he used every day to pray one hundred supererogatory
rak'ahs 22 Akemately, he was used 10 go on raids (against unbelievers) one year and
0 make the pilgrimage to Mecca the other. He rebuked his jester, Ibn Abi Maryam,
‘who made an unseemly remark to him during prayer. When Ibn Abi Manyam heard

ar-Rashid recite: "How is it that I should not worship Him who created me?" 2Lhe
said "Indeed, I donot Know why." Ar: Rashid could ot suppres a laugh, bu then
he tuned to him angrily and sad: “O Ibn Abi Maryam, Jokes) even during the
prayer? Beware, beware ofthe Quran and Islam. Apr from tht yo may do
‘whatever you wish."22

Furthermore, ar Rashid possessed a good dal of Ieaming and simplicity.
because is epoch was close otal of his frebcars who had those (quals), The
time between him and his grandfather, Abu Jaa (al-Mansur) was not a log one.
Me was a young lad when Abu Jar died, Ab Jafar possessd a god deal of
leaning and religion before he became caliph and (ket them) afterwards I was he
wo advised Malik to write the Manse saying: "O Abu “Abdallah, no one remains
Om earth more lee than 1 and vou. Now. am too much occupied with the
“aliphate, Therefore, you should write a book forthe people which wil be useful for
thom In it you shoud avoid the laxity of lbn "Abbas and he severity of lbn
Umar 2 and present wa’) it early tthe peopl.” Malik commented: “On that
cccason, al-Mansur indeed taught me to be an author" 2

A-Mansrs soa, al- Mahdi, ar-Rashi father, experienced the (austerity of
sl-Mansr) who would not make use ofthe public easy to provide new clothes
for his family. One day, al-Mahdi came to him when he was in his ofico discussing
with the tailor the patching of his family’ worn garments Al-Mahdi did no ike
that and sid: °O Commander ofthe Faith tis year I shall pay forthe clothes of
the members of the family from my own income.” AlMansurs reply was: Do tha.”
He did no prevent im from paying insel ut would not permit any (public)
Muslim money tobe spent fort At-Rashid was very cos in time to at lip
and to his forcbars 2S He was reared under the influence of such and similar
‘conduct in his own family, so hat it became his own nature. How could such a man
have boon a winebibber and have drunk wine openly? Ic is well Known hat noble
pre-Islamic Arabs avoided wine. The vine was ot one o he plants (ulivate) by
them. Most of them considered itreprehensibl o rink wine. Ar Rashid and his
forebears were very successfl in avoiding anything reprehensible in thet religious
ar worldly affairs and in making all puseworhy actions and qulties of perfection,
A well the aspirations ofthe Arabs, their own nature

‘One may further compare the story ofthe physician Jibei, Bus
reported by at-Taari and al-Mastud 26 A fish had boon served a ar-Rashi tbl,
And br had not permite him to eat it. Ubi) had then ordered the table steward
to bring he fish 0 (iris) house, ArRashid noticed it and got suspicious. He had
his servant spy on bi and the servant observed him partaking oft In order to
justify himself, Ibn Bukhtishu’ had three pieces of fish placed in three separate

ishes. He mixed the first piece with meat that had been prepared different

Kinds of spices, vegctabes ot sauces, and sets, He poured Iced water over the
second piece, and pure wine over the third. The fis and second dishes, he sai,
were for the caliph to eat, no matter whether something was added by him (Ibn
Baklvish othe fish or nt. The third dish e said, was fr bimsel 1 et, He gave
the thee dishes to the table steward. When ar-Rashid woke up and bad Ion
Bud’ called into reprimand him, the ler had the thee dishes nought. The
ne with wine had became soup with mal ice of fish, ut the two other dishes
had spoied, and smelled differently. This was (sufficient) sification of Ib
Bukhishu” s action (im cating a dish of fish hate had prevented the caliph from
sing). Mis clear from tis story atar Ras avoidance of wine was a fac wel
Jon to his mer cle and to those who dined with him.

Iti a well-established fact that ar-Rashid had consented to keep Abu Nuwas

imprisoned until he repented and gave up his ways, because he had heard of the
laters excessive winebibbing 22 Ar-Rashid used to drink a dae liquor (nabidh),
according to the ‘Irag legal school whose responsa (concerning the permissbiliy of
(hat drink) are wel known.2 But he cannot be suspected of having drunk pare
‘wins. Silly reports to. this effect cannot be creditd. He was not the man to do
something that is forbidden and considered by the Muslims as one ofthe greatest of
the capital sins. Not one of these people (he early ‘Abbasids) had anything to do
With effeminate prodigality or luxury in matters of clothing, jewelry or the Kind of
food they took. They sill retained the tough desert attitude and the simple state of
Islam. Could i be assumed they would do something that would lea from the
lawful othe unlawful and from the ct to the ici? Historians suchas at-Tabari
al-Masudi, and others are agreed hat all the ealy Umayyad and “Abbasid caliphs
used 10 ride out with only light silver omamentation on their belts, swords, bridles,
and saddles, and that the First caliph to originate riding out in golden apparel was al-
‘Mutazz b. alMutawakhil, the eighth clit after ar-Rashid, 2 The same applied to
their clothing. Could one, then, assume any ciferently with regard to what they
‘drank? This will become sill clearer when the nature of dynastie beginning in
desen life and modest circumstances is understood, as we shall explain it among the
problems discussed in the fis book, if God wills 10

A parallel or similar story is that reported by all he historians) about Yahya
. Aktham, the judge and friend of al-Mamun JUL He is sad to have drunk wine
together with al-Maimun and to have gotten drunk one night. He lay buried among
the sweet basil until he Woke up. The following verses are recite in his name:

‘© my lord, commander of al the people!

He who gave me to drink was unjust in his judgment.

1 neglected the cupbcarer, and he caused me to be,

As you see me, deprived of intelligence and religion.

“The same applies to Ibn Aktham and al-Maimun that applis toar-Rashid
What they drank was a date liquor (nabidh) which in thei opinion was not
forbidden. There can be no question of drunkenness in connection with the
Yahyis familaity with al-Maimun was friendship in slam. Its an established fact
that Yahya slep in al-Maimumis room. I has been reported, as an indication of a+
Manns excellence and affability, that one night he amoke 02 got up, and felt
around for the chamber pot. He was afraid to wake Yahya b. Aktham. I also is an
‘established fact that the two Used to pray together atthe moming prayer. How does
that accord with drinking wine together! Furthermore, Yahya b. Aktham was à
transmitter of traditions, He was praised by Ibn Hanbat123 and Judge Ismi'il 104 At-
Tirmichil0S published traditions on his authority. The hadith expert al-Mizzi
mentioned that al-Bukhari transmitted traditions on Yahya' authority in works oher
than the Jami"fas-Sahih) 10 To vility Yahya is to viliy all ofthese scholars.

Furthermore, licentious persons accuse Yahya b. Aktham of having had an
{inclination for young men. This san affront to God and a malicious lie directed
against religious scholars. (These persons) base themselves on storytelles silly
reports, which perhaps were an invention of Yahya enemies, for he was much
‘envied because of his perfection and his friendship withthe rer. His position in
Scholarship and religion makes such a thing impossible. When Ibn Hanbal was told
About these rumors concerning Yahya, he exclaimed: “For God' sake, for Gods
sake, who would say such a hing!” He disapproved of it very stonely. When the
talk about Yahya was mentioned to sm, he exclaimed: "Heaven forbid that the

probity 'adatah) 107 of such a man should cease 10 exist because of the Iying
accusations of envious talebearers.” 108 He said: "Yahya b. Aktham is innocent in
the eyes of God of any such relationship with young men (as that) of which he is
aceused. 1 got to know his most intimate thoughts and found him to be much in fear
‘of God. However, he possessed a certain playfulness and friendliness that might
have provoked such accusations.” fon Hibban mentioned him in the Thigat He
said that no attention should be paid to these tales about him because most of them
‘were not correct.

A similar story isthe one about the basket reported by Ibn “Abdrabbih, author
of the Tad, in explanation of how al-Maímun came to be al-Hasan b. Sahl' son
Jaw by marrying his daughter Buran 18 One night, on his rambles through the
streets of Baghdad, al-Ma'mun is said to have come upon a basket that was being Jet
down from one of he roofs by means of pulleys and twisted cords of silk thread. He
‘seated himself inthe basket and grabbed the pulley, which started moving. He was
taken up into a chamber of such-andsuch a condition-Ibn ‘Ahdrabbih described the
‘eye and soul-filing splendor of it carpets, the magnificence ofits furnishings, and
the beauty of its appearance, Then, a woman of extraordinary, seductive beauty is
said to have come forth from behind curtains in that chamber. She greeted al-
‘Maimun and invited him to keep her company. He drank wine with her the whole
‘ight long. In the morning he returned to his companions at the place where they
had been awaiting him. He had fallen so much in love with the woman that he asked
her father for her hand. How does ll his accord with alMa'mun's well-known,
religion and learning, with his imitation of the way of life of his forefathers, the
right-guided (Abbasid) caliphs, with his adoption of the way of life of those pillars
‘of Islam, the (first) four caliphs, with his respect forthe religious scholars, or
‘observance in his prayers and legal practice of the norms established by God! How
‘could it be correct that he would act like (one of those) wicked scoundrels who
amuse themselves by rambling about at night, entering strange houses in the dark,
and engaging in nocturnal tysts ia the manner of Bedouin lovers! And how does
that story fit with the position and noble characte of al-Hasan b. Sahl's daughter,
and with the firm morality and chastity that reigned in her father's house!

“There are many such stories. They are always cropping up inthe works of
the historians. The incentive for inventing and reporting them is a (general)
inclination to forbidden pleasures and for smearing the reputation of others. People
justly thei own subservience to pleasure by citing men and women of the past
(who allegedly did the same things they are doing). Therefore they often appear
‘ery eager for such information and are alert to find it when they go through the
pages of (published) works. If they would follow the example ofthe people (of the
past) in other respects and in Ihe qualities of perfection that were theirs and for
‘which they are well known, “it would be better for them,” LLL "if they would
Know." LÀ

1 once criticized a royal prince for being so eager to leam 10 sing and play
the strings old him it was not a matter that should concern him and tha it did not
befit his position. He referred me to Ibrahim b. al-’Mahdi LL3 who was the leading
‘musician and best singer in his time I replied: "For heaven's sake, why do you not
rather follow the example af his father or his brother? Do you not sce how that
activity prevented Ibrahim from attaining their position?” The prince, however, was
deaf 10 my criticism and turned away.

Further silly information which is accepted by many historians concerns the
‘Ubaydid (-Fatimids), che Shah caliphs in l-Qayrawan and Cairo Lt (These

historians) deny their "Ali origin and attack (the genuineness of their descent from
the imam Ismail, the son of Jafar as-Sadig. They base themselves in this respect on
stories that were made up in favor of the weak ‘Abbasid caliphs by people who
wanted to ingratiate themselves with them through accusations against their active
‘opponents and who (herefore) liked o say all kinds of bad things about their
‘enemies. We shall mention some such stories in our treatment ofthe history of (the
‘Ubaydid-Fatimids). (These historians) do not care to consider the factual proofs and
‘circumstantial evidence that require (us to recognize) thatthe contrary is true and
that their claim is a lie and must be rejected.

“They alle the same story about the-beill gf the Shah dynasty. Abu
“Abdalla a-AfahasibLS went among the Kutamah urging acceptance of the family
of Muhammad (he "Ali, His activity became known. It was came how much he
‘ated for'Ubaydalla al Mad and his son, AbuL-Qesim, Therefore these two
feared for thrives and fed the East, the set o the caliphate They passed through
Egypt and left Alexandria disguised as merchants. It an Nawshari the governor of
Egypt and Alexandra. was informed of them He sent cavalry oops in pus of
them, but when their pursuers reached them, they did nt recognize them because ol
their attire and disguise. They escaped into the Maghrib. Al-Mu'tadid 16 ordered
the Aghlabid les of ia im ale Qyraan a well the Midard rules of
Sijlmasab to search everywhere for them and to keep a sharp lookout or then.
Has the Midarid Tord of Sima, Iced about thei hiding plac in is
county and detained them, in order o please the eli, This was before the Shah
victory over the Agbabid in al-Qayrawan. Therafer, a is well known, the
(Übaydid-Fatimic) propaganda spread succesflly throughout Hrigiyah and the
‘Maghrib and then, in tum reached the Yemen, Alexandria and (he es of) Egypt
Syria and the Hija» The CUbaydid-Fatimids) shared the realm of Islam equaliy with
the Abbasids, They almost suteeded in penetrating th home country ofthe
“Abbas and in taking their lace as ul. Their propaganda in Baghdad and the
“rag met with sucess through the amir al Basasr one ofthe Daylam cients who
ad gained contol ofthe ‘Abbasid clips. This happened as the result ofa quarel
between al-Basaii andthe non-Arab amirs 12 For a whole ye, the (bay
Fatimids) were mentioned in he Friday prayer fom the pulps of Baghdad. The
“Abhass were contimally Dothere bythe (UbaydidFatimid) power and
preponderance, andthe Umayyad rules beyond these in Spain) expressed the
Ennoyance with them and threatened war agus them. How coul all his have
cale a fraudulent claimant othe rulership, who was (moreover) considered a
ar? One should compare (is account with) the history of the Qarmatian 2
His genalogy was, in fac, rauen. How completely di his propaganda
disintegrate and his followers disperse! Their viciouness and guile soon became
apparent. They came to an vil end and taste biter fate I he "Ubaydid
Fatimid had been in the same station. it would have Become known, even hadi
taken some Gime,

Whatever qualities of character a man may have,
“They will become known, even if he imagines they are concealed from the
peoplel2
“The (Ubaydid-Fatimid) dynasty lasted uninteroptedly for about two hundred
and seventy years. They held possession ofthe place where Ibrahim (Abraham) had

stood 121 and where he had prayed, the home of the Prophet and the place where he
‘was buried, the place where the pilgrims stand and where the angels descended (to
bring the revelation to Muhammad). Then, their rule came to an end. During al that

their partisans showed them the greatest devotion and love and firmly believed

descent from the imam Ismail, the son of Jafar as-Sadig. Even after the
‘dynasty had gone and its influence had disappeared, people still came forward 10
press the claims of the sect. They proclaimed the names of young children,
descendants of (the 'UbaydidFatimids), whom they believed entitled to the caliphate
‘They went so far as to consider them as having actually been appointed to the
succession by preceding imams. Had there been doubts about their pedigree, their
followers would not have undergone the dangers involved in supporting them. A
sectarian does not manipulate his own affairs, nor sow confusion within his own
sect, nor at asa liar where his own beliefs are concemed.

Ati strange that Judge Abu Bake al-Bagjlni 22 the great speculative
theologian, was inclined to credit this unacceptable view (ast he spurousnes of
the “Ubaydid-Fatimid genealogy), and upheld this weak opinion If he reason for his
iMitude was the real and extremist Shrism of (he UD Ft, it would
not be valid, for his denial of their ‘Alid descent) does not invalidate 123 (the
‘bjetionable character of their sectarian belifs nor would establishment oftheir
{Alig descent be of any help to them before God inthe question of their unbei
‘God sid to Noah concerning his sons: He doesnot belong to yur family isa
improper action, So do not ask me regarding tha of which you have no
knowledge 124 Muhammad exhorted Fatimah in these words: “O Fatima, act as
you wish). I shall be of no help to you before God.” 124

When a man comes to know a problem orto be certain about a mate, he
must openly state (is knowledge or his certain) "God speaks the truth. He leads
¿men ito the sight way."125-Those people (he "Ubaydid-Faimids) were constant
On the move because of the suspicion varius govermments had conceming them
“They were kept under observation bythe tyrants, Because hee paisas were
numero and their propaganda had spread far and wide Time afer ime they had
to leave he places where they had seed Their men, therefore, ook refuge in
hing. nd ther den) was hardy known, as ih poe says:

It you would ask the days what my name is, they would

not know,

And where Lam, they would not know where 1 am 126
“This went so far that Muhammad, the son of the imam Ismail the ancestor
of Ubaydall al-Mabd, was called “the Concealed (Imam) "122 Hi partisans
ale him by that name because they were agreed onthe fact he was hiding out of
fear of those who had them in thet power. The partisans ofthe ‘Abbasids made
much use of this fact when they came out with thei attack against the pedigree of
{the UbaydidFatimids), They wid Ingrtite themselves wih the weak (Abbasid)
ls by professing the erroncous opinion tha (he "Al descent ofthe Ubaydid-
nids was spurious). I pleased the ‘Abbasid clients and the amis who were in
charge of military operations against Ihe enemies of the Abbasids) helped them
nd the government to make up for tei inability to resist and repel the Kutimah
Berbers, the patisans and propagandists 12 ofthe "Ubaydi-Fatimids), who had
taken Syria Egypt, and he Hijaz away from (he Abbasids). The judges in Baghdad
‘eventually prepared an oficial statement denying the "A origin (of the Ubaydid
Fatimido.L22 The statement was wiinessd by number of prominent men, among
them the Sharif ar-Radi LA and his bother al-Murtada LE and lbn al-Baihawi 122
Among the religious scholars (who also witnessed the document) were Abu Hamid
al-Isfarayini 133 al-Quduri LM as-Saymaril Ton al-Akfani 139 al-Abiwardi 137

{he Shah jurist Abu Abdalla b,an-Nu'man.!38 and other prominent Mustins in
Baghdad. The event took place one memorable 132 day in the year 402 11011] in the
time of al-Qadir. The testimony (of these witnesses) was based upon hearsay’ On
‘what people in Baghdad generally believed. Most of them were partisans of the
“Abbas who attacked the "Ali origin (of he ‘UbaydidFaimids). The historians
reported the information as they had ear it. They handed i down o us just as they
remembered i. However, the truth ies behind it. AL-Mutadids 140 ler concerning
Ubaydallh (adresse) tothe Aghlabid in al-Qayrawan and the Midrari in
Silas, testifies mos ul to the correctness ofthe (Ali) origin of the
CUbaydid-Fatimid), and proves it most clearly, AlMutadid (as a very close
relative) was better qualified than anyone else 10 speak about the genealogy ofthe
Prophet's house

Dynasty and government serve as the world’s market place LE rating 0 it
the products of scholanip and craftsmanship alike, Way ward wisdom and forgotten
Tore ur up there, tn this mark tris are tld and items of historical informa
are delivered. Whatever is in demand on this market i in general demand
‘everywhere else. Now, whenever the established dynasty avoid injustice, prejudice,
‘weakness, and double-daling, with determination Keeping 0 the right path and
never swerving fom it the wares on its markt ate as pure slvr and fine god
However. when itis influenced by selfish interests and rivalries, or swayed by
vendors of tyranny and dishonesty the wares ofits market place become as dross
and debased metals. The intelligent eric mus judge fr himself ashe looks around,
‘examining this, admin tat and choosing thi

A similar and even more improbable story is one privately discussed by
those who attack the (lid) descent of Lis. Idris b, “Abdallah b. Hasan b al
Hasan b, Alb. Abi Talib, who became imam after his father in Morocco 43 They
ia atthe pusishable crime of adultery by insinuating thatthe unborn chil lft after
the death ofthe elder Idris was in fact the child of Rashid, a client of the Idrsids.
How stupid of these God: forsaken men! They should know that the elder deis
maried into the Berber tribes and, from the time he came to the Maghrib until his
death, was firmly rooted in desert life, In the desert, no such thing could remain a
secret, There are no hiding places there where things can be done in seret. The
neighbors (if they are women) can always see and (if they are men) always hear
‘what their women are doing, because Ihe houses are low and clustered together
‘without space between them. Rashid was entrusted with the stewardship ofall the
women after the death of his master, upon the recommendation of friends and
partisans of the Idrisids and subject to the supervision of them all. Furthermore, all
Moroccan Berbers agreed to render the oath of allegiance tothe younger Iris as his
father’s successor. They voluntarily agreed to obey him. They swore that they were
willing to die for him, and they exposed themselves to mortal danger protecting hit
in his wars and raids. Had they told each other some such scandalous story or heard
it from someone else, even a vengeful enemy or scandal-mongering rebel, some of
them atleast would have refused to do those things. No, this story originated with
the ‘Abbasid opponents of the Idriids and with the Aghlabids, Ihe ‘Abbasid
{governors and officials in Ifigiyah

“This happened in the following manner. When the elder Idris fed to the
Maghrib after the battle of Fakhkh LH atHadi sent orders to the Aghlabids to lie in
‘wait and keep a sharp watch out for him. However, they did not catch him, and he
‘escaped safely to the Maghrib. He consolidated his postion, and his propaganda was
successful Later on, arRashid became aware of the secret Shiah leanings of Wadi
the ‘Abbasid client and govemor of Alexandria, and of his deceitful aude in

connection with the escape of st he Maghrib and (ras killed (Wadi
Then ashSharnmaln a ce of (ar Resid) father, suggested to aa arse
by means of which oil rs (As Shammakh) present become Hs adherent
A ave broken wih his Abid str, lack an under hs protection
and amd him o his private company. Once, when lis Was loos as
Shamma ave him sme poison nd th killed him. The news of is death was
received by the: Abbasids mos favorably, ine they hoped that it would ct the
Toots and blo he edge ofthe Ali propaganda in the Maghrb, News ofthe
"nor child ef afer I’ death had not (et) reached hem Thx. was only a
brief moment unl CAL) propaganda appeared. The Shih was successful in
the Maghrib, and Shia rule vas fenewed trough tis [rs son. This was a most
inf blow tothe "Abbas. Weuknes and senility had already tke hoi ofthe
‘ra dynasty. No longer could (the Abst) sp 10 he ont of ene
region ar away asthe eke ls wa inthe Maghrib under the protection ofthe
Beer, ar Ra ad Jus enough power, and no mre, to poison him wth he help
of ane, Therefore, ih Abba now had cour to tet Agab lies im
lega. They asked them to eal the dangerous breach caused by he Wd),
take measures agains the woe tha threatened to befall be dynasty from that
“rection, and o uproot (be Iss) before they could spread. AM andthe
Susi caliphs wrote tothe Aghlabis 10 this effect However he Aghabis
tere ao too weak to coma the Berbers of Morocco and might bete have ted
À embarass her ova rulers se sds embara them, because the power
‘tthe capte hd been usurped by non-Arab slaves, who dered wo their ove
purposes its entire control and authority 4S over men, taxes, and functionaries. It
‘was as the contemporary (Abbasid) poet described it:

‘caliph in cago

Between Wasi and Bugha

He says what they him,

Like a parrot.

“Te Aghlabid amis, therefore, were said of posible ige and id all
Kinds of exctses, Sometime, they tlie the Mag and inant At ther
ties they id to arouse fer of the power of Kft and hs Cexcendans who hod
taken his place there. They wrote the Abbasids that he was crosing he borders of
his terior. Tey included is coins among thei git, presents and ax collections,
in ode how his growing influence and 0 sped tor abou his increasing
power, to magnify (he dangers) whieh would ein tacking and fighting him, as
they were being asked to do, and to threaten a change in allegiance if they were
forced hat. Ain a er men, they attacked the decent of Kris with he
{aforementioned} lie, in ole 1 harm im. They did nor care wheter the accusation
was me or mor. The distance om Baghdad) was eet and, wen mind a the
“Abbasid cire and thir noe Arab ves wee, y Yok anybody's word and
Intend to anybody's ose. They went on in is manner un he Aplabid rule
come to an ea

“The nat remark (about the Iss genealogy) then became now tothe
mob. Some anderer listened egery tot using if ha the Hii when here
tere rivalries Why do such God-frsaken men stray fom th ination of the
veis lw, which Knows no difference between deine (fact) and (mere) pus?
AG is was bom in his fathers bed, and “the child beongs othe bed. lis a
(atest nice o aa tat the dedans of Muhammad ae above any such
thing (sade), God removed ever tape fom tem and kansed them,
li bed rc fall uclannes nd al turpitude This decided in he

Quin LES whoever biere he contra confesses his gil and invites nb,

"have refed the accusation again is ere at eth, in order forestall
doubts and se out again the envious. heard the ory wth mp own ar rom 2
Iman who was hose 1 (be sd) and tacked cr descent wi is ng
inveson. In Mi af deccpion, be passe on he sory onthe authority of Seria
Tinie ofthe Mag wo ad tuned ter Backs on Muhammad descendants
tod were skeptical concerning ber ancestors, But the situation (of the Jr) I
above all hat and not suscepble of such a (ain. (No space shouldbe devoted o
Fin such an acoaton sing) to deny faut where Ue exten o) fal
impossible is (in itself) a fault 142 However, | did defend them here in this world
nd this, hope tha they wil defend me onthe Day of Resurrection.

shouldbe known that most of those wh ack the CAN) descent of (he
Liss are hemsele persons who elm tobe descendants of Muhammad or
pretend tobe connected with his descendants, and who envy the descendants of
Tai Te claim o (Mehammadan) descem sa great 10 neiliy among nations
and race nal gions, Therefor, ts bc 19 suspicion. Now, bot inher
tative Fez and inthe ether regions ofthe Maghrib the descent ofthe ksi iso
wellknown and evident that nt no one can how hope to show as weil
established a pedigree. It is the result of continuous transmission by the more recent
ratios ad genertlns on the auhaiy ofthe older preceding nes The ris
‘oun the house oftheir ancestor ls, the founder and blr of Fez among her
oss Hit mosque Is aan other quer and sects. Hs sword is (spend)
mses tp the main minaret of ther residence. There ae ber relics of his
ich have been aso many times in an uninerat radio, so thatthe
{dion concerning them salmos as valuable as dise observation as o ls
rca} Die desendans of Muhammad can lok thee signs which God
sve othe lds. They wil ce the Mahammadan nobility ofthe dds
“hance by the majesty ofthe royal auhority their cesar exerce in the
Maghrib. They will tale that ey themselves have nothing of the sor and that
they do not measure upeven halfway to any one ofthe lids, They wil ao
realize that hove wo cau to be Mabaramads descendans but d ot have such
tctimoies to confi ter lim a the Kis have muy a ben find thei postion
‘once (ax poly tre), Bats people are tobe bio with gard he
‘descent they claim for themselves but there is a difference between what is
own and what is mer guess, between what is cin and what fs merely
concede s possibly ne

‘When they realize these acts, they ate coed in her own spit (which
they swallow in impotent jealousy) Tei private envy cases many of them to wish
that ey cold bring dowa te Isis fom thir noble postion tote status of
‘ordinary, humble persons. Therefore, they have reourse to spite and persistent
malevolence and Invent eonsous and ying acuso such a the one discussed
‘They july homes by Ih asamp ta all guet ae equal probable.
“Tey ough wo prove hat! We know of no descendant of Muhammad whose
Tineage lso clearly and viously esublished asta ofthe descendants of ris of
the family of al-asan, The most singe Iisa this me ar he Banu

iin Fez. They at descendants of Yat aldi. Muhammad. Yahyaa-

“Adam, alasim b. Krb. Li, Thy ar the chico he A there, Thy Hive
(atthe present time) in the house oftheir ancestor Kris. Tey are the leading
nobly ofthe entire Magi We shall mention them in connection with the
drisids, if God wills L£L They are the descendants of imran b.Muhammad b. al-
Hasan. Yala. ‘Abdallah, Muhammad Al Muhammad b Yan
Trabi. Yahya alla Thee f hei (house) ais de Muhammad

Muhammad b. Muhammad b. Imran.

‚ts and erroneous beliefs one may add the
accusations that weak-minded jurists in the Maghrib leveled against the imam al
Mahi, the head of the Almohad dynasty-L2 He was accused of deceit and
insinccrity when he insisted upon the true oneness of God and when he complained
about the unjust people before his time, AU his claims in his respect were declared
to be false, even down to his descent from the family of Muhammad, which his
Almohad followers accept. Deep down in their hears it was envy of al-Mahdi's
success that Jed the jurists to declare him a lar. In thei self-deception, they thought
that they could compete with him in religious scholarship, juridical decisions, and
religion. He then turned out to be superior to them. His opinion was accepted, what
hoe said was listened to, and he gained a following. They envied this success of his
and tried to lessen his influence by attacking his dogmas and declaring his claims to
be false. Furthermore, they were used to receive from al-Mahdi's enemies, the
Lamtunah kings (the Almoravids), a respect and an honor they received from no one
else, because of the simple religion (ofthe Almoravids). Under the Lamtunah
‘dynasty, religious scholars held a position of respect and were appointed 1 the
Juncil, everybody according to his influence among his people in his respective
lage. The scholars, therefore, became partisans (of the Almoravids) and enemies
of their enemies. They tried to take revenge on al-Mahdi for his opposition to them,
his censure of them, and his struggle against them. This was the result of their
partisanship forthe Lamtunah and their bias in favor of the Lamtunah dynasty.
Mahdis position was different from thers. He did not share ther beliefs. What else
could be expected of a man who criticized the attitude of the ruling dynasty as he
did and was opposed in his efforts by its jurists? He called his people to a holy war
against them. He uprooted the dynasty and turned it upside down, despite its great
strength. its tremendous power, and the strong force of is allies and its militia
Followers of his killed in the struggle were innumerable. They had sworn allegiance
to him until death, They had protected him from death with their own lives. They
had sought neamess to God by sacrificing themselves for the victory ofthe Mabdi's
“cause as partisans ofthe enterprise that eventually gained the upper hand and
replaced the dynasties on both shores 53 (A1-Mabdi himself) remained always
frugal retiring. patient in tribulation, and very litle concerned with the world to the
last; he died without fortune or worldly possessions. He did not even have children,
as everybody desires but as one often is deceived in desiring. 1 should like to know
‘what he could have hoped to obtain by this way of life were it not 10 look upon) the
face of God, for he did not acquire worldly fortune of any kind during his lifetime.
Moreover, I his intention had not been good, he would not have been successful,
and his propaganda would not have spread. “This is how God formerly proceeded
with His servants LS

“The (juris) disavowal of (al-Mahdis) descent from Muhammad family is
‘not backed up by any proof. Were i established that he himself claimed such
‘descent, his claim could not be disproved, because people are 10 be believed.
regarding the descent they claim for themselves! I might be said that leadership
‘over a people is vested only in men of their own skin. This is correct, as will be
mentioned in the frst chapter of this book, But!52 al-Mahdi exercised leadership
‘overall the Masmudah. They agreed to follow him and be guided by him and his
Harghah group. and, eventually, God gave complete success to his propaganda. In
this connection, it must be realized that al-Mahdi' power did not depend exclusively
‘on his Fatimid descent, and the people did not follow him on that account (onl).
‘They followed him because oftheir Harghah-Masmudab group feeling and because
of his share in that group feeling which was firmly rooted in him. (Al-Mahdi’s)

Fatimid descent had become obscured and knowledge of it had disappeared from
among the people, although it had remained alive in him and his family through
family tradition. His original (Fatimid) descent had, in a way. been sloughed off
and he had put on the skin of the Harghah-Masmudah and thus appeared as one of
ther skin. The fact that he was originally of Fatimid descent did not harm him with
regard to his group feeling, since it was not known to Ihe members ofthe group.
“Things like that happen frequently once one's original descent has become obscured,

‘One might compare (with the above) the story of Arfajah and Jarir
‚concerning the leadership ofthe Bajilah 45 Arfajah had belonged to the Azd but
had put on the skin ofthe Bajlah so successfully that he was able to wrangle with
Jatt over the leadership before "Umar, as has been reported. This example makes
‘one understand what the truth is like,

‘God isthe guide to that which is correct.

Lengthy discussion of these mistakes has taken us rather far from the
purpose of his work. However, many competent persons and expert historians
Slipped in connection with such stories and assertions, and they stuck in their minds.
Many weak-minded and uncritical persons learned these things from them, and even
{the competent historias) themselves accepted them without critical investigation,
and thus (strange stories) crept into their material. In consequence, historiography
became nonsensical and confused, and its students fumbled around. Historiography
‘came to be considered a domain ofthe common people. Therefore, today, the
scholar in his field needs to know the principles of politics, the (true) nature of
‘existent things, and the differences among nations, places, and periods with regard
to ways of life, character qualities, customs, secs, schools, and everything else. He
further needs a comprehensive knowledge of present conditions in all these respects.
He must compare similarities or differences between the present and the past (or

istanty located) conditions. He must know the causes of the similartics in certain
‘eases and of the differences in others. He must be aware ofthe differing origins and
beginnings of (different) dynasties and religious groups, as well as of the reasons
and incentives that brought them into being and the circumstances and history of the
persons who supported them. His goal must be to have complete knowledge ofthe
reasons for every happening, and 10 be acquainted with the origin of every event.
“Then, he must check transmitted information with the basic principles he knows, If it
fulfills their requirements, ts sound. Otherwise, the historian must consider it as
spurious and dispense with it I was for ths reason alone that historiography was
highly considered by the ancients, so much so that at-Tabari,al-Bukhar, and, before
them, Ibn Ishaq and other Muslim religious scholars, chose to occupy themselves
with it. Most scholars, however, forgot this, the (real) secret of historiography. with
the result that it became a stupid occupation. Ordinary people as well as (scholars)
‘who had no firm foundation of knowledge, considered it simple mater to study
and know history, o delve int it and sponge on it. Strays got into the Mock, bits of
shell were mixed with the nut ruth was adulterated with lies.

“The inal outcome of ins pto God"

“ALÍ hidden pitfall in historiography is disregard for the fact that conditions
‘within the nations and races change withthe change of periods and the passing of
days. This i a sore afiction and is deeply hidden, becoming noticeable only after a
Tong time, so that rarely do more than a few individuals become aware of i

"This is as follows. The condition of the world and of nations, their customs.
and sect, does not persist in the same form or in a constant manner. There are
differences according to days and periods, and changes from one condition to
another. This is the case with individuals, times, and cities, and, inthe same manner,

ithappens in connection
“This is how God formerly proceeded with His e
"The old Persian nations, the Syrians, the Nabatacans, the Tubba's, the
Isracites, and the Copts, all once existed. They all had their own particular
institutions in respect of dynastic and territorial arrangements their own politics,
crafts, languages, echnical terminologies, as well as their own ways of dealing with
their fellow men and handling their cultural institutions. Their (historical) relics
testify o that. They were succeeded by the later Persians, the Byzantines, and the
Arabs. The old institutions changed and former customs were transformed, either
into something very similar, or into something distinct and altogether different
“Then, there came Islam with the Mudar dynasty. Again. all institutions underwent
another change, and forthe most part assumed the Forms that are stil familiar at Ihe
present time as the result oftheir transmission from one generation tothe net
‘Then, the days of Arab rule were over. The early generations who had
‘cemented Arab might and founded the realm of the Arabs, were gone. The power
‘was seized by others, by non-Arabs like the Turks inthe cas, the Berbers in the
‘west, and the European Christians!“ in the north. With their 624 passing, entire
nations ceased to exis, and institutions and customs changed. Their glory was
forgotten, and their power no longer heeded.
“The widely accepted reason for changes in institutions and customs is the
fact that the customs of each race depend on the customs ofits ruler. As the proverb
says: "The common people follow the religion of the rule.” 163.

th regions and districts, periods and dynasties.
ramas. "46h

When politically ambitious men overcome the ruling dynasty and seize
power, they inevitably have recourse to the customs of their predecessors and adopt
most of them. At the same time, they do not neglect the customs oftheir own race.
“This leads to some diserepancies between the customs ofthe (new) ruling dynasty
and the customs of the old ace,
“The new power, in turn, is succeeded by another dynasty, and customs are

inher mixed with those of the new dynasty. More discrepancies come in, and the
discrepancy between the new dynasty and the first one is much greater (than that
between the second and the first one). Gradual increase inthe degree of discrepancy
‘continues, The eventual result is an altogether distinct (set of customs and
institutions). As long as there is this cont
authority and government, discrepanch

ued succession of different races to royal
in customs and institutions will not cease 10

Analogical reasoning and comparison are well known to human nature. They
are not safe from eror. Together with forgetfulness and neligence, they sway man
from his purpose and divert him from his goal, Often, someone who has learned a
2004 deal of pas history remains unaware ofthe changes that conditions have
‘undergone. Without a moments hesiaion, he applies his knowledge (othe present)
A0 the historical information and measures the historical information by he things he
has observed with his own eyes, although the difference between the two is great
‘Consequently he falls ito an abyss of ero.

‘This may be illustrated by what the historians report concerning the
<ircumstances of Al-Haljaj LS They state that his father was a schoolteacher, Al
present time teaching i craft and serves to make a ving. eis a fr ery from the
‘ide of group fecling. Teachers ae weak, indigent, and roodess. Many weak
professional men and artisans who work fora living aspire 10 postions for which
they are not fi but which they believe tobe within their reach. They are misled by
their desires, a rope Which often slips from their hands and precipiats them int the

abyss of ruinous perdition. They do not realize that what they desire is impossible
for men like them to attain. They do not realize that they are professional men and
artisans who work fora living. And they do not know that at the beginning of Islam
and during the (Umayyad and 'Abbasid) dynasties, teaching was something

different Scholarship. in general, was nota craft in that period. Scholarship was
{transmitting statements that people had heard the Lawgiver (Muhammad) make. It
was teaching religious matters-Ihat-were not known, by wavy of oral transmission,
Persons of noble descent and people who shared in the group feeling (of the ruling
dynasty) and who directed the affairs of Islam were the ones who taught the Book of
God and the Sunnah of the Prophet, (and they did so) as one transmits traditions, not
as one gives professional instruction. (The Qur'an) was their Scripture, revealed (0
‘the Prophet in their mids, It constituted their guidance, and Islam was their religion,
and for they fought and died, I distinguished them from the other nations and
ennobled them, They wished to teach it and make it understandable to the Muslims.
“They were not deterred by censure coming from pride, nor were they restrained by
criticism coming from arrogance. This i atested by the Fact thatthe Prophet sent the
most important of the men around him with his embassies to the Arabs, in order to
‘each them the norms of Islam and the religious laws he brought. He sent his ten
‘companions! and others after them on this mission

‘Thea, Islam became firmly established and securely rooted, Far-off nations
accepted Islam atthe hands of the Muslims. With the passing of time, the situation
of Islam changed. Many new laws were evolved from the (basic) texts as the result
of numerous and unending developments. A fixed norm was required (0 keep (the
process) fre from error. Scholarship came to be a habit For its acquisition,
study was required. Thus, scholarship developed into a craft and profession. This
will be mentioned in the chapter on scholarship and instruction 122

“The men who controlled the group feeling now occupied themselves with
directing the affairs of royal and governmental authority. The culivation of
scholarship was entrusted to others. Thus, scholarship became a profession that
served to make a living. Men who lived in luxury and were in control ofthe
government were 100 proud to do any teaching. Teaching came to be an occupation
restricted to weak individuals. As a resul, its practitioners came to be despised by
the men who controlled the group feeling and the government.

Now. Yusuf, the father of al-Hajjaj, was one ofthe lords and nobles of the
‘Thagif, well known for their share in the Arab group fecling and for thei rivalry
with the nobility of the Quraysh. Al-Hajajs teaching of the Qur'an was not what
reaching of the Qur'an i a this time, namely, a profession that serves to make a
living. His teaching was teaching as it was practiced atthe beginning of Islam and
as we have just described it.

Another illustration ofthe same (Kind of error) isthe baseless conclusion
critical readers of historical works draw when they hear about the position of judges
and about the leadership in war and the command of armies that judges (formerly)
‘exercised. Their misguided thinking leads them to aspire to similar positions. They
{think that the office of judge atthe present time is as important as it was formerly.
‘When they hear thatthe father of Ibn Abi ‘Amir, who had complete control over
Hisham, and that the father of Ibn "Abbad, one ofthe rulers of Sevilla, were
judges 6 they assume that they were like present-day judges. They are not aware
‘of the change in customs that has affected the office of judge, and which will be
‘explained by us in the chapter on the office of judge inthe first book. 432 Ibn Abi
“Amir and Ibn ‘Abbad belonged to Arab tribes that supported the Umayyad dynasty
in Spain and represented the group feeling of the Umayyads, and it is known how

important their positions were. The leadership and royal authority they attained did
ot derive from the rank of the judgeship as such, inthe present-day sense that (the
‘office of judge constitutes an administrative rank). Inthe ancient administrative
‘organization, the office of judge was given by the dynasty and its cients to men who
shared in the group feeling (of the dynasty), as is done in our age with the wazirate
in the Maghrib. One has only to consider the fact that in those days judges)
accompanied the army on its summer campaigns and were entrusted with the most
important affairs such as are entrusted only to men who can command the group
feeling needed for their execution

Hearing such things, some people are misled and get the wrong idea about
conditions. At the present time, weakminded Spaniards are especially given to errors
in this respect. The group feeling has been lost in their country for many years, as
the result of the annihilation of the Arab dynasty in Spain and the emancipation of
the Spaniards from the control of Berber group feeling. The Arab descent has been
remembered, but the ability to gain power through group feeling and mutual co-
operation has been Tost. In fact, the (Spaniards) came to be like (passive)
subjects 20 without any feeling for the obligation of mutual support. They were
‘enslaved by tyranny and had become fond of humiliation, thinking that their descent,
together with ther share in the ruling dynasty, was the source of power and
authority. Therefore, among them, professional men and artisans are to be found
pursuing power and authority and eager to obtain them. On the other hand, those
‘who have experience with bal conditions, group feeling, and dynasties along the
western shore, and who know how superiority is achieved among nations and tribal
groups, will rarely make mistakes or give erroneous interpretations in this respect.

Another illustration ofthe same kind of error is the procedure historians
follow when they mention the various dynasties and enumerate the rulers belonging
10 them. They mention the name of each ruler, his ancestors, his mother and father,
his wives, his surname, his seal ring, his judge, doorkeeper, and wazir. In this
respect, they blindly follow the tradition of the historians of the Umayyad and
‘Abbasid dynasties, without being aware of the purpose of the historians of those
times, (The historians of those times) wrote their histories for members of the ruling
‘dynasty, whose children wanted to know the lives and circumstances of their
ancestors, so that they might be able to follow in their steps and to do what they
did even down to such details as obtaining servants from among those who were
leftover from the (previous) dynasty 122 and giving ranks and positions to the
descendants of ils servants and retainers. Judges, 100, shared in the group feeling of
the dynasty and enjoyed the same importance as wazirs, as we have just mentioned,
‘Therefore, the historias of that time had to mention all these things

Later on, however, various distinct dynasties made their appearance. The
time intervals became longer and longer, Historical interest now was concentrated
on the rules themselves and on the mutual relationships ofthe various dynasties in
respect to power and predominance. (The problem now was) which nations could
stand up (0 the ruling dynasty) and which were too weak to do so. Therefore, itis
pointless for an author of the present time to mention the sons and wives, the
‘engraving on the seal ring, the surname, judge, wazir, and doorkeeper of an ancient
‘dynasty, when he does not know the origin, descent, or circumstances of its
members, Present-day authors mention al these things in mere blind imitation of
former authors. They disregard the intentions of the former authors and forget to
pay attention to histoiography's purpose.

An exception are the wazirs who were very influential and whose historical
importance overshadowed that of he rules, Such wazis as,-for “instance al.
Ualjaj-the Band Muhallab, the Barmecides, the Banu Sahl b. Nawbakht, Kai al-

hshid, lbn Abi Am
‘dealing with thir lives or referring to their conditions for in
‘withthe rulers

An additional note to end this discussion may find is place here

History refers to events that are peculiar to a particular age or race.
Discussion of the general conditions of regions, races, and periods constitutes the
historian’ foundation. Most of his problems rest upon that foundation, and his
historical information derives clarity from it forms the topic of special works,
such as the Muruj ad-dhahab of al-Masud In his work, al-Masudi commented
‘upon the conditions of nations and regions in the West and inthe Fast during his
period (which was) the three hundred and this [the nine hundred and forties). He
mentioned their sects and customs. He described the various countries, mount
‘oceans, provinces, and dynasties, He distinguished between Arabic and non- Arabic
groups. His book, thus, became the basic reference work for historians, their
Principal source for verlying historical information.

and others should be mentioned. There is no objection to
portance they rank

AleMasudi was succcded by al-Baki 173 who did something similar or
routes and provinces, tothe exclusion of everything else, because, in his time, nt
many transformations or great changes had occurred among the nations and aces,
However, atthe presen time-that at the end ofthe eighth fourteenth] cenury-the
situation in he Maghrib, as we can observe, hasten a um and changed entire.
‘The Berbers, the orginal population of the Maghrib, have heen replaced by an
influx of Arabs (hat began in) the fh [eleventh] century. The Arabs outnumbered
and overpowered the Berbers, stripped them of mos of cir lands and (also)
‘ined share of those that remain in cir possession, This was the situation
nt, in the mid of the eighth [founeenh] century civilization both in the East
and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and
caused populations to vanish 124 swallowed up many of the good things of
<ivilizaion and wiped them out. overtook the dynasties atthe time of their
Senility when hey ad reached the limit of ther duration. I Tesened ther power
amd cra her inftocnce I weakened ther autori. Ti situation approached
the point of aniilaion and dissolution, Civilization decreased with he decrease of
makin. Cities and buildings were lid wast, roads and way signs were
bliteatd, sement and mansions became empty, dynasties and bes grew
‘weak. The entire inhabited world changed, The Es, seems, was sil vist,
{tough in accordance with and in proportion to (ihe East's more aust)
<iviliation I was s ithe voice f existence inthe world had called ot for
Oblivion and restriction, and the word had responded to its call God inherits the
‘ath and whomever upon i

‘When there is general change of conditions its as ifthe entre creation
had changed and the whole world been altered sift were anew and repeated
(ration, a word brought into existence anew. Therefore, there is need at his ie
that someone should systematically et down te situation ofthe word among al
regions and aces, as well asthe customs and sectarian eles that have changed for
thei adherens, doing for is age what al Mardi did fr his. This should be a
‘model fr future historians wo follow. In this book of min, hall discuss as much
of that as will be posible for me here inthe Maghrib. 1 shall do so either explicitly
‘of implicitly in connection with the history of the Maghrib, in conformity with my.
Intention to reset myself inthis work tothe Magn the crcemstances al its
races and nations, and its subjects and dato the exclusion of any other
region ZS (This restriction is necessitated) by my lack of knowledge of conditions
inthe East and among it ations and by the fact ha secondhand information
Would not give the essential facts Tam after, Al-Masudis extensive traves in

vous countries cuabl him to give a complete picture, a he mentioned in
‘work Nevertheless, his discussion of condions inthe Maghti ls incompleto. "And
He knows more than any scolar." 125 God is the ultimate repository of (ll)
knowledge: Man is weak and deficient. Admission (of one ignorance) is a specific
{religious uty. He whom God bes, finds his way (made) easy and his efforts and
“ests stccesful. We eek Go help forthe goal to which we aspire inthis work
God gives guidance and help. He may be sed

Ie remains for us o explain the method of ranseribing non Arabic sounds
Whenever they occur in this book of ours

It should be known that the letters (sounds) 122 of speech, as will be
‘explained later on 2 are modifications of sounds that come from the larynx. These
modifications result from the fact thatthe sounds are broken up in contact with the
‘uvula and the sides of the tongue in the throat, against the palate or he teeth, and
also through contact with the lips. The sound is modified by the different ways in
‘hich such contact takes place. As a result, the letters (sounds) sound distinct, Their
‘combination constitutes the word that expresses what is in the mind.

‘Not LE al nations have the same letters (sounds) in their speech. One nation
as letters (sounds) different from those of another. The letters (sounds) of the
Arabs are twentyeight, as is known, The Hebrews are Found to have letters (sounds)
{hat are notin our language. In our language, in tum, here are letters sounds) that
are notin theirs. The same applies to the European Christians, the Turks, the
Berbers, and other non-Arabs.

In order to express their audible letters (sounds), literate Arabs 18% chose to
se conventional letters written individually separate, such a b,j. . 1, and so forth
through all the twenty-cight leurs. When they come upon a leter (sound) for which
there is no corresponding letter (sound) in their language, i isnot indicated in
‘writing and not clearly expressed, Seribes sometimes express it by means of the
Tester which is closest to it in our language, the one either preceding or following
it This is not a satisfactory way of indicating a letter (sound) but a complete
replacement of it.

‘Our book contains the history of the Berbers and ether non-Arabs. tn their
ames and in some oftheir words, we came across letters (sounds) that did not
‘correspond with our writen language and conventional orthography. Therefore, we
were forced to indicate such sounds (by special signs). As we said, we did not find it
Satisfactory to use the letters closest to them, because in our opinion this is not a
satisfactory indication. In my book, therefore, have chosen to write such non-
Arabic letters (sounds) in such a way as to indicate the two letters (sounds) closest
to it, so that the reader may be able to pronounce it somewhere in the middle
between the sounds represented by the two letters and thus reproduce it correctly.

1 derived this idea from the way the Quran scholars write sounds that are not
sharply defined, such as occur, for instance, in as-sirat according to Khalafs
reading 182 The s isto be pronounced somehow between s and 7. In this case, they
spell the word with s and write a z into it LE thus - indicate a pronunciation
somewhere inthe middle between the two sounds Al

In the same way, I have indicated every letter (sound) that is o be
pronounced somehow in the middle between two of our letters (sounds). The Berber
A, for instance, which is pronounced midway between our clear k and j (2) or q, as,
for instance, in the name Buluggin is spelled by me with a & with the addition of
‘one dot-from the j-below, or one dot or two-from the q-on top of it. LE This

indicates thatthe sound is to be pronounced midway between k and je) org. This
sound occurs most frequently in the Berber language. In the other cases, [have
spelled each letter (sound) that is 10 be pronounced midway between two letters
sounds) of our language, with a similar combination of to letters, The reader will
‘thus know that tis an intermediate sound and pronounce it accordingly. In his way,
‘we have indicated it satisfactorily. Had we spelle it by using only one letter (sound)
adjacent to it om either side LES we would have changed its proper pronunciation to
the pronunciation of the particular letter (sound) in our own language (which we
might have used), and we would have altered the way people speak. This should be
known,

God gives success

1 Cf Isawi, pp. 26. and J. Sauvaget, Historiens arabes (Paris, 1946), pp.
1384

2 "Personality criticism” (al jarh wa-t-tadi) is concerned with investigating the
reliability or unreliability of the transmitters of traditions. Ibn Khaldun often
as occasion to refer to it; see, for instance, p. 76 and 2:160f., 4471. below.

2a Cf. n, 379 10 Ch. i, below,
3 CE al-Mastudi, Mur adh-dhahab, U, 425 FT. The story goes back ultimately
to the snake (dragon) that frightened the workmen who built Alexandria. Cf.

Pseudo-Callisthenes, Historia Alexandri Magni, ed. Kroll (Berlin, 1926), p.
2

4 Gharar “isk” is a legal term, used mainly in connection with commercial
matters, In his context it implies unlawful gambling.

$ The "vial sprit” which, according to Galenic and Muslim medicine, was
believed to originate in the left cavity of the heat. See also pp. 210, 329, and
2:136, 374, below,

{6 Mas'ug may refer to death by lightning, but also includes other kinds of
inexplicable sudden death. Cf. Liar al. Arab, XI, 66.

7 CH al-Mastud, Mur adh-dhahab, IV, 94. The story ofthe Statue of the
Starling was mentioned before al-Mas di by Ibn Khurradadhbih, Kid al
Masalik wa-I-mamalik, t. M. J. de Goeje (Bibliotheca Geographorum
‘Arabicorum, No. 6) (Leiden, 1885), p. 88. Many other geographers refer toi
cf. J. Marquart, Osteuropaische and ostasiatische Strenge (Leipzig, 1903),
PP. 260 ff; and, more recently, M. J. Deny, "La Legende de Teau des
sauterelles et de l'oiseau qui dert ces insectes." Journal asiatique. CCH
(1923), 325. Marquart sought the origin of the story in a popular etymology
for the Capitol: Campidoglio, campo d oglio "olive oil field

8 Al-Bakri s Masalik contains a brief reference to the “Copper City.” Cf. MS.
Nuru Osmaniye, 3034, fol. 1860, Lalli, 2144, fol. 58a. This reference does
ot appear in W. M. de Slane, Description de l'Afrique septentrionale Od ed:
‘Algiers, 1913). None of the available texts says anything about a Gate City,”
A village called Dhat al-abwab, which, however, is different from the one
mentioned here, is referred to by al-Bakri in Mu’iam ma stajam, p. 218. CH.
also below, 2:245,

9CF. 22237 £, below.

10 1bn Khaldun refers to Muruj adh-dhahab, IV, 98. However, he adds some
details 10 al-Masudi's very brief statement, from his own knowledge of the
famous story, An earlier contemporary of al-Masudi gives it in considerable
detail: In al Fagih, Kitab al-buldan (Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum,
No. 5) (Leiden, 1885), pp. 71 (n.g), 88 ff. quoted by Yagut, Mujam al-
buldan, ed. Wastenfeld, IV, 455 I, and other geographers. In the eleventh
‘century the theologian al-Khatb al-Baghdadi studied it in monograph form
{under the title of "The Story of the Bronze City and the Leaden Cupola.” CE.
Yusuf al~'Ashsh,al-Khatb al-Baghdadi (Damascus, 1945), p.109. Cf also G.

Ferrand in Journal asiorique, CCVIL (1925, 61 ff. Through its inclusion in
The Arabian Nights, the story has become familiar to Western readers.
Instead of "Copper City.” the city is referred to as “Bronze City” by al-
Masudi and elsewhere, The word "bronze” (sufr) is at times wrongly
translated as “brass.” CF. M. Aga-Oglu, "A Brief Note on the Islamic
Terminology for Bronze and Brass," Joumal of the American Oriental
Society, LXIV (1944), 218-32. The vacillaion between "Bronze City” and
‘Copper City” is due to the Fact that the Arabic words for bronze and copper

were often used interchangeably without regard to their precise meaning. Cf.
G. Levi Della Vida, "The ‘Bronze Era in Muslim Spain,” Journal ofthe
American Oriental Society, LXI (1943), 183 (n. 7)

11 The great general (A.D. 640-716/17) who completed the conquest of the
Muslim West Cf. E. Levi-Provencal in EI, s.v. "Musa b. Nua

12 The same argument occurs above, pp. 24 and 27
13 CF. Issawi pp. 34 Ê

14 Referring tothe injunctions of the religious law,
For this paragraph, one should compare what Ihn Khaldun says in 1601, I,
116: "In connection with happenings that can be refered to sensual
perception, the information transmitted by a single informant (Khahar al-
valid) is suficient, if ts soundness appears probable.”

15 CE.R, A. Nicholson, Translations of Eastern Poetry and Prose, pp. 1791.

16 CE. Issawi. pp. 36

17 "Conventional is used here in he sense of the more common “traditional.”

18 CL, 3:368, below,

19 In later Muslim scholarship, it was considered disrespectful to suggest that
‘earlier scholars knew less than oneself or than other, more recent men. Cf, for
instance, F. Rosenthal, "Al-Asturlabi and as-Samawal on Scientific
Progress.” Osiris, IX (1950, 563.

20 See 3:114 fF, below, where "Umar' alleged action and al-Maimun's
translating activities are discussed again,

21 Quran 1785 (87).

22 CE. pv, above, and 2417, below.

23 CL, for instance, al-Amidi,al-thkdm fi usul al-aAdm (Cairo, 1914), 1,161.
Ibn Khaldun was well acquainted with this authors works

24 C also 2295, below

25 CL. Muryjadhdhahab, , 169 ff, Mobedh (magupst) is the ttle ofthe
Zorvssrian priest, Mobedhan actually is the Persian plural of the word. Cf.
also 2:104 f, below.
In an abbreviated form, the speech is quoted as made by ‘Abdallah b. Tahir
(cf. 2:139, below). in Ibn Abi Hajalah a-Tilimsani, Subkarddn as
(Cairo, 1317/1899, in the margin of alAmili, Mikhldh, p.86.

26 Imarah, from the same root as tumran, and practially identical with it, CF. al-
Mubashshir b. Fatik, Mulitar al-hikam, No. 3 of the sayings of Seth: "If a
ruler thinks that he Can amass property through injustice, he is wrong, for

property can be amassed only through cultivation of the soil imarar al-ari.”
Cf. he Spanish translation published by H. Knust, Miaheilugen aus dem
Esturial, p.82.

27 CL. al- Masud, Muruj adh-dhahab, I, 210. Anosharwan is Ihe celebrated
Sassanian ruler Khosraw I, A.D. 531-579, A shortened form of the saying is
{quoted anonymously by Ihn Quiaybah, Usa al-athbar (Cairo, 1343-
49/1925°30), L 9. A similarly shortened form is ascribed to “Ai in a marginal
note in one of the MSS of the Secrenum Secretorum:; ef. Badawi s edition
(cited below, n. 29), p. 128 (n. 1).

28 C and D: al-kuliya, B: al-kalimar “words.”

29 The pseudo-Aristotelian Politics, which Ibn Khaldun also quotes below, p.
235 and 2:48, is beter known as Sir al-asrar "Secretum Secretorum.” The
work is supposed to have been translated from the Greek by Yahya D. al-
Bitrg: ef. GAL, I, 203: 2d ed, 1,221 1 Suppl. 1,364. I had even greater
success in European languages than in Arabic.

‘The Arabic text has recently been published by “Abd-ar-Rahman Badawi,
Fontes Graecae doctrinarum politicarum Islamicarum (Cairo, 1954). 1. 65-
171. A modern English translation of the Arabic was prepared by Ismail. "Ali
and A. S. Fulton, and published in Vol. V of the works of Roger Bacon, ed
R. Steele (Oxford, 1920). Cf. M. Plessner, Orientalitische Literaturzeitung,
XXVIII (1925), 912 ff. An edition and French translation were prepared by P.
Sbath but have remained unpublished. Cf. P. Sbath, Al-Frhis (Cairo, 1938),
1.9 (0.4).
‘The passage quoted appears at the end of the third chapter dealing with
justice. CE pp. 126-28 of Badawis ed, and Roger Bacon, ed. cit, V, 226; ef.
also pp. L11 f. and 126, Cf. further, M, Steinschneider, "Die arabischen
Ubersetzungen aus dem Griechischen," in Zwolfes Beiheft zum Cenralbla
‘ur Bibliohekswesen (Leipzig, 1893), p. 82. A fiteenth-century English
‘rendering may be found in R. Steele, Three Prose Versions ofthe Secreta
Secretorun (Early English Text Society, Extra Series No. 74) (London, 1898),
p.207.
‘Among other Arabic authors who quote this passage, mention may be made
of lbn Juul (tenth century] (ef. Badawi, op. cit, p. 37 ofthe intro) and al
Mubashshir b. Fatik [eleventh century], Mukhtar af-hitam, at he end of the
chapter on Aristotle, Ihn Juljul, in tum, was quoted by Ihn Abi Ulaybiah,
"Uyun al-anba ed. Muller, 1, 66£. Ibn Abi Usaybiah shows the eight
sentences inscribed along the sides of an octagon. Cr. also R. Blachere's
translation of Said al-Andalusi, Kitab Tabagar al-umam (Paris, 1935), p. 68.
‘There are quite a few minor variations in the text as it appears in the various
sources. CE. now Wad Sayyid' edition of Ibn Judjl, Les Generations des
medecins et des sages (Cairo, 1955), p. 26.
‘The MSS of the Mugaddimal usually leave an empty space for insertion of
the circle in which the saying is to be inscribed. The drawing is executed in B
and C. The artistically executed drawing of an inseribed octagon reproduced
here comes from an Istanbul MS of the Seczerum, Reis el-kuttap (Asir D.
1002, fol. 1210. (CI. Frontispiece, Vel. 2.)

30 Ma'ly/*familiae” may here possibly mean "harmonious." Arabic tif
translates Greek armonia. CF. for instance, P. Kraus and R. Walzer. Galen
Compendium Timaei Platonis (Corpus Platonicum Medi Aevi, Plato Arabus.
i) London, 1951), p. 106,

31 CL pp. 313 I, below.

32 Abdallah b.al-Mugaffa, d. 142 [769/60]. CL. GAL, I, ISI: Suppl, 1,233 I
CL also below, 3393,

33 Muhammad b. al- Walid, ca. 451 10 $20 or 525 [1059 10 1126 or 1131]. Cf.
GAL, 1,439; Suppl, 1.8291. CI. also above, p. av.

34 The wazi of Khosraw I Anosharwan who appears in Arabic literature and is
the chief representative of Persian wisdom.

35 Ibn Khaldun here uses two proverbial expressions for truthful information
‘They are: "Juhaynah has the right information,” and "He gave me the true age
of his camel”

36 CE. Quran 24.35 (35).
37 CLR A. Nicholson, Translations of Eastern Poetry and Prose, pp. 180
38 CL 2411, below,

39 Arabie uses the same word (waby) for Prophetical “inspiration” and for what
we would translate inthis context as “instinct.” The “inspiration” of bees is
mentioned in Qur'an 16.68 (70)

40 Qur'an 20.50 (52),
41 CL. Isai, p.26.
42 Cf above, p. Luxx, and below, p. 249.

FIRST PREFATORY DISCUSSION

HUMAN+ SOCIAL ORGANIZATION is something necessary. The
philosophers express this fc by saying: "Mani “politcal by nature." That is
Le cannot do witout the social organizan for whic the philosophers ue the
teh em “tom pol

“Tis is what civlizaon means, (The necessary character of human social
«organizo ovation) ie explained bythe fact ht God creed and shone
rman ina fom tha can ive and subsist only with the help of food He guide man to
à ral deste flor food and ned in Ni the power hat enables im to obs à

However the power ofthe individual human beng i no sufient fr him
to obtain (be fod) he ae, and does not provide him wh as much food a he
ques 0 ive Even we asumo an abeto minis of fonds fod
‘enough fr one day, aie) wheat, or instance at amount of food could be
Said ony ar much preperton such as grinding, Kneading, and boking Each
ofthese tre operations require tesis and fol tht en Be provided only with
the help of several crafts, such as the crafts of the Blacksmith the carpenter, andthe
potter. Assuming that aman could eat unprepared grain, an even preter numberof
Operations wo be necessary arder ota the rain sowing and epi. and
(hrshing to separas 1 rom the hsks ofthe eat. Ech of these operation requires à
number f ons and many mor craft than hos just mentioned. les beyond the
fewer of one man alone 1 al hat or even) par oft by ame Ts, he
sano do wii a combination of many powers (om among hs fellow beings,
te ito bin food for himself and for them. Trough cooperation ih neds of à

bef persons any mes greater than ici own (number can besas
Likewise, each individual needs the help of his fellow beings or his defense,
as well: When God fashioned the natures ofall living Beings and divided the varios
Powers among them, many dun animals were given more perfect powers han God
eve 1 man Te power ofa hore, for asace, is much rer tha he power of
tan, and 0 Is he power of a Jonkey or am ox. The power of Lon oran lphant is
‘any mos greater dan the power of (nan),

Aggresivenes is ae in ving being. Therefore, God gave cac of them
à special mi Lor defense agaist aggression To man, med. He gave the abi to
Ah, and the hand. With he help ofthe ability 1 thnk the hand i abet prepare
the ground forthe crafts The eats, Im rum, procure for man the Instrument hat
Serve him instead of bs, which eher animal poses für hei defense. Lance,
forlnsanc, take the place of hom for going. swords the plac of claws to nic
wounds shes the pace of cK ins, and soon Tre ae oer uch tings
‘They were all mentioned by Galen in De su partium À

“The powerof one individual human bein cannot withstand the power of any
one dumb animal especial or he pero the predatory animal. Man is
erally unable to defend himself against them by imset Nor his (nai)
former sein o make us ofthe exiting instruments of defers, became dere
cso many of them and they require so many ras and lion things. tis
Alsoley necessary for manto have the co-operation of his fellow men. As Long as
there ls no such co-opertion, b can bain any food or oouishment and Be
‘cannot materials or him, cause God fashioned him so ha be must have food i
fe st ve, Nor, lacking weapon, can he defen himself. Ths e falls rey 40
Animals and des much before sine, Under such ccumstances, te human

species would vanish. When, however, mutual co-operation exists, man obtains food
for his nourishment and weapons for his defense. God's wise plan that mankind)
should subsist and the human species be preserved willbe fulfilled,

‘Consequently, social organization is necessary 10 the human species. Without
it the existence of human beings would be incomplete. God's desire to settle the
‘world with human beings and to leave them as His representatives on earth! would
‘not materialize. This isthe meaning of civilization, the object of the science under
discussion,

“The afore-mentioned remarks have been in the nature of establishing the
‘existence of the object in (this) particular field. A scholar in a particular discipline is
‘ot obliged to do this, since itis accepted in logie tha a scholar in a particular
science does not have to establish the existence of he object in that science. On the
‘other hand, logicians do not consider it forbidden to do so. Thus itis a voluntary
‘contribution.

God, in His grace, gives success.

‘When mankind has achieved social organization, as we have stated, and
‘when civilization in the world has thas become a fact, people need someone to
‘exercise a restraining influence and keep them apart, for aggressiveness and
injustice are inthe animal nature of man. The weapons made for the defense of
human beings against the aggressiveness of dumb animals do not sufice against the
aggressiveness of man to man, because ll of them possess those weapons. Thus,
something els is needed for defense against the aggressiveness of human beings
toward each other. It could not come from outside, because all the other animals fall
short of human perceptions and inspiration. The person who exercises a restraining
influence, therefore, must be one of themselves. He must dominate them and have
power and authority over them, so that no one of them will be able 1 attack another.
‘This isthe meaning of royal authority

has thus become clear that royal authority is a natural quality of man
‘hich is absolutely necessary to mankind. The philosophers mention that it also
exists among certain dumb animals, such as the bees and the locusts One discerns
among them the existence of authority and obedience to a leader. They follow the
‘one of them who is distinguished as their leader by his natural characteristics and
body. However, outside of human beings, these things exist as the result of natural
disposition and divine guidance, and not as the result of an ability to think or 10
administrate. “He gave everything its natural characteristics, and then guided i."E

‘The philosophers go further. They attempt to give logical proof of the
‘existence of prophecy and to show that prophecy is natural quality of man. lo this
‘connection, they carry the argument to is ultimate consequences and say that
human beings absolutely require some authority to exercise a restraining influence.
‘They go on to say that such restraining influence exists through the religious law
‘that has been) ordained by God and revealed to mankind by a human being. (This

rman being) is distinguished from the rest of mankind by special qualities of

divine guidance that God gave him, in order that he might find the others submissive
to him and ready to accept what he says. Eventually, the existence of a (restraining)
authority among them and over them becomes a fact that is accepted without the
slightest disapproval or dissent

‘This proposition ofthe philosophers is not logical, as one can see. Existence
and human life can materialize without (the existence of prophecy) through
injunctions a person in authority may devise on his own or with the help of a group
feeling that enables him to force the others to follow him wherever he wants 10 go.
People who have a (divinely revealed) book and who follow the prophets are few in

number in comparison with (all the Magians® who have no (divinely revealed)
book, The later constitute the majority ofthe world's inhabitants. Still, they (100)
have possessed dynasties and monuments, not to mention life itself, They still
possess these things at this time in the intemperate zones tothe north and the south.
“This is in contrast with human life inthe state of anarchy, with no one to exercise
a restraining influence, That would be impossible.

“This shows that (the philosophers) are wrong when they assume that
‘prophecy exists by necessity. The existence of prophecy is not required by logic. Its
(necessary character) is indicated by the religious law, as was the belief ofthe early
‘Muslims,

God gives success and guidance.

SECOND PREFATORY DISCUSSION

The parts of the earth where civilzation is found. Some
information about oceans, rivers, and zones LL

IN 12 THE BOOKS of philosophers who speculated about the condition of the
wort, has ben explained thatthe crt a a serial shape and map the
element of wa. may be compared oa grape Noting upon water

“Te water wir (rom era pas of he ea), beans God wanted to cree
ving beings pon and sete with e human species tha rls os (Gods),
representative over all other beings. One might from this get the impression that the
Vitel below te earth This is ot comect The natal belo” of he earth
and mile oft sphere, he center fo which eveything is atacted by ssa
Sides ofthe earth beyond Bat andthe water surrounding the can are “bot
parvo theca sid ob “below” it sino be so wih refer o some her
Region (tthe eat,

“The par ofthe earth fom which the water hs than is one-half the surface of
the sphere ofthe earth, It has a cireula form andi surounded on al sides by the element
of water which forms a ca called "be Surounding Ses" fl-Bhral Mi) lso
called lablayah£ with thickening of the second /, or oceanos 1 Both are non-Arabic
‘words. Its also called "ih Green Ses” and “the Black Sea

“The part of earth a sr from war (and us stable) for human
ciao bas more waste and empty ares tan culivatd (nade aras The empty
trea inthe sou saga than tat nthe aon The culated pa of te earth extends
mor oward the nothin the shape ol eculacplane texte in he South 1 he
tor and in he nor oa crear Zine, behind which here are mouais separating
(cultivar parto! he cath) from he clement water, Enclosed between (eve
mountain) iste Dam of Gog and Magog. These mountain extend toward he cs Inthe
‘stand the we, they also reach the lemenal water, a two sections (pont) of
calar (ino) ai sounds alive part fc

“The ar fe earth at is free fom Water ssid to cover one-half res ofthe
sphere (of the car), culte par covers one-fourth of dvd ft seven
poe

“The equator divides the earth into two halves from west to east. I represent the
length ofthe earth. It isthe longest line on the sphere of (the cath), just asthe ecliptic and
the equinoctial line are the longest lines on he firmament, The ecliptic is divided into 360
degrees. The geographical degree is twenty-five parasangs, the parasang being 12,000
cubits or three miles, since one mile has 4,000 cubits. The eubitis twenty-four fingers, and
the finger is six grains of barley placed closely together in one row..2 The distance of the
‘equinoctial Line, parallel to the equator of the earth and dividing the firmament into 10
part, is ninety degrees from each of the two poles, However, the cultivated area north of
the equator is (only) sixty-four degrees 22 The res is empty and uncultivated because of
the bitter cold and frst, exactly asthe southern parti altogether empty because of the
heat, We shall explain ial, if God wills

Information about the cultivated part and its boundaries and about the cities, towns,
mountain, rivers, waste areas, and sandy deserts it contains, has been given by men such
as Piolemy in the Geography 2L and, after him, by the author of the Book of Roger 2
‘These men divided the cultivated area into seven parts which they called the seven zones.
‘The borders ofthe seven zones are imaginary. They extend from east to west, In width
latitudinal extension) they are identical, in length (longitudinal extension) different, The
first zone is longer than the second. The same applies to the second zone, and so on. The
seventh zone isthe shortest. This is required by the eircular shape that resulted from the
withdrawal of the water from the sphere of the earth.

According to these scholars, each ofthe seven zones is divided from west 10 east

{guous sections. Information about general conditions and civilization is given

(The geographers) mentioned that the Mediterranean which we all know branches
off from the Surrounding Sea in the western part ofthe fourth zone. It begins at a narrow
strats about twelve miles wide between Tangier and Tarifa, called the Street (of
Gibraltar. It then extends eastward and opens out to a width of 600 miles. It terminates at
the end of the fourth section of the fourth zone, a distance of 1,160 parasangs from its
starting point, There, it is bordered by the coast of Syria, On the south itis bordered by the
‘coast of the Maghrib, beginning with Tangier atthe Stats, then Ifiziyah, Bargah, and
Alexandria. On the north, itis bordered by Ihe coast of Constantinople, then Venice,
Rome, France, and Spain, back to Tarifa atthe Street (of Gibraltar) opposite Tangier. The
Mediterranean is also called the Roman Sea or the Syrian Sea. It contains many populous
islands. Some of them are large, such as Crete, Cyprus, Sicily, Majorca, and Sardinia 21

In the north, they say, two other seas branch off from the Mediterranean through
two steits. One of them is opposite Constantinople. It starts at the Mediterranean in a
arrow straits, only an arrow-shot in width, It flows fora three days’ run and touches
Constantinople. Then, it attains a width of Four miles. I flows in this channel foe sixty
miles, where i is known asthe Staits of Constantinople, Through a mouth six miles wide,
itthen flows into the Black Sea À and becomes a sea tat, from there, tus eastward in its
course. It passes the land of Heracleia (in Bithynia) 2 and ends a the country of the
Khazars, 1,300 miles from its mouth. Along ts two coast live the Byzantine, the Turkish,
the Bulgar (Burjin)2 and the Russian nations

“The secon se that branches off rom the two strats ofthe Medierancan isthe
Aditi Sea (Gulf of Venice). I emerges fom Byzantine testy a ts nother in
‘Then rom Sant Angelo (de Lombard), its western boundary extends fom the country of
the Venetians to the tertory of Agulleia, 1.100 miles from where tated. On so
shores lie the Venetians, the Byzantines (Rum), and other nations. Is called the Gulf of
Venice (Aditi Sea)

From the Surrounding Se, they say, a large and wide sa flows on the cas at
thicen degrees noth ofthe equator. ows Tile toward the south, entering the fit
Zone. Then it flows west within the fist zone un i cache the county ofthe
Abyssinians and the Negroes (the Zam Land Bib al-Mandeb nthe ith section of (he
first zone) 4,500 parasangs from its string point. This sea is ale the Chinese, Indian,
or Abyssinian Sea (Indian Ocean). ri bordered on he south by the country ofthe
Negroes (Zanj) and the country of Berbera which Imru ul-Qays mentioned in his pocm 28
‘These "Berber do not belong tothe Berbers who make up the ties inthe Maghrib. The
sea is then bordered by the arca of Mogadishu, Sufilah, and the land of al-Wigwig and
by othe nations beyond which there f nothing ut waste and empty aras. On the north,
where it art, ts bordered ty China, then by Kasten and Western India (a-Hind and as-
Sind), and then bythe coast of he Yemen, thats, al Abi, Zabd, and othe ies, Where

it ends, tis bordered by the county ofthe Negroes, and. beyond them, the Beja

“Two other seas, they say branch off from the Indian Ocean. One of them branches
‘off where th Indian Ocean ends, a Bib sl-Mandeb. I starts out narrow, then flows
‘widening toward the north and light to the west unt it ends atte city of al-Quizum ia
the filth section of the second zone, 1,400 miles from is ating point. This is he Sea of
al-Qulzum or Sea of Suez (Red Sea). From the Red Sea at Suez to Fustat AL is the
‘distance ofa three days journey. The Red Sea is bordered onthe east by the coast of the
Yemen, the Hijiz, and Jiddah and then, where it ends, by Midyan (Madyan), Aila
(Ayla, and Faran On the west itis bordered by he coast of Upper Egypt. "Aydhib,
Suakin, and Zayla (Zila, and then, where it begins, bythe county of the Beja. ends at
al-Quizum. It (would) reach the Mediterranean at al Aris, The distance between (the Red
Sea and the Mediterranean) i asx days" journey. Many ruler, both Muslim and pre-
Islamic, have wanted to cut through the intervening territory (with a canal) but this has not
been achieved

“The second sea branching off rom the Indian Ocean and called the Persian Gulf
(übe Green Gul), branches off a the region between the west coast of India and al-Abgat
in the Yemen. I flows toward the north and slightly othe west uni it ends at al-Ubullh
on the coast of al-Basrah in the sixth section ofthe second zone, 440 parasangs from its
Starting pint Is called the Persian Gulf (Persian Sea) tis bordered onthe cas by the
‘coast of Wester India, Mukrin, Kirin, is, and al-Ubullah where tends. On the west it
is bordered by the coas of al.-Bahrayn, the Yamamah, Oman, ash-Shihr and al-Ahgat
‘where i sans, Between the Persian Gulf and al-Qulzum lies the Arabian Peninsula, jung
Out fom the mainland into he sea. It is surounded by the Indian Ocean tthe south, by
the Red Sea 0 the west, and by the Persian Gulf tothe eas I adjins the Iraq inthe
region between Syria and al-Bastah, whore the distance between (Syria and the lr) is
1.500 miles. Inthe ra) are al-Kufah, al-Qiisya, Baghdad, the Reception Hal of
Khosraw (at Cesiphon)É and al-Hirah. Beyond that live non-Arab nations such asthe
Turks, the Khazars, and others. The Arabian Peninsula comprises the Hijaz in the west, the
‘Yamamah,al-Bahrayn, and Oman in he cast, and inthe south the Yemen along the coast
ofthe Indian Ocean.

In the cultivated aca (ofthe earth). they say, her is anote sea 1 the north in the
land of he Daylam. This sea has no connection with the or seas I is called the Sea of
Jurjan and Tabaristan (Caspian Sa). ts Teng is 1,000 miles, and its width 600. To the
west of ities Azerbaijan and the Daylam trory; o the cast fi the land ofthe Turks
and Khuwizm: othe south of it Tabaritan; and o the north of ithe lad ofthe Khazars
and the Alans

“These ar al the famous seas mentioned bythe geographers.

‘They further say that in the cultivated par of (he earth, there are many rivers. The
largest among them are four in number, namely he Nile the Euphrates the Tigris and the
River of Balkh which is called Oxus Jayhun)

‘The Nile begins at large mountain, sisteen degrees beyond the equator a the
boundary ofthe fourth section ofthe ist one, This mountain is called the Mountain of
the Qui No higher mountain is known on earth. Many springs issue from the
mountain, some of them flowing into one lake there. and some of them into another lake.
From these two lakes, several rivers branch of, and ll of them low into lake atthe
‘equator which i atthe distance of aten day journey from the mountain. From that lake,
two river issue. One of them flows due north, passing through the country ofthe Nubah
and then through Egypt. Having traversed Egypt, it divides into many branches Iying close
to each other. Each ofthese is called a “channel.” All flow into the Mediterranean at
Alexandria, This ver is called the Egyptian Nil, Iis bordered by Upper Egypt on the

‘eas and by the oases on the west. The other river turns westward, flowing due west until
it lows into the Surrounding Sea. This river is the Sudanese Nile © All the Negro nations
live along its border.

‘The Euphrates begins in Armenia in the sixth section of the fifth zone. It lows
south through Byzantine territory (Anatolia) past Malatya to Manbi and then passes
Siflin, ar-Raggah, and al-Kufah until it reaches the Marsh (alBaha) between al-Bastah
“and Wasi. From thet it lows into the Indian Ocean. Many rivers flow into it along its
‘course. Other rivers branch off from it and flow into he Tigris.

‘The Tigris originates in a number of springs in the country of Khilat, which is also
in Armenia. It passes on its course southward through Mosul, Azerbaijan, and Baghdad to
‘Wasit. There, it divides into several channels, all of which flow into the Lake of al-Basrah
and join the Persian Gulf. The Tigris flows cast of the Euphrates. Many large rivers flow
into it from all sides. The region between the Euphrates and the Tigris, where itis Fist
formed, isthe Jzirah of Mosul, facing Syria on both banks of the Euphrates, and facing
Azerbaijan on both banks of the Tigris.

‘The Oxus originates at Balkh, inthe eighth section of the third zone, in a great
number of springs there. Large rivers flow into it, as it follows a course From south to
north. I flows through Khurasan, then past Khurasan to Khuwarizm inthe eighth section
of the fifth zone. I flows into Lake Aral (the Lake of Gurganj) which is situated atthe foot
[north?} of the city of (Gurgan)) In length as in width, it extends the distance of one
months jouey. The river of Farghanah and Tashkent (ash-Shash) 52 which comes from
the territory of the Turks, flows ino it, West of the Oxus lie Khurasan and Khuwarizm.
East of it ie the cities of Bukhari, at-Tirmidh, and Samarkand, Beyond that are the country
of the Turks, Farghanah, the Kharlukh 3 and (other) non-Arab nations.

(All) this was mentioned by Ptolemy in his work and by the Shara (al-Ldris) in the
Book of Roger. All he mountains, seas, and rivers to be found inthe cultivated part of the
earth are depicted on maps and exhaustively treated in geography, We do not have to go
any further into i. Li 100 lengthy a subject, and our main concern is withthe Maghrib,
the home of the Berbers, and the Arab home countries in the East.

God gives success

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE
‘TO THE SECOND PREFATORY DISCUSSION

The northern quarter of he earth has more civilization
han the southern quarter. The reason thereof.

WE KNOW FROM OBSERVATION and from continuous tradition that the frst
and the second of the cultivated zones have less civilization than the other zones. The
‘cultivated arca inthe firs and second zones is interspersed with empty waste areas and
sandy deserts and has the Indian Ocean to the east. The nations and populations of the first
and second zones are not excessively numerous. The same applies 10 the cities and towns
there

‘The third, fourth, and subsequent zones are just the opposite. Waste areas there are
few. Sandy deserts also are few or non-existent, The nations and populations are
tremendous. Cities and towns are exceedingly numerous. Civilization has its seat between
the third and the sixth zones. The south is all emptiness.

Many philosophers have mentioned that this is because of the excessive heat and

slighiness of the sun's deviation from the zenith in the south. Let us explain and prove this
statement. The result will clarify the reason why civilization in the third and fourth zones.
is so highly developed and extends also 10 the filth, <ixih > and seventh zones.

We say: When the south and north poles (of heaven) are upon the horizon, they
‘constitute a large circle that divides the firmament into two parts Iti the largest circle in
it) and runs from west to east. Iti called the equinoctal line. In astronomy. it has been
explained in the proper place that the highest sphere moves from cast to west in a daily
motion by means of which it also forces the spheres enclosed by it 10 move. This motion is
perceptible to the senses It has also been explained that the stars in thei spheres have a

motion that is contrary to this motion and is, therefore, a motion from west to east. The
Periods of this movement differ according to he different speeds of the motions ofthe
stars.

Parallel to the courses of all these stars in their sphere, there runs a large circle
belongs to the highest sphere and divides it into two halves. This is the ecliptic
(zodiac). [tis divided into twelve “signs.” As has been explained inthe proper place, the
‘equinoctial line intersects the ecliptic at two opposite points. namely, at the beginning of
Aries and atthe beginning of Libra. The equinoctil line divides the zodiac into two
halves. One of them extends northward from the equinoctal line and includes the signs
from the beginning of Aries to the end of Virgo. The other half extends southward from it
and includes the signs from the beginning of Libra to the end of Pisces

When the two poles fall upon the horizon <which takes place in one particular
region among all the regions of the earth, a line is formed upon the surface of the earth
that faces the equinoctal line and runs from west to east, This line is called the equator.
According to astronomical observation, his line is believed to coincide with Ihe beginning,
of the first of the seven zones. All civilization isto the north of it

‘The north pole gradually ascends on the horizon of the cultivated area (ofthe earth)
until its elevation reaches sixty four degrees. Here, al civilization ends. This is the end of
the seventh zone. When its elevation reaches ninety degrees on the horizon - that isthe
distance between the pole and the equinoctial”line-then its at its zenith, and the
‘equinoctial line is on the horizon. Six of the signs of the zodiac, the northern ones, remain
above the horizon, and si, he southern ones, ae below it

Civilization is impossible in the area between the sisyfourth and the ninetith
degrees, for no admixture of heat and cold oceurs there because of the great time interval
between them. Generation (of anything), therefore, does not take place,

‘The sun is tis zenith on the equator atthe beginning of Aries and Libra. It ihen
declines from its zenith down to the beginning of Cancer and Capricorn. Is greatest
‘declination from the equinoctal line is twenty-four degrees.

Now, when the north pole ascends on the horizon, the equinoctial line declines
from the zenith in proportion tothe elevation of the north pole, and the south pole
‘descends correspondingly, as regards the thre (distances constituting geographical
latitude) Scholars who calculate the (prayer) times call this the latitude of a place. When
the equinoctial line declines from the zenith, the northern signs of the zodiac gradually rise
above it, proportionately to its rise, uni he beginning of Cancer is reached. Meanwhile,
the soute signs ofthe zodiae correspondingly descend below the horizon until the
beginning of Capricom is reached, because ofthe inclination of the (wo halves of the
zodiac) upwards or downwards from the horizon of the equator, as we have stated. The
northern horizon continues to rie, until its northern limit, which is the beginning of
Cancer, is in the zenith. This is where the latitude is twenty-four degrees in the Hijaz and
the territory adjacent, This isthe declination from the equinoctal at the horizon of the
‘equator at the beginning of Cancer. With the elevation ofthe north pole (Cancer) rises,
‘until it attains the zenith. When the pole rises more than twenty-four degrees, the sun

descends from the zenith and continues to do so until the elevation ofthe pole is sixty-four
degrees, and the sun's descent from the zenith, as well as the depression of the south pole
under the horizon is the same distance. Then, generation (of anything) stops because of the
excessive cold and frost and the long time without any heat

AAtand nearing its zenith, the sun sends its rays down upon the earth at right angles.
In other postions it sends them down at obtuse or acute angles, When the rays form right
angles, the light is strong and spreads out over a wide area, in contrast to what happens in
the case of obtuse and acute angles. Therefore, at and nearing its zenith, the heat is greater
than in other positions, because the light (ofthe sun) is the reason for heat and calefaction.
“The sun reaches its zenith atthe equator twice a year in two points of Aries and Libra. No
declination (of the sun) goes very far. The heat hardly begins to become more temperate,
‘when the sun has reached the limit of its declination at the beginning of Cancer or
Capricorn and begins to rise again toward the zenith. The perpendicular rays then fall
heavily upon the horizon there (in these regions) and hold steady for along time, if not
permanently. The air gets burning hot, even excessively so. The same is rue whenever the
sun reaches the zenith in the area between the equator and latitude twentyfour degrees, as
it does twice a year. The rays exercise almost as much force upon the horizon there (a his
latitud) as they do at the equator. The excessive heat causes a parching dryness in the air
that prevents (any) generation. As the heat becomes more excessive, water and all kinds of
moisture dry up, and (he power of) generation is destroyed in minerals, plants, and

Is. because (all) generation depends on moisture,

Now, when the beginning of Cancer declines from the zenith atthe latitude of
twenty-five degrees and beyond, the sun also declines from its zenith. The heat becomes
temperate, or deviates only slightly from (being temperate), Then, generation can take
place. This goes on until the cold becomes excessive, due 10 Ihe lack of light and the
‘bluse angles of the rays of the sun, Then, (the power of) generation again decreases and is
destroyed. However, the destruction caused by great heat is greater than that caused by
great cold, because heat brings about desiccation faster than cold brings about freezing.

‘Therefor, here is ltl civilization in the first and second zones. There is a
medium degree of civilization in the third, fourth, and FIA zones, because the heat there is
temperate owing o the decreased amount of light. There isa great deal of civilization in
the sixth and seventh zones because ofthe decreased amount of heat there. At fist, cold
does not have the same destructive effect upon (the power of) generation as heat; it causes
desiccation only when it becomes excessive and thus has deyness added. This i the case
beyond the seventh zone. (All) this, then, isthe reason why civilizacion is stronger and
‘more abundant inthe northern quarter. And God knows better!

‘The “philosophers concluded from these facts that the region at the equator and
beyond it (10 the south) was empty. On the strength of observation and continuous
tradition, it was argued against them that (10 the contrary) it was cultivated, How would it
be possible to prove this (contention)? I is obvious that the (philosophers) did not mean to
‘deny entirely the existence of civilization there, but their argumentation led them to (the
realization) that (the power of) generation must, to a large degree, be destroyed there
because of the excessive heat. Consequently, civilization there would be either impossible,
‘or only minimally possible, This is so. The region atthe equator and beyond i (tothe
south), even if it has civilization as has been reported, has only a very litle of it

Averroes Al assumed thatthe equator is in a symmetrical position and that what
is beyond the equator to the south correspond to what is beyond it to the north:
‘consequently, as much of the south would be cultivated as of the north. His assumption is
not impossible, so far as (the argument ol) the destruction ofthe power of generation is
‘concerned. However, as to the region south ofthe equator, it is made impossible by the fact
that the element of water covers the face ofthe earth inthe south, where the corresponding
area in the north admits of generation. On account of the greater amount of water (in the

south), Averroes' assumption of the symmetrical (position ofthe equator) thus turns out to
be impossible. Everything else follows, since civilization progresses gradually and begins
its gradual progress where it can exis, not where i cannot exis.

‘The assumption that civilization cannot exist atthe equator is cor
continuous tradition. And God knows better!

ited by

After this discussion, we wish to draw a map of the carth.£ as was done by the
author of the Book of Roger. Then, we shall give a detailed description ofthe map.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE MAP!

‘THIS DESCRIPTION is twofold. There is a detailed description and a general
description.

‘The detailed description consists of a discussion of each country. mountain, sea,
and river of the cultivated part of the earth. This discussion will be found in the following
section,

‘The general description consists of a discussion ofthe division of the cultivated
part of the earth into seven zones, ther latitudinal (extension), and the length oftheir days
Such is the contents of this section,

Let us begin to explain these things, We have mentioned before thatthe earth floats
upon the elemental water like a grape #5 God' plan for civilization and forthe elemental
generation of life resulted in making part of (he earth) free of water.

‘The part that is free of water is sid to constitute one-half the surface of the earth
‘The cultivated partis one-fourth of it. The rest is uncultivated, According to another
opinion, the cultivated part is only one-sixth of it. The empty areas of he part which is
free of water lie to the south and to the north. The cultivated area in between forms a
“continuum that stretches from west to east, There is no empty area between the cultivated
part and the (Surrounding) Sea in these two directions.

‘They further said: Across the cultivated part ofthe earth an imaginary lie runs
from west to cast facing the equinoctial line (of the firmament) in regions where the two
poles of he firmament are on the horizon. At this line civilization begins. It extends from
there norihwards,

Piolemy said: "As a matter of fact, civilization extends beyond that line to the
south.” He indicated the latitudinal extension, as will be mentioned 45

Ishaq 6. al-Hasan al-Khazini 2 expresses the opinion that beyond the seventh zone
(1 the north) thre is another civilization Hs indicated its ntudnal extension, as we shal

KEY TO THE MAP

1 South 41 Mukrin
2Wes 42 Kirmin

3 North 43 Firs

4 Fast 44 al-Bahlus

5 Empty beyond the equator because 45 Azerbaijan
‘of the heat

6 Equator
7 Lamlam Country

8 Maghzawah (Maguzawa?)

9 Kanem
10 Born

11 Gawgaw

12 Zaghiy

13 at-Tijuwin
14 Nubia

15 Abyssinia
16Ghanah

17 Lamb

18 as-Sus

19 Morocco

20 Tangier

21 Sinhijah

22 Darah

23 rigiyahı

24 Fezzan

25 arid

26 Kavir

27 Desert of Berenice
28 Inner Oases
29 Upper Egypt
30 Egypt

31 Beja

32 Hijiz

33 Syria

34 Yemen

35 Yamimah
36 al-Basrah
37 ag

38 ash-Shihr
39 Oman

40 Western India

[Country

46 Desert
47 Khurasin

48 Khuwirizm

49 Eastern India
50 Tashkent

SI Soghd

52 China.

53 Tughuzghuz
54 Gascogne

55 Britany

56 Calabria

57 France

58 Venice

59 Germany (Alaminiyah)
60 Macedonia

61 Bohemia

62 Jathuliyah

63 Jarmaniyah
64 al-Baylagi

65 Armenia

66 Tabaristan

67 Alans

68 Bashgirs

69 Bulgars

TO Pechenegs

TI Stinking Land
72 Waste Country
73 Magog

74 Ghuzz

75 Türgish

76 Adhkish

77 Khallukh

78 Gog.

79 Kimik

80 Empty in the north because ofthe cold

‘mention. #8 Al-Khazini is one of the leading scholars in this craft (geography).
* Further, the ancient philosophers divided the cultivated part ofthe car inthe
‘orth into seven zones by means of imaginary lines running from west 10 cast. They

‘maintain that these zones have different latitudinal extensions. This will be discussed in
detail,

‘The first zone runs along the equator, north of it. South of it here is only the
civilization to which reference was made by Ptolemy. Beyond that are waste regions and
sandy desert, up to the circle of water which is called the Surrounding Sea. To the north,
the first zone is followed, successively, by the second through the seventh zones, (The
seventh zone) constitutes the norther límit of civilization, Beyond it are only empty and
waste regions, down to the Surrounding Sea as (in the south). However, the empty regions
inthe south are much larger than those in the north."

‘As to latitudes and length of days inthe various zones, it should be known that the
two poles ofthe firmament are upon the horizon atthe equator in the west and the cast

It should be known thet, as was mentioned above, she philosophers divided the
cultivated part of the earth into seven parts from south 10 north. These parts they called
zones. The whole ofthe culvated arca is distributed over these zones. Each zone extends
From west 10 eas.

‘The first one runs from west to cast with the equator as its southern border,

Beyond i there are only waste regions and sandy deserts, and civilization of a sort that, if
it actually exists, is more like non-civilizaion. To the north he frst zone is followed,
successively. by the second through the seventh zones. The seventh zone constitutes the
northern limit of civilizaion. Beyond it (to the north) are only empty and waste regions
until the Surrounding Sea is reached, The situation is the same here as its beyond the
first zone to the south, However, the empty areas in he north are much smaller than those
in she south.

‘The sun there is a the zenith. As we follow the cultivated part of the earth farther
and farther north, the north pole ascends slightly, and the south pole descends
‘correspondingly, (atthe horizon). Furthermore, the sun moves a corresponding distance
from its zenith a) the equinoctal line. These three distances are equal to each other. Each
‘of them i called geographical latitude, This is well known to the scholars who determine
the (prayer) times

People hold different opinions as 10 the latitudinal extension (ofthe cultivated part
of the earth) and as to the latitudinal extension (breadth) of the various zones. Ptolemy
holds the opinion that the laitudinal extension of the entire cultivated part of the earth is
77M. The latitudinal extension ofthe culivated part beyond the equator to the south is

11° 2a Thu, the latitudinal extension ofthe zones i the noth i 66s. According 10
him, the fist zone extends o 16"; Ehe second to 20"; the thd to 27°: the fourth to
33°; he fifth to 38°: he sixth vo 43°; the seventh to 48” #2 He hen determined the degree
on the firmament as having a length of 6627, miles, (were i to be) measured on the surface
of the earth" Thus, the first zone from south to north is 1,067 miles (wide); the second
Zone, 2.333 miles the third zone, 2.790 miles the fourth one, 2185 tiles; the fifth zone,
2520 miles the sixth zone, 240 mies, andthe seventh zone, 3,150 miles

“The length of night and day differs in the various zones by reason of the
decintion of the sun from the equnoeta ine and the elevation of the noth pole above
the horizon. This causes a differene inthe ars of day and night

‘The eng of right and day dyers in he diferent cones by reason ofthe decination
of the sun from the equinoctal Une and he elevation ofthe north ple above the horizon.
‘his causes a deference inthe arcs of day and nigh.

At the boundary ofthe first one, the longest night-which occurs when the sun
enters Capricorn and the longest day which occurs when he sun enters Cancer-reach a
asin of thirteen hours, The same s the case atthe boundary ofthe second ane in the
mori The length of day there reaches is maximum of thiten and one-half hours when
the sun enters Cancer, he summer tropic. The longest night when the sun enters
Capricorn, the winter tropic is as long. For the shortest day and nigh, there thus remains
the dference between thirteen and one-half and tenty-four, whichis the combined
number of hours of day and night, or one complete revolution of the firmament. The same
ds the case also a the boundary ofthe third one in the north where nigh and day reach a
maximuen length of fourteen hours; atthe boundary ofthe fourth zone, where they reach à
maximum length of fourteen and one-half hours; at the boundary of the fifth zone, where
they reach a maximun length of fifteen hours; a the boundary of the sith zone, where
they reach a maximum length of fteen and one-half hours: and a he Boundary of the
Seventh zone, where they reach a maximum length of sixteen hours. There
ends. The diference nthe maximum length of night and day inthe variou
consequently, is an evenly distributed, gradual increase of hal an hour in each, athe
‘way from the fist zone in the south tothe last zone inthe north

In connection with these zones, "geographical latitude” refers to the distance
eee the sun atts zenith in a given place and the equnoctal ne where is a the

sen om the equator e likewise corespnds to the depression ofthe ou poe below the
cru I hs pardcaler place, as wel aw te elevation of he nord pole As wos
mentioned before. these three distances are equal to each other. They are called
“yeoeraphical latte”

Atte boundary of the frst zon, the longest nihtwhichocers when the son
cers Capcom andthe longest day which occurs when te sum ers Cancer rech,
secording to Polen, a maximum of twelve and nca hours; tthe boundary of ths
‘Second zone maximum of hen bou a he Boundary of de hid zone, a masimum
of tien and one-half ours; at Boundary ofthe four ome, maxim o out
hous: atthe boundary ofthe fith zone, a maximum of one half-hour more; the
boundary of the sh zone, a maximum of fifteen hour: and atthe Boundary ofthe
seventh Zone maxi of one half-hour moe, For he shorted day and sig, ee thas
rein the den Belwesn he lat gure nd ety. for, which ithe combined
tuner of hours of day and wight or one compet evolution of te fimamen The
lens i the mani length o alg and doy inte various 0008 consequely, I
an evenly distributed, grad nera of half an our in each al he way from he fist
Zone inthe south tthe st zone in heart.

Ishaq b Hasan al-Khazin sna tas the Luna extension of ization
beyond the equator (to the south) is 16° 25”, and the longest night and day there, thirteen
hous. The latudnal extension of the ist one andthe length of day and igh here ae
the same as beyond the equator (to the south). The second zone extends to 24°, SLA and the
length ofits Congo) day and niga it fabes pnt hic and one-al hours. For
the third zone, the figures are 30° and fourteen hours. For the fourth zone, they are 36° and
fourteen and one-half hous. For he ith zone, hey ae 41° and fie hous. For the
sixth zone, they are 45° and fifteen and one-half hours. For the seventh zone, they are
48!/3' and sixteen hours. The latitudinal extension of civilization beyond the seventh zone
(othe north) reaches from the boundary of the seventh zone to (latitude) 63°, and the
Teng ofthe longest) day and night twenty hour.

ter leading scholars inthe discipline, part rom Ishaq al Khan, minan hat
the latitudinal extension of the cultivated area beyond the equator (to the south) is 16° 27:
‘The first zone extends to 20° 15'; the second to 27° 13; the third to 33° 20; the fourth to
381/,° 2 the fifth to 43°; the sixth to 47° $3'; or, according to another opinion, to 46" 50;
and the seventh 10 51° 53" Civilization beyond the seventh zone extends 10 77.

In Abu Ifr l-Khazin,S one ofthe leading scholars I the discipline, one also
finds that the latitudinal extension of the first zone is from 1° to 20° 13; of the second, to
27°13; of the third 10 33°37 ofthe fourth, to 38°23 othe ih, 10 42 SE of he
sixth, to 47° 2°, and of the seventh, to 6045: 34

“This is as rach a know about the deren picos conemin Lain
extension and tng of day and ig nthe ones and concrsing their wth as inca
Breet

God "created everything. Then, He determined it” 5

‘The geographers have subdivided each ofthe even zones lengthwise from west to
castin en equal sets. They mention the countries, cls, mountains and ives of each
section andthe raven distances between hem.

We shall now briefly summarize the best-known counties, river, and seas ofeach
section, Our model wl Be the data et oth in Ihe Nuch al musa which al Al

56

drisi al-Hammudi composed for the Christian king of Sicily, Roger, the son of Roger.
ly had given up its rule of Malaga, and he had settled at (Rogers) cour in
Sicily. He composed the book in the middle ofthe sixth [twelfth] century. He utilize
‘many books by authors such as al-Masudi, Ibn Khurradadhbib,al-Havsgali, al Udhri,
‘shag al-Munajjim,5Z Ptolemy and others.
We shall begin with the first zone and go on from there tothe last one.

The first zone

‘The Eternal Islands (the Canaries) from which Ptolemy began the determination of
geographical longitude, are in the west. They are not part of the land mass of the frst zone.
‘They lie in the Surrounding Sea. A number of islands constitute them, The largest and best
known are three in number. They are said to be cultivated

We have heard 3 that European Christian ships reached them in the middle of this
century, fought wit the (inhabitants). plundered them. capured some of them, and sold
some ofthe captives along the Moroccan coast where they came into the service ofthe
ruler. After they ad leamed Arabic, hey gave information about conditions on their
island. They said that they tile the soil with horns. Ion was lacking in their country.
‚Their bread was made of barley. Their animals were goats. They fought with stones,
‘which they hurled backwards. Their worship consisted of prostrations before the rising
sun, They knew no (revealed religion and had not been reached by any misionary
activity

‘These islands can be reached only by hance, and not intentionally by navigation.
Navigation on the sea depends onthe winds. 1 depends on know ledge of the directions the
winds blow from and where they lead, and on following a straight couse from the places
that ie along the path of a particular wind. When the wind changes and it is known where
à straight course along it wil lead he sul are se fort and the ship thus sails according
16 nautical norms evolved by the mariners and sailors 0 who are in charge of sea voyages.
“The countries situated on the two shores ofthe Mediterranean are noted on a chart
(sahifah) which indicates he te facts regarding them and gives thet positions along the
‘coast inthe proper order. The various winds and their paths are likewise put down on the
‘hart. This chats called the "compass fi is om this (compass) that (iors rely on
their voyages. Nothing ofthe sort exists forthe Surrounding Sea. Therefore, ships do not
enter it, because, were hey to Tose sight of shore. they would hardly be able 1 find their
ay back tot, Moreover, the ir ofthe Surrounding Sea and is surface harbors vapors
that hamper ships on their course. Because of the remoteness ofthese (vapors), the ray of
the sun which the surface of the earth deflects, cannot reach and dissolve them. His.
therefore dificult find the way to (the Eternal Islands) and to have information about
then

“The first section of he fist zone contains the mouth ofthe Nie which has its
‘origin in the Mountain of the Qumr, as we have mentioned. (This Nile) is called the
Sudanes Nil. ous toward the Surrounding Sea and nt itt he sland of Avi
“The city of Sila Tatu ÁS and Ghanah ar situated along his Ni, AL stn, all of
them belong tothe Mal peuple É] a Negro nation. Moroccan merchants ave to thee
Close o tin the north is he country of the Lamtuna and of the ther groups of
the Veiled Beers (Sinhja), as well a the deserts in which they roam, To the south of
ths Nl, thee Negro people called Lamlam, Thy are unbelever. They brand
therseves onthe face and temples. The people of Ghanah and Takur invade he
‘country, pre them, and sel them to merhants who transport hem 1 the Maghrib.

“Ther, they constitu the ordinary mass of slaves. Beyond them to the south her is no
civilization in the proper sense, There arc only humans who ae close to dumb animals
than to rational begs They lve in thicket amd caves and ca herbs an unprepared gra.
They frequently eat each oer. They cannot be considered human beings. Al the fit
ofthe Negro tenitory come from foie villages inthe desert of the Maghrib, such as
‘Touat (Tawat, Tuwat), Tigurarin.62 and Ouargla (Wargalan) 20 In Ghanah, an “Alid King
and dynasty ae said to have existed. (These Als) were known as th Ban Salí.
‘According to the autor ofthe Book of Roger, Sali was Salih b Abdallah b Hasan b.
al-Hasan, but no such Salih known among the sons of "Abdallah Hasan ZL At
time the Öynasıy has disappeared, and Ghansh belongs to ho Mali ruler

‘To the cast of this trio, inthe thd section of the first zone, isthe territory of
Gawgaw2 1 ies along river hat has its origin in certain mountain there, ows
westward and disappears in the sand in th scond section, The eam of Gawgaw was
independent. The Mal ruler then gained power over the teiory. and it came ito his
possession. A this time its devastated as the resul ofa disturbance that happened tere
{nd that we shall mention when we discuss the Mal dynasty ints proper place inthe
history of the Berbers 2

o the south ofthe country of Gawgav isthe territory of Kanim, a Negro
aio Beyond them are the Wangarah onthe border of the (Sudanese Nile) othe
north To be east ofthe counties ofthe Wangarah andthe Kai, there isthe country of
the Zaghay “Sand the Tajirah ZZ adjoining the land of the Nubah in the fourth section of
the fit zone, The land ofthe Nubah inverse by the Egyptian Nile throughout its
Course from its begining a the equator 1 the Mediterranean inthe noth

‘This Nile originates a the Mountain ofthe Our, sateen degrees above Ste
‘equator. There are different opinions as o the correct form of the name ofthis mountain.
Some scholars read the name as gamar “moon.” because the mountain is very White and
Juminous. Yaqui, in the Mushtarik 2 as wel as lbn Said reads qumr. with reference 10
an Indian people St

‘Ten springs issue from this mountain. Five of them flow into one lake and five into
another lake. There is a distance of sx miles hetwcen the two lakes. From each ofthe two.
lakes, three rivers come forth, They come together in a swampy [?] lake (ati) atthe
foot of which a mountain emerges. This mountain cuts across the lake atthe northern end
and divides its waters into two branches. The western branch flows westward though the
‘Negro temilory, and finally flows into the Surrounding Sea. The easter branch flows
northward through the countries of the Abyssnians and the Nubah and the region in
between. At the boundary of Egypt, it divides. Three of is branches flow nto the
Mediterranean at Alexandria, at Rontta 22 and at Damictta. One los into à sal lake
before reaching the sea

In the middle of the first zone along the Nil, lie the countries of the Nubah and the
Abyssinians and some of the oases down lo Assuan. A settled part ofthe Nubah country is
the city of Dongola, west of the Nile, Beyond it are ‘Alwah Sand Yolag Aé Beyond them,
à six days journey north of Yul, isthe mountain of the cataracts. This i a mountain

rises to a great height onthe Egyptian side but is much less elevated on he side of
the county ofthe Nut The Nie cuts hough and ows down prcptatel in
teemendous cascades fora long distance. Boat cannot get through, Cargocs from the
Sudanese boats are taken off and care on pack animals o Assuan at the entrance to
Upper Egypt. In the same way, the cargoes ofthe boat from Upper Egypt are cared over
the cataracts. The distance from the cataracts to Assuan is a twelve days joumey. The
‘oases on the west bank ofthe Nile there are now in ruins. They show traces of ancient

settlement

Inthe middle of the first one, in its fh seston, i the country ofthe Abyssinian,
through which a river flows, which comes from beyond the equator and 5 flows toward
the land of the Nubah, where it lows into the Nile and so on down into Egypt, Many
people have held fantastic opinions about it and thought that it was pat ofthe Nile of the
Quine (Mountain ofthe Moon) Ptolemy mentioned it in the Geography. He mentioned
that it did not belong tothe Nile

In the middle of he frst zone, inthe fifth section, the Indian Ocean terminates. I
comes down from the region of China and covers most of the fist zone tothe fifth section.
Consequently, there is not much civilization there. Civilization exists only on the islands in
{the Indian Ocean) which are numerous and said to number up 0 one thousand
(Civilization also exists) on the southern coas of the Indian Ocean, the southeramost limi
of the culivated par ofthe earth, as also on its northem coast, Of these coast, the frst
one contains only à par of China o the eas and the whole of the Yemen in the sath
Section of this zone, where two seas branch off northwards from the Indian Ocean, namely,
the Red Sea (Sea of al-Qulzum) and the Persian Gulf. Between them les the Arabian
Peninsula, comprising the Yemen, ash-Shihr o the east on the shore ofthe Indian Ocean,
the Hijaz the Yamimah, and adjacent regions which we shall mention in connection with
the second zone and the regions Father north

On the western shore ofthe Indian Occan is Zayla Zila), which is on the
boundary of Abyssinia, and the desert plains ofthe Beja north of Abyssinia, which he
between the mountain of al. Alliqi in the southeramost par of Upper Egypt and the Red
Sea which branches off from the Indian Ocean. Nort of Zayla (Zila) in the northem par
of this section isthe straits of Bib al-Mandeb, where the sea that branches of thee is
narrowed by the promontory of alMandeb which juts int the Indian Ocean from south to
north along the west coast of the Yemen for twelve miles. Asa resul, the sea becomes so
arrow that ts width shrinks to approximately three miles, This is called Bib al-Mandeb
‘Yemenite ships pass ¡Lon their way to the coast of Suez near Egypt (Caio). North of Bib

deb are the islands of Suakin and Dahlak. Opponite ito the west are the desert
ofthe Beja, a Negro nation, as we have just mentioned. To the cas, on the coat of
ine sits of Bib al-Mandeb isthe Thimah ofthe Yemen I includes the pace of Hay
b Yaquo AZ

To the south of Zayla’ Zila) on the western coast of the Indian Ocean ac the
villages of Berbera which extend one after the other al along the southern coast of the
(Indian Ocean) tothe end of the sixth section. There, 1 the eas, he county ofthe Zanj
adjoins them. Then MS comes the city of Mogadishu, a very populous city with many
merchants, yet nomad in character, onthe southern coast of the Indian Ocean. Adjoining it
to the east is the county ofthe Sufilah on the southern coast in the seventh section of the
first zone.

East of the country ofthe Sufiah on the southern shor, les the country of al-
Wiqwig which stretches to the end ofthe tenth section ofthe first zone, where the
Indian Ocean comes out of the Surrounding Sea.

‘There are many island in the Indian Ocean. One ofthe largest island i the island
of Ceylon (Sarandib) which is round in shape and has a famous mountain said to be the
highest mountain on earth. I ies opposite Sufilah. Then, there is he island of Java (Malay
Archipelago) 2 an oblong island that begins opposite the lad of Sufilah and extends
northeastward uni it approaches the coasts that constitute Chinas southern boundary. In
the Indian Ocean, tothe south China is surrounded by the islands of al-Wiquag, and o the
‘east bythe islands of Korea There are numerous other islands in the Indian Ocean.
‘These islands produce diferent kinds of perfumes and incense. They also are said to

conan gold and emerald mines, Most of ir inhabitants are Magians 2 They have
numero oler. Those Islands pesen remuetabl cul features that have Boon
menoned by geographers

The one coast he Indian Ocean, in ie sinh section ofthe ist zone. is
‘occupied by the whole of the Yemen. On the Red Sea side lie Zabid, al-Mubjam,23 and
the Titamah of the Yemen. Nex beyond hai Sab the seat ofthe Zay mas, ing
far rom the nian) Ocean othe sou, fom he Pesan Cal 10 de east la the
region beyond tht are the city of Aden and, north of, Sai Beyond thee two ci, o
theca land ofall and Z fr. Next comes the land ul Hadramat, followed
by he county fash Shi between he indian) Ocean inthe south nd the Pesan Gi
‘This pot ofthe sith section ithe oly pat that at covered by water inthe middle
region ofthe fest zoe. Apart from le 4 Sal orton ofthe in section Is nt covered
by water, as well as a larger area in the tenth section that includes the southernmost limit
of China, One of China's famous cites isthe city of Canton. Opposite io the est ate
the islands of Korea which have just been menioned

‘This concludes the discussion of the frst zone.

The second zone

‘The second 200 is contiguous with the northern boundary ofthe Firs une
Opposite its weste limit) inthe Surrounding Sea are two ofthe Elena Islands, which
have been mentioned.

Atthe southemmnt part of the ist and second sections ofthe second Zon, there
isthe land of Qamnuriyah 25 Then othe cas, there are the southernmost pars ofthe land
Of Ghanal Then, here ae the desert plans of the Zaghay Negroes. Inthe northemmost
part, ther isthe desert of isa 26 I extends uninterrupted fom west to es. It has
Steiches of desert which are crosse by merchants an their way fom the Maghrib tothe
Sudan country includes the desert plains ofthe Veiled Sinhjah Berbers. There are
many subgroups, comprising the Gudalah,97 the Lamtunah, the Massufah, O8 the Lamtab,
nd the Watrigah, Directly tothe cas ofthe waste region I he land of Fezzaa, Then,
there are the desert plains ofthe Azga, a Berber ibe, which extend due cast in the
southernmost part of the third section This i followed, sl inthe third section, by part of
the country of Kawa, a Negro nation. Then, there is a portion ofthe land of at-Tajuwin 22
“The noriemmos par of the hid section is occupied bythe remainder ofthe land of
Wadi, followed directly o the east bythe land of Sanariyah which i called the Inner
ses 100

“The southemmon init ofthe fourth section i occupied bythe remainder ofthe
Hand of at Tu

The middle of the fourth section. then, intersected by Upper Egypt along the
Banks ofthe Nile, which flows from its sour in the first zone tots mouth atthe se, In
this section it pases through two mountain barriers the Mountain ofthe Oase in the west,
and the Mugatam in the east. At the soem par ofthe section lie Esha and Arman
‘There à a continuous riverbank region up to Asyut and Qus, and then o Sa. There, the
Nile divides into two branches, The ight branch ends up a al-Labun, sil inthe fourth
section. The left ranch ends upat Dales. The region hetwcen them i the southemmost
par of (Lower) Egypt. Eas of Mount Mugatam are the desens of "Aydhab, extending
From the ft section othe Sea of Suez, thai, he Red Sea (Sea of al-Quium) which
branches off northwards from the Indian Ocean o he south, On the castem shore of the
Red Sea, in the same section, i the Hiaz, extending from the Mountain of Yalamlanı to
Yahrb (Medina. In the middle ofthe Hijaz is Mecca-Gd Honor and on is seashore

of iaa which is opposite “Aydhab on the west shore ofthe Red Sea
In the sath section othe west is Uh Najd having as its sothernmot limit Jura
and Tabalah AL (and extending) up to Ukaz in the north, Noth ofthe Najd inthe sth
Section isthe remainder ofthe Hija. Directly to te east of (he Na) les he country of
Najan and Janad. North ofthat isthe Yamamah Dice to the east of Najan here she
Hand of Saba’ and Mai, followed by the land of ash-Shhr, which ends atthe Persian
Gulf This isthe other ca that ranches off northward fom the Indian Osean, a has bom
mentioned, and tums westward on its course inthe sith section. The northeasem arc of
{the sixth section) constitutes a triangle. A soulhemmon ar is the city of Qalht. the
coast (seaport) of ash-Shihr. North of it, on the coast, is the country of Oman, followed by
the country of alBabrayo with Haar a the end of the (sit) section.

“The southwestern par ofthe seventh section contains a portion ofthe Persian Gulf
connecting withthe oer potion fin he sit section. The Indian Ocean cover al the
Southernmost are ofthe seventh section. Thor, Wesen fda cs along upto the
‘county of Mukran which belongs to Westen India. Opposite tithe county ofa
“Tawbaran 102 which also belongs to Western India. All of Westen India lies in the
este part ofthe seventh ecto, Wester Indias separated from Easter India by
Stress of desert and is traversed by a river the In) which comes from Eastern Inda
and flows into the Indian Ocean inthe south Eastem India begins onthe shore of the
Indian Ocean. Directly to the east there lies the country of Ballahra103 North of it is
Malian, the home ofthe great idoL104 The northernmost par of Eastern Indias the
southermmost par ofthe county of Stan.

“The western part ofthe eighth section contains the remainder ofthe county of
allah that belongs to Eastern Inia. Direct tothe east oft is the county of
Gandhara 125 Then, at the southernmost part (of the section), on the shore of the Indian
(Ocean, there is the Country of Malabar (Mania. North of nthe northernmost part (of
the section), tere the country of Kabul Beyond (Kabul) the e

‘The ninth section, in its western part, contains farthest Eastern India, which extends
to the easter part (of the section) and stretches along its southernmost part upto the tenth
section. [nthe northernmost part here, there is a portion of Chins. It includes the city of

Khayghun.106 China then extends over the whole tenth section up to the Surrounding Sea.

Third Zone

“The third zone is contiguous with the northern boundary ofthe second zone. The
fis seston, about one-third ofthe way from the southemmos part othe zone, contains
the Atlas Mountain 202 which runs from the ester par ofthe fist section at the
Surrounding Sea to the caser end of the section. This mountain is inhabited by
innumerable Berber nations, as will be mentioned. 0 Inthe region between his mountain
and the second one, at the Surrounding Sea, there isthe Rut (Monastery) Missah 102
East of here ae the adjoining countries of (a-)Sus LLO and Noun (Nu). Directly tothe
‘east of (these counties) is the county of Darah, followed by the country of Sijmasah and
then by a portion of the desert of Nisar, the stretch of desert that we mentioned in
eseibing the second zone

‘The Atlas Mountain towers over all these countries of the frst section, The western
region of the Atlas has few passes and roads but near the Moulouya (Malwiyah) River, and
from there on 10 where it ends, the Atlas has a great number of passes and roads. This
region contains the Masmudah nations: at the Surrounding Sea the Saksl wah, then the

Hinata, the Tinmalll the Gidmivah-LL and then the Haskurah who ae the lst
Masia inthis area Thom there are the Zaigah LL thats, Ihe Sinhfah bes, AC the
boundary ofthe fist section of the third zone, there are some Zanatah ties. To the north,
Mount Awras (L’Aurs) the mountain ofthe Kutamah, adjoins (he Ades) After that, here
are other Berber nations which we shall mencion in dei proper paces.

‘The Atlas Mountain in the western part of the section towers over Morocco to the
north of i In the southem pat of (Morocco) ie Marrakech, Aghmat, and Ta. On the
‘Surrounding Sea there, are the Ribat Asfi and the city of Sale (Sala). East LIZA of the
‘country of Marrakech lic Fez, Meknes, Taza, and Qasr Kutamah, 113 This is the arca that
iS customarily called the Fathest Maghrib (Morocco) by its inhabitants, On the shore of
the Surrounding Sea in that region le Avila (Azila) Land Larache (Ari). Directly
to the east ofthis are, there i the country ofthe Middle Maghrib whose center i
‘Tlemcen (Tilimsan), On the shores of the Mediterranean ther, lic Hunayn LS Oran, and
Algiers. The Mediterranean eaves the Surounding Sea at the Strats of Tangier in he
estem par of the fourth zoe, LL and then extends eastward to Syria. Shortly afer it
leaves the arrow str, widens tothe south and o the north and enters the third and
filth zones. This is why many places within the third zone are on the Mediterranean coast,
from Tangier up to al-Qasras-sagh, then Ceuta, the country of Bais, and Ghassasah
Algiers, which comes next, is near Bougie (Bajayah) on he as. Then, east of Bougie at
the boundary ofthe ist section is Constantin, a days Joumey from the Mediterranean.
South of these places, toward the south ofthe Middle Maghrib, isthe testory of Air
‘wth Mount Tite followed by Mila (l-Maslah) andthe Zab, Th center of (he Zab) is
Bish, noch of Mount Awras which connects with the Als, as has been mentioned. This
isthe eastern end ofthe fist section

‘The second section of the tind zone slike the frst seston in hat about one-third
of the distance rom is southern (ii) His the Alas Mountain which extends across this
Section from wes to east and divides it into two portion. The Mediterranean covers one
arca in the noth, Th potion south ofthe Atlas Mountain is all desert vo che west. To the
as, there s Ghadames. Directly to the cast this portion) isthe land of Wada, the
Femainder of whichis situated inte second zone, as has been mentioned. The porton
noth ofthe Atlas Mountain between the Atlas andthe Mediterranean conains in he west
Mount Aura, Tebesa, and Lars (al-Urbus). On the seacoast is Bone (Bunah). Direct
east ofthese places is the country’ of Iria, with the city of Tunis, then Sousse
(Susa, and al-Mahdiyah on he seacoast. South ofthese places and north ofthe Alas
Mountain, he county of the Djri aid lar), Toscar (Twat), Gaia (Qala),
and Nefzoun (Nafzawah). Between them and the coast is de city of Kairouan (a
Qayrawan), Mount Oussela (use, Wasa) and Sheila (Subaytilah). Directly east of
tes pace is Tripoli om the Medteancan, Facing tin the south are he mountain of
the Hawwara ties, Dammar (Mount Demme), and Maggarah (the city of Maggaa)

‘connect with the Aas and are opposite Ghadames which we mentioned athe cod
Of the southern potion, Ate astem end of the second section lies Suwaygat In
Mathkud LS on the sea. To the south are the desert plains of the Arabs in the land of
Wan,

“The third section ofthe third zone is also averse by the Alas Mountain, but a
the limi (ofthe section) the Atlas turns northward and runs due north up o the
Mediterancan, There, its called Cape Awihan. The Mediterranean covers the northern
part ofthe third section, so thatthe land between it and the Aa narrows, Behind the
mountain tothe southwest, there the remainder of the and of Waddan and the desert
plains ofthe Arabs. Then thee is Zawiat Io Kata followed by sandy deserts and
tease regions 0 the eastem boundary of the section. To the West ofthe area between the

mountain and the sa, theres Site (Sur) atthe sea. Then, here are empty and waste
regions in which the Arabs roam. Then, hee is Akdbiyah and, where the mountain makes
à tum, Barca (Bargah. Next comes Tulaymihah (Polemals) onthe sea. Then, othe cast
of the mountain, afer it makes the tur, are the desert plains ofthe Hayyib LS and the
Ruwahah, which extend to the end ofthe section

“The southwestern part of the fourth section ofthe third zone contains the desert of
Berenice, Noth oft the county ofthe Hayy and the Ruwahah. Then the
Meditrancan enters this section and covers art of iin a southcm direction almost the
southern boundary. Betwcen i andthe end ofthe section, there remains a wase region
through which the Arabs ram. Directly tothe east of isthe Fayyum, at be mouth of one
of the two branches of he Nile. This branch passes by alain in Upper Egypt inthe
fourth section of the zone and flows into the Lake ofthe Fagyum, Dircty tothe east of
{the Fayyum) is the Land of Egypt wih its famous city (Cairo situated on the or branch
ofthe Nile, the one that pases through Dalas in Upper Egypt atthe boundary of the
Second section, This attr branch divides a, log second tne into two more branches
below Cairo, at Shattanawf and Zifta(h) 112 The right branch again divides into two other
branches at Tarnat120 Au these branches flow into the Mediterranean, A the mouth ofthe
‘western branch is Alexandria; at he mouth ofthe middle branch is Rosetta; and a the
‘mouth ofthe cae branch i Damit. Between Cairo and the Mediterranean cos at
these points les the whole of nothem Egypt which is densely sted and cultivate.

“Te fifth section ofthe thd zone comas all or most of Sri, a I shal describe
it. The Red Sea ends inthe southwest (o the section) a Suez, because in is course from
the Indian Ocean northward, tums eventually westward. A ong portion of ts western
‘extension His inthis section, with Suez atts western end. Beyond Suez, on this pat of
the Red Sea, ther are the mountains of Para (Farn), Mount Sinai (Tun), Alla (Ayla)
in Midyan (Madyan), and, where it ends, al-Hawra' 21 From there, its shoreline tums
southward towards te land of the Hija, a hs been mentioned in connection withthe
fit section ofthe second zone

A portion of the Mediterranean covers much ofthe northwestern part of the fifth
n. On its (coast) li alFarama 122 and al Arsh. The end of this portion of the
Mediterancan comes close o al-Qulzum. The area in between there is narrow. Ht becomes
a Kind of gate leading into Syria. West of his gate isthe desert plain (at-Tih) a bare
county in which nothing grows, where the Isracites wandered for forty years after they
had left Egypt and before they entered Syria, a the Quan tells L2 In this portion of the
Mediterranean, in the fifth section, lies part of the island of Cyprus. The remainder (of
Cyprus) lis in the fourth zone, as we shall mention. Along the cousine ofthat narrow
sin of land between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, are al Arish, the boundary of
Egypt, and Ascalon. Between them, there isa (narow) strip of land (Separating the
Mediterranean and) the Red Sea. Then his portion ofthe Mediterranean turn to the north
into the fourth zone at Tripoli and ‘Argah 124 That is the eastern end of the Mediterranean,
‘This portion ofthe Mediterranean comprises most of the Syrian coast. East and slightly 10
the north of Ascalon, is Caesarea. Then, in the same general direction, are Acco, Tyre,
Sidon, and “Arqah. The sea then turns north into the fourth zone

‘Opposite these places on the coast of this portion ofthe Mediterranean in the fifth
section, there i a big mountain which rises from the coast at Aila (Aylah) on the Red Sea,
It runs northeastward until it eaves the ff section. Ii called Amanus (al-Lakkam). 1
a kind of barrier between Egypt and Syria. ALthe one end, near Aa (Ayla). lies al
“Aqabah which the pilgrims pass rough on cir way from Egypt to Mecca. After it, to
the north, is Abraham's tomb at Mount ash-Sharah 12S whichis continuation of the
afore-mentioned Amanus north of al” Agabah, It extends due east, and then tars slightly

¿to the south). Bast of there is al Hi (Tayma, and Dumat
al-Jandal, the nothermmos pat ofthe Hijaz. South of itis Mount Radwa-L2 Farther
Soul, there are he castle of Khaybar. Between Mount ash-Sharah and the Red Sea lies
the desert of Tabuk: Noth of Mount ash-Sharah i the city of Jerusalem nea the Amanus
“Then there ithe Jordan and Tiberias. Eas of ities the Gordan) depression (Chr, a+
Gar) which extends to Ada and the Hawran. Direct o he cas of (lhe Hawran)
is Dumat l-Jandl which consites th end ofthe Hijaz and the th section. Where the
Amanus tums nor al the end ofthe fifth section she city of Damascus, oposite Sidon
and Beirut on he coast The Amant les been (Sidon and Beirut, onthe one hand),
and (Damascus, on the other). Directly east 127 of Damascus and facing it, is the city of
Babak. Then. here is the ct of Emesa a the nombra end of the fifth ston, where
the Amanusbraks off, East of Babak and Emesa are the city Palmyra and desert plains
‘extending tothe end of the ih ection,

‘The southernmost pat ofthe ssh section contains the desert plain ofthe Arab
Bedouins, (which are) located to the north of the Najd and the Yamimah in the area
beten the Mountain of al” Ag and a-Samnin and extending to alBahrayn and Hajar ot
the Persian Gulf, Inthe northeramost part ofthe sixth section, to he north ofthe desert
plains, ie al-Hirah,al-Qilsiyad, and the swampy lowlands of the Euphrates. Beyond that
{othe cat isthe ety of al-Basrah. Inthe norbcastem par of the sixth section the Persian
Gulf ends at Abbidan and al-Ubulla. The mouth ofthe Tigris at Abbdan, The Tigris,
divides into many branches and takes in other branch fom the Euphrats, Ail of them
‘ome together at‘Abbidan and flow into the Persian Gulf. This portion ofthe Persian Gulf
is wide inthe southernmost part (ofthe section). I narrows toward is easter boundary,
and where rends inthe north i (lo) is narow. On the western coast ie the northernmost
Portion of al-Babrayn, Haar, and al-Ahsa" To the west ofthis portion of the Persian Gulf,
lic l-Khan, as-Sammin.L2 andthe remainder of the land of the Yamima

‘The eastem cost comprises the shores of Far. In ther southernmost part tthe
‘astern end of the sh section, along a line suciching from the Persian Gulf eastward and
beyond ito the south, are the mountains of al-Quís 122 which are in Kirman. North of
Humuz onthe coast ofthe Persian Gulf, are Sirf and Najrum. I the east, toward the end
ofthe sit section and north of Hurmuz, the country of Fis compeso for instance,
Sibur, Darabjird, Pas, tak, ash-Shihijin, and Shri, the principal city. North ofthe
‘country of Fr, atthe end ofthe Persian Gul, ies the country of Khuzitin which includes
al-Ahwiz,Tustar undishibur, Susa (as-5u), Rimhurmuz, and othe ies. Amajn ison
the boundary between Fits and Khuzisún. To tb cas ole country of Khun are the
Kurdish Mountains, which extend to the region of Ifahin. The Kurds live there. They
roam beyond the mountains into the country of Firs. They are called az-zumum 132

“The southwestern part ofthe seventh section contains the remainder of the
Mountains of l-Quís to which ae adjacent in the south and north the countries of Kirman
{and Mukran) They include the eis of a-Rudban,ash-Shirajan, Brut Uayrut),
Yazdshir, and al-Fahraj. North ofthe land of Kan Ihe remainder ofthe county of
Fars upto the border of Isfahan. The city of Isfahan lies in the northwest comer ofthe
Seventh section. East of he counties of Kirman and Firs, theres the land of Sitio the
South, and the land of Kehistan to the noth, Between Kimin- Firs and Shistan-Kuhis
inthe middle of hi section is he great desert which has few roads because ofthe
dificult train, Cies in Sin are Bust and Tig. Kehistan belongs tothe country of
Khurisin. One of Khurisan's best known places is Sarakhs,24 on the boundary of the
section

‘The eighth section contains, in the southwest, the plans of the Khalaj-L2 a Turkish
nation. They adjoin the land of Sijstan in the west and the land of Kabul of Eastern India

in the south. North of these desert plains are the mountains and country of al-Ghar starting
with Ghaznah, the key to India. Where al-Ghur ends in the north lies Astarabadh, Then, to
the mor isthe country of Herat inthe middle of Khurasan, extending to the boundary of
the section, It includes Isfarayin, Qishan, Bushanj, Marw-ar-rudh, at-Taligan, and al-
Juzajan. This part of Khurasan extends 10 the river Oxus, Khurasanian places on this river
are the city of Balkh to the west, and the city of at-Tirmidh to the cast. The city of Balkh
was the seat of the Turkish real.

“The Oxus comes from the country of Wakhan inthe area of Badakhshan which
borders on India, in he southeast comer ofthis section. I soon turns west to the middle of
the section. There, itis called the Khamab River. I then tums north, passes Khurasan,
flows due north, and finally lows into Lake Aral in the fith zone, as we shall mention. In
the middle ofthe eighth section where it turns from the south to the north, five large rivers
belonging to the country of Khutal and Wakhshl23 low into it on the east, Other rivers,
‘coming from the Buttam Mountains 10 he east and north of Khuttal lso flow into it. The
Oxus, thus, becomes wider and large, so much so that no other river equals it in these
respects. One of te five rivers flowing into the Oxus isthe Wakhshab! which comes
from the country of Tibet that extends over the southeastern portion of his section. It
flows toward the northwest. Its course is blocked by a great mountain which runs from the
middle of this section in the south toward the northeast, and leaves this section close to its
northern (boundary) to pass into the ninth section. crosses the country of Tibet toward
the southeast portion of this section. I separates the Turks from the country of Khutal
has only one road in the middle of his section tothe cast. AlFadl b, Yahya constructed a
dam there with a gate in iULS ike the Dam of Gog and Magog. When the Wakhishab
leaves the country of Tibet and comes up against that mountain, it flows under it fora long
distance, until it enters the country of Wakhsh and flows into the Oxus at the border of
Balkh. (The Oxus) then sweeps on to at-Tirmidh in the north and flows into the country of
al-Kizajan,

East ofthe country of al-Ghur, in he region between (his country) and the Oxus,
is the country of al-Bamiyan, which belongs to Khurasan. There on the eastern bank of the
river is the country of Khuttl, most of which is mountainous, and the country of Wakhsh.
“This is bordered in the north by the Buttam Mountains, which come from the border of
Khurasan, west of the Oxus, and run eastward. Finally, where they end, a large mount
range begins, behind which lies the county of Tibet and under which there flows the
Wakhshab, as we have stated, (The two mountain ranges) join atthe gate of al-Fadl b.
‘Yahya. The Oxus passes between them. Other rivers flow ino it, among them the river of
the country of Wakhsh, which flows into it from the east, below at-Tirmidh in the
north 1354 The Balkha River! comes from the Buttam Mountains where it starts at al
Jura an, and flows into it from the west. On the western bank ofthis river (Oxus) lies
‘Amul, which belongs to Khurasan. East of this river (Oxus) are the lands ofthe Soghd and
Usrushanah, which belong to the country of the Turks. East of them is the land of
Farghanah, which extends to the eastern end of the section. The entire country ofthe Turks
here is crossed by the Buttam Mountains on the noth

In the western part ofthe ninth section lies the county of Tibet, up tothe middle of
the section. In the south is India, and in the east, to the boundary of the section, is China,
In the northernmost part of this section, north of the country of Tibet, is he country ofthe
Khariukh!22 which belongs to the country of the Turks, extending to the northern
boundary of the section. Adjacent to it on the west is the land of Farghanad.L and on the
‘east isthe land ofthe Turkish Tughurghur 2 extending to the northeastern end of the
section.

‘The southern part of the tenth section is entirely occupied by the remaining
northernmost portion of China. In the north is the remainder of the country of the

Tughuzghuz. East of them isthe country of the Turkish Kirghiz. extending tothe
‘eastern end of the section. North of the land of the Kirghiz is the country ofthe Turkish
Kimak Ll

‘Opposite (the Kirghiz and Kimak counties), in the Surrounding Sea, lies the
Hyacinth (Ruby) Island in the middle of a round mountain that completely blocks access
10 it. Climbing (0 the top of the mountain from the outside is extremely difficult, On the
island, there are deadly snakes and many pebbles of hyacinth (ruby). The people ofthat
region contrive (0 mine them with the help of divine inspiration

‘The regions in the ninth and tenth sections extending beyond Khurasan and Khuttal
are desert plans where innumerable Turkish nations roam. They are wandering nomads
‘who have camels, sheep, cattle, and horses for breeding, riding, and eating. There are very
many, (indeed) innumerable groups. There are Muslims among them in the area adjacent
to the Oxus. They make raids on the unbelievers among them, who follow the Magian 182
religion. They sell their captives to their near (neighbors), who export them 10 Khurasan,
India, and the Ira

The fourth zone

‘The fourth zone is contiguous with the northern part of the third (zone). Is first
section, inthe west, contains a portion of the Surrounding Sea which, oblong in shape,
‘extends from the southern to the northern boundary of the section. The ety of Tangier is
situated on it inthe south, North of Tangier, the Mediterranean branches off from this
portion of the Surrounding Sea in a narrow straits that is only twelve miles wide, Tarifa
and Algeciras (lying) (othe north of it and Qast al-Majaz “4 and Ceuta o the south of it.
It runs cast until it reaches the middle ofthe fifth section of the fourth zone, gradually
‘widening and eventually covering the (fis) four sections and most of the fifth section of
the fourth zone, as well as adjacent regions ofthe third and fifth zones, as we shall
menton.

‘The Mediterranean is also called the “Syrian Sea. It contains many islands. The
largest of them, from west to cast, are Ibiza, Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, Sicily-which is
the largest of them -the Peloponnesos, Crete, and Cyprus. We shall mention each of them
in its particular section

At tc end of the third section ofthe Fourth zone and in the third section of the
fifth zone, the Adriatic Sea (Straits of the Venetians) branches off from the Mediterrancan.
I runs in a northern direction, then turns westward in the northern half ofthe section, and
finally ends inthe second section of te fifth zone.

At the easter boundary of the fourth section of the fifth zone, the Strats of
Constantinople branches off from the Mediterranean. In the north, it makes a narrow
passage only an arrow shot in width, extending up to the boundary of the zone and on into
the fourth section ofthe sith zone, where turns into the Black Sea, running eastward
across the whole of he fifth, and half ofthe sixth, sections ofthe sixth zone, as we shall
‘mention in the proper place.

Where the Mediterranean leaves the Surrounding Sea through the Stats of Tangier
“and expands into the third zone, there remains a small portion ofthis section south of the
Straits. The city of Tangier is situated in it, at he confluence of the two seas. After Tangier
‘comes Ceuta on the Mediterranean, then Tetuan (Titawin), and Badis. The remainder of
this section to the east is covered by the Mediterranean, which extends into the third
(Gone). Most ofthe cultivated area in this section is north of it and north ofthe Strait. All
this is Spain,

‘The western part of Spain, the arca between the Surrounding Sea and the
Mediterranean, begins at Tarifa, at Ihe confluence of the two seas. East of it, on the shore

ofthe Mediterranean is Algeciras, followed by Malaga, Almunccar, and Almeria
Northwest ofthese cts and close 1 the Surrounding Sea, there i Jerez (dela Protea),
followed by Nichia, Oppost these two cites, nthe Surounding Se, i the island of
Cadiz, East of Jerez and Niebla are Sevilla, followed by Ecija, Cordoba, and Marbella [?
1,148 then Granada, Jaen, and Ubeda, then Guadix and Baza. Northwest ofthese cities on
the Surrounding Sea are Santamaria and Silves, Norh)east ofthese wo cities are Badajoz,
Merida, and Evor LS followed by Ghafig 146 and Trujillo, and then Calatrava.
Northwest ofthese cites on the Surrounding Sea, here i Lisbon on the Tajo, East of
Lisbon, onthe Tajo, are Sanlarem and Cori, Then thee is Alcantara. Facing Lisbon on
the east, there rises ihe Sera (de Guadarrama) which stars i Ihe west thee and runs
tastward along the northern boundary ofthe section. I ends at Medinaceli beyond the
tide of (he section) Below (atthe foo of the Sera is Talavera, east of Cora,
followed by Toledo, Guadalajara, and Medinacel Where the Sie begin, in the region
between the Siera and Lisbon, I Coimbra This is western Spain.

Eastern Spain is bordered by the Mediterranean, Here, Almeria is followed by
Cartagena, Alicante, Denia and Valencia, up to Tarragona 14Z atthe casten boundary of
the section, North ofthese cites are Lora and Segura, adjacen to Baza and Calatrava,
‘which belong o western Spain. Toth cs. Ihn. comes Murcia, followed by Jativa north
of Valencia LE then Juca 149 Tortosa, and 150 Tarragona atthe boundary ofthe section.
‘Then, nom of these cites, here are the lands of Chinchilla and Huete, which are adjacent
to Segura and Toledo inthe west. Northeast of Tortosa, then, is Frag. Est of Medinaceli,
thors Calatayud, followed by Saragossa and Lerida a he northcaser end ofthe section

“The second section ofthe fourth zone is entirely covered by water, except for a
portion nthe northwest which includes the remainder ofthe Pyrenees LE the “Mountain
Pf Passes and Roads” I comes there from the boundary ofthe first section ofthe filth
Zone sar tte southcate limit of the Surroundin Sea onthe boundary ofthis
Section, runs scutheastward, and enters the fourth zone upon leaving the fs section for
the second, so that a potion of i falls int the fourth zone. is passes lead into the adjacent
‘mainland, which i called the and of Gascogne I contains the cis of Gerona and
Carcassonne, On te sores of the Mediterranean in this portion, isthe city of Barcelona,
followed by Narbonne

“The sea which covers tis section contains many islands, mot of which are
uninhabited because they are smal nthe west, there he island of Sardi, and in th
feast the large Island of Sicily Hs circumference is sad 10 be seven hundred mies. It
(ontins many cs, he bet known among them being Syracuse, Palermo, Trapani
Mazrara and Messina, Sly i opposite Hrigiyah, Between Sci and fil are the

sus of Gozzo and Malta

‘The third section ofthe fourth zone is also covered by the sea, excep for three
portion inthe north The one inthe west belongs tothe land of Calabria, the on inthe
Idle to Lombardy, and the one in the east othe country ofthe Venetians.

‘Te fourth section ofthe fourth zone is ls covered by the sea, as has been
mentioned. It contains many islands. Most of them are uninhabited, asi he case in the
thd section, The inhabited islands are the Peloponnes, in the northwest, and Crete
which is oblong in shape and stretches fom the middle ofthe section tothe southeast. A
large triangular area ofthe fifth section in the southwest is covered by the sea, The westem
side of dis triangle) goes t the nrthern boundary ofthe fifth section. The somber side
goes across about two. his ofthe scion. There remains atte easter sido ole section
porn of about one-third ts northern part runs west along the seacost as we have
State. Is southern half contin the orthemmost region of Syria. Is aversed inthe
middle by the Amanus. The Amanus eventually reaches the nother end of Syria, where i
tums in a northeasterly direcion. At the point where I tums, is called "Chain

Mountain."152 There, it enters the fifth zone. After it turns, it traverses a portion of the
Jazirah in an easterly direction, West of where it ums, thee rise contiguous mountain
ranges. They finally end at an inlet ofthe Mediterranean, near the northem end of the
section. Through these mountains, there are passes which are called ad-Durub (mountain
passes), They lead into Armenia, This section contains a portion of Armenia situated
between these mountains and the Chain Mountain,

‘The southern region, as we have mentioned before, comprises the nonhernmost
region of Syria, and the Amanus extends across it from south to north in the area between
the Mediterranean and the boundary of the section. On the seacoast is AntarsusLS3 at the
beginning of the section to the south. I borders on “Argah and Tripoli which lic on the
shore of the Mediterranean in the third zone. North of Antarsus is Jabala, followed by
Lattakiyah, Alexandretta, and Selefke. North of these cities is the Byzantine territory.

“The Amanus, which lies between the sea and the end ofthe section, is hugged, in
Syria in the southwester part of the section, by the fortress of lism al-Khawabi, which
belongs tothe Ismaili Assassins who at this time are called Fidawis, The fortress (also) is
‘called Masyat 134 It lies opposite Antarsus to the east, On the side opposite this fortress,
‘east ofthe Amanus, is Salamlyah, north of Emesa. North of Masyat, between the mountain
and the sea, lies Antioch. Opposite it, east of the Amanus, is al-Mafarah, and east of al-
Mirra, al-Marighah. North of Antioch, there is al-Massisah, followed by Adhanah and
‘Tarsus, tthe furthest point of Syria. Facing (Antioch), west of the mountain, is Qinnasrin,
followed by “Ayn Zarbah. Opposite Qinnasrin, east ofthe mountain, is Aleppo, and
‘opposite ‘Ayn Zarbah is Manbij the furthest point of Syria.

‘The area tothe right ofthe Durub, between them and the Mediterranean, comprises
the Byzantine territory (Anatoli). At this time, it belongs tothe Turkomans and is ruled by
Ibn Uthman (the Ottomans) 8S On the shore of the Mediterranean thee, are Antalya and
al-Alaya,

Armenia, which lies between the Durub and the Chain Mountain, comprises
Marsh, Malatya, and Ankara. LS up to the northern end of the section. In Armenia in
the fifth section, originate the river Jayhan and, to the eat of it, the river Sayhan. The
Jayhan flows south until it has traversed the Durub, It then passes by Tarsus and al-
Massisah, then turns northwestward and eventually flows into the Mediterranean south of
Selefke. The Sayhan runs parallel to the Jayhan. It is opposite Ankara and Maras
traverses the Durub Mountains. reaches Syria, then passes by Ayn Zarbah, then turns away
from the Jayhan, and turns northwestward, It joins the Jayhan west of al-Massisah,

‘The Jazirah, which is surrounded by the portion of the Amanus that turns into the
Chain Mountain, contains in the south ar-Rafigah and ar-Raggah. followed by Harran,
Saruj, Edessa, Nisibis, Samosata, and Amid, north ofthe Chain Mountain, atthe
northeastern end of the section. The Euphrates and the Tigris traverse this area in the
middle. They originate inthe fith zone, pass southward through Armenia, and cross the
Chain Mountain, The Euphrates, then, flows west of Samosata and Saruj in an easterly
direction, It passes west of ar-Rafigah and ar-Raggah and on into the sixth section. The
‘Tigris flows east of Amid and shortly thereafter turns to he cast. Then, it soon passes on
into the sixth section

‘The sixth section of the fourth zone contains the Jazira to the west. Immediately
‘cast of itis the country ofthe ‘rag, which terminates near the boundary of the section. At
the boundary ofthe Irag is the Mountain of Isfahan which comes from the south of the
section and runs in a westerly direcion. When it reaches the middle of the northem end of
the section, it runs west, Eventually, leaving the sixth section, it joins on is course due
west, the Chain Mountain in the fifth section,

‘The sixth section is divided ino two portions. a western and an easter. The

western portion, in the south, contains the point where the Euphrates leaves the fifth
section, and, in the north, the point where the Tigris leaves it. As soon as the Euphrates
‘enters the sixth section, it passes Qirgisiya. There, a (river) branches off from the
Euphrates. It flows north into the Jazirah and disappears there in the ground. Shortly past
Qirgisiyal, the Euphrates turns south and passes to the west of the Khabir and on west of
ar-Rahbah. A (river) branches off there from the Euphrates and flows south. Siffin lies to
the west of it. (This river) then turns east and divides into a number of branches, Some of
them pass by alKufah, others by Qasr Ibn Hubayrah and al-Jamiayn (alHillah). N

the south of the section all of them enter the third zone and disappear into the ground east
of al-Hirah and al-Qadisiyah. The Euphrates flows directly cast from arRahbah, and passes
north of Hit. I then flows south of azZab% and al-Anbar, and into the Tigris at

Baghdad.

When the Tigris leaves the fifth section for the sixth section, it lows due cast,
‘opposite the Chain Mountain which connects with the Mountain of al~Irag on its course
due west, and passes north of Jazirat Iba "Umar. Then it passes Mosul in the same way,
and Takrit It reaches al-Hadithah, tums south, leaving al-Hadithah to the cast of it, and
likewise the Greater and the Lesser Zab. It flows directly south and to the west of al-
Qadisiyah. Eventually it reaches Baghdad and joins with the Euphrates. Then it flows.
south, to the west of Jarjaraya, and eventually leaves the section and enters the third zone.
‘There it divides into many branches. They unite again and there flow into the Persian Gulf
at'Abbidin. The region between the Tigris and the Euphrates, before they have come
together at Baghdad, is the Jazirah. Below Baghdad, another river joins the Tigris. It comes
from northeast of (the Tigris) Itreaches an-Nahrawin opposite Baghdad to the east, Then
it tums south and joins with the Tigris before entering the third zone, For the region
between this river and the mountains of al-Iriq and Kurdistan, there remains Jalul and,
‘east of it at the mountain, Hulwin and Saymarah.

‘The western portion of the section contains a mountain that starts from the Kurdish
‘mountains and runs east toward the end of the section. It is called the Mountain of
Shahrazur. It divides the (weste portion) into two subdivisions. The southern subdivision
contains Khunajin, northwest of Isfahan, This section is called the country of al
Bañlus-L5 In the middle of the southern subdivision is Nahiwand, and, in the north,
Shahrazur, west of the point where the two mountain ranges meet, and ad-Dinawar (is) on
the cast, al the boundary of the section, The other subdivision contains part of Armeni
including its principal place, al-Marighah, The portion of the Mountain of al-Traq that
faces itis called the Mountain of Birimma.L5 I is inhabited by Kurds, The Greater Zab
and the Lesser Zib at the Tigris are behind it. At the eastern end of this section lies
‘Azerbaijan, which includes Tabriz and al-Baylagan.1$® In the northeast comer of the
section is a small portion of [the Black Sea,] the Caspian (Sea of the Khazars) 32

‘The seventh section of the fourth zone contains, in the southwest the largest
portion of the country of al-Bahlas, including Hamadhin and Qazwin. The remainder of

Isfahan is situated there. (Al-Bahlus and Isfahan) are surrounded on
the south by mountains which come from the west, pass through the third zone, leave it in
the sinth section for the fourth zone, and join the eastern portion of the Mountain of al-
“Iraq, as has been mentioned before. They (also) surround the eastern portion of the coun-
ty of al-Bahlus, These mountains which surround Isfahan run north from the third zone,
‚enter this seventh section, and then inclose the country of al-Bahfus on the east. Below (at
the foot of) them, is Qishin, followed by Qumm. Near the middle of their course, they tum

hily west then, describing an are, they run northeastward, and eventually enter the fifth
zone. Where they turn (west) and make the cirele, ar-Rayy lies to the cast, Where they turn
(vest), another mountain range starts and runs west to the boundary of the seventh section.
‘South of the mountains there is Qazwin. North of them and alongside the connecting
‘mountains of arRayy, extending in a northeastern direction to the middle of the section

and then into the fifth zon, les the county of Tabaristn in the region between these
‘mountains and a potion of the Caspian Sea (Sea of Tabaristan), From the fi zone. it
‘mers the even sation abona halfway between west and eas. Where the mountain of
as-Rayy tum west, ther ie ther, connecting mountains, They run directly east and
sliguly south, and eventually enter the eighth section fom the west. Between the
(mountain of ar Rayy and these mountains, tte starting point, here remains Turan,
includes Bistam.lil Behind these (later) mounlins there is a part ofthe seventh
Section that contains the remainder ofthe dese area between Fars and Khurisan othe
fast of Qishin. Au its farthest point, near these mountain, ls Astaibidh. On the eastern
Slopes of these mountains, and extending lo the boundary of the section, lies the county of
Nisabur, which belongs to Khursin, South of the mountains and east ofthe desert aca,
lies Nisabur, followed by Marw ash-Shihijan 1% at the end of the section. North of it and
as of Jaja, are Majin. Khazarun. and Tus, the easter end of the section. Al these
places ae north of the mountains. Far tothe noth of them he country of Nasa, which is
Surrounded by baren reiches of dser, inthe northeastem comer ofthe section.

‘The cighth section ofthe fourth zone, in the west contains the Oxus which flows
from south to north. On is western bank, here are Zamm 152 and Amul which belong to
Khursan, as wells a Tabiiya and Gungan which belongs to Kluwarizm. The
Southwest comer ofthe section is surrounded by the mountains of Astarabadh, which were
found already inthe seventh section, They ene this secien from the west and encircle the
(Souhwestem) comer, which includes the remainder of the country of Hert the third
Zone, the mountains pass between Herat and al-Juzajan, and eventually connect with the
Butam Mountain as we mentioned there, Ess ofthe Oxus in the south of this section, is
the county of Buk ara, followed by he county of the Soghd, with Samarkand as ite
principal place, Then comes he county of Usttshanah, which includes Khujandah at the
caster end of the section, North of Samarkand and Usrshanab, ste and of lag 6
¡or o Hla isthe land of Tashkent (as-Shish, which extends tothe casten boundary of
the section and occupies portion ofthe ninth section that in th soul includes the
rémainder of the land of Farghanah.

From this portion ofthe ninth section, comes the river of Tashkent (Sr Darya). I
‘cuts through the eighth section, and eventually flows into the Oxus where the latter leaves
the eighth section in the not forthe fifth zone. In the land of ag a er coming from
the ninth section ofthe third zone from th borders of Tibet flows into te iver of
“Tashkent, and before the ater leaves the ninth section, the ver of Farghanah lows ito it
Parallel othe river of Tashkent ies Mount Jabraghun. which starts from the filth zone,
turns southeast, and eventually enters the ninth section and runs along the borders of the
Hand of Tashkent. Then, tums in the ninth section, continues along Ih boundaie of
“Tashkent and Farghanah, goes on othe southern part of the section, and then enters the
thin zone. Between the ver of Tashkent and the bend of this mountain inthe mille of
the section, ter the country of Farb, Between it andthe and of Bukhari and
ichuwarizm are baren sreiches of desert. nthe northeast comer ofthis ection i the land
of Khujanda 183 which includes Isijb 184 and Tara. 168

‘The ninth section ofthe fourth zone, o he west beyond Farghanah and Tashkent,
contains the Land ofthe Kharukh in the south, andthe land of the Khallok 168 in the
or. The whole easter pat of the section 1 its farthest pont is occupied by the and of
the Kimak I extends over he whole tenth section tothe Qufaya Mountain LEZ which are
atthe castem end ofthe section and le there on a portion ofthe Surrounding Sea. They
are the Mountains of Gog and Magog. Al hese nations are Turkish peoples

The fifth zone

Mos ofthe int section ofthe ith zone is covered by water, xcept sal
onion of he sh nd of th cast In ts wener pon ie Surrounding Soa enters io
the ith, sn and eve onc rom the ce seis around the zone The
Porton tho south tha ive fn water basa angular shape hr Loch Spin
fd comprises the remainder ofc Is surrounded on two sides

by the sea, a if by the two sde of a ingl. ocupies the remainder of western
Spain, including Montemayor on the seacoast at the beginning of the section in the
southwest, Salamanca othe eax, and Zamora ote oth. East of Salamanca, the
Souther en, is Avi, and east of ithe land of Cala withthe city ol Sega. North of
Acs te land of Leon and Burgos. Beyond ito te north te land of Cali, which
texted tthe comer o this potion. At the Surrounding Sea here, the far point of he
tester side (ofthe tangle the portion includes region of Santiago at, (Sal)
pers

(Oeasem Span, the triangular portion consis the iy of Tudela, al de southern
end of the section and to the east of Castilla. To the northeast of Tudela re Huesca and
Pamplona direc othe est of (Huesca), Wes of Pamplona, there i Estella (Qasallah),
followed by Najera 1 in the region between Estella and Burgos. This (triangular) portion
canins a large mountain. I aces the Sa and the nou se ofthe tangle hse
proximity both ot nd tothe saco Pamplona in the ext, We hare mentioned Before
hai eonnee inthe south withthe Meditranean in he fourth zone. const a
bari for Spain i the moths pases are gates lading from Spain to the country of
Gascogne, which belongs to he European Christan nations. the fourth zoe, thee
belong 10 (Gascogne) Barcelona and Narbonne onthe sor of the Mediterranean: noth of
them, Gerona and Carcassonne; and inte Ah zone, Toe, nr of Gerona

“The ester potion ofthis section asthe spe of an oblong tangle with
acute angle beyond the Pyrenes tote east. On the Strounding Sea athe top where it
connects with the Pyrenees, this portion includes Bayonne. At the end of it, in the
norteastemrepion othe section the land of Pot, which belongs othe European
Christians and extends to the end ofthe ection,

“The wesen egion ofthe second section contains the land of Gascogne, Nor fit
are the lands of Poitou and Bourges. Both countries have been mentioned by us. East of
the cour of Gascogne lies a puren ofthe Medieranan projects int ths sin
Hikes woth, nan case dicton. Tote we. the country of Gascogne jus ou ito a
gulf ofthe Mediterranean? Ai porter extremity ofthis portion Bt cunny of
Genoa, along which to the north lie the Alps LZL At their northern limit lies the land of
Burgundy, Bast ofthe gulf of Genoa, which comes from the Mediterranean, anther ui
Contes rom the same se, The two gifs inode a porton of land in the shape of a
penimala on which i the wes os Pia nd inthe eas te great chy of Rom e
pital ofthe European Css and the eds ofthe Pope ci highew religious
dignitary. It contains magnificent, historically famous buildings, imposing monuments >
and gigantic churches. One ofthe remarkable things at Rome I the iver ta lows
through it from east to west, the bed of which is paved with copper.L Rome contains the
Church othe Apostles Peter and Pal, who are Bred Nort ofthe county of Rome
isthe county of Lombary, which ends othe boundary ofthe secta. On te eastern
shore ofthe gulf on which Rome i situated es Naples. It i adjacent 10 dh county of
Calbia, whic (so) Belong othe land of the European Christians North of à
portion of the Adra Sea (Gulf of Venice) comes int hs scion from the third sin,
tums west, and faces nr inthis section. and extends to about one-hit of A large
parton ofthe county ofthe Venetians is stated on this ponlon ofthe Adrai Se in
the sou in the region between (ine Adi Sea andthe Surrounding Sea, Non of
Hes the county of Aguila in the sith une

“The third sesion ofthe ih zone contains inthe west the country of Calabria
between the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean, Part ofthe mainland in the
Mediterranean inthe fourth zone forms a portion of and inthe shape of peninsula,
between two gulfs that extend due north from the Mediterranean into this section 25 East
Of the county of Calabria isthe country ofthe Lombards.L along a portion of lan
formed by the Adriatic Sea andthe Mediterranean of which one end enters the fourth
Zone and the Mediterranean.

‘To the eat, this section i surrounded bythe Adriatic Sea, which belongs tothe
Mediterranean I flows due north, then tums west opposite the nonhem end ofthe section
‘Alongside i arg mountain (range) comes from the fourth one. I faces i he sea) and
runs paral oiton its way orth then tums west along it inthe sich zon, and
‘eventually ends opposite a tat in the orth o Lin the country of Aguile, a German
(Alamanni) nation, as we shall mention. A this sra and between it and his mountain
(ange), where the mountains andthe sea goof o the north, lies the county of
‘Venetians. Where the mountains and the ea goof othe West, hey border the country of
Jarwasiyi and then the county o the Germans (Alamann)) atthe end ofthe stats.

“The fourth section of the fit zone contains a portion ofthe Mediterranean which
‘enters it fom the fourth zone. (This portion ofthe se) is strongly indented by armo ofthe
Sea wich jut out in a northerly direction and ae separated by portions of land inthe shape
Of peninsulas. At the eastern end of the section les the Suit of Constantinople. (This
arrow body of water) comes from ths souhern par (ofthe section), flows du north, and
eventually enters the sixth zone. There, it immediately tums eastward (and joins) the Black
Sea in the fh section: he latter also occupies) part ofthe fourth and sath sections ofthe
sixth zone, as we shall mention. Constantinople so the eas ofthis strats a he northern
tnd ofthe ection, Iisa lange city and waste seat ofthe Byzantine emperors Thee are
many stories about the magnificent architectural and other monuments thee, The portion
Of this section beiween the Mehteranean and the Stats of Constantinople comprises the
county ol Macedonia, which belonged to the (ancien) Greeks. whose royal author had
is ongin there, East ofthe straits and extending tothe end of the section thee f portion
of the land of Banes 22 This, I believe, is the desert plains where, at the present time, the
‘Turkomans roam. There is (located) the realm of Ion ‘Uthman (the Otoman), with its
chief city Bursa (Brus) 8 Before the, it belonged to the Byzantines, from whom it
as taken away by other nations, and eventually came imo possesion ofthe Turkomans.

“The southwestern part ofthe fifth section ofthe fh zone contains the land of
Barus (Anatolia). Nor oft and extending tothe boundary ofthe section, i the country
of Amorim. ast of Amorium isthe Qubagib (Tokhma Su) 2 which flows into the
Euphrates. tas its source ina mountain her and flows south unl joins the Euphrates,
before the later leaves this section and crosses over into te fourth zone. West of (he
Esphraes), a the (southem) end of the section, the Sayhan, and west of i the Jayhan
originate. Both rivers low alongside (the Euphrates). They have been mentioned before
Fast of (e Euphrates there, he Tigris origina, always flows alongside (he
Euphrates), and eventually joins it at Baghdad. Inthe soulheatern comer ofthis section,
behind the mountain where the Tigris originates, les Mayyalariin The Qubaqib, which
we have mentioned, divides this section into two portions. The one covers the southwest
and contains the land of Baus (Anatolia) as we have said, The northernmost part of (he
Hand of Baus) the region extending tothe northern end of the section and beyond the
mountain where the Qubogib originates, is the land ol Amorim, as we have sald. The
oer potion covers the northeastern and souheastern Ii (of he section), In the south of
this the Tigris and Euphrates originale In the noth there ithe country of l-Baylag
which adjoins the land of Amorium behind Mount Qubagib Land extends far. At its end,
where the Euphrates originates, is Kharshanah 13% In the northeast comer is a portion of

the Black Sea that conneets with 1

ts of Constantinople.

‘The sixth section of the fiflh zone contains in the southwest the county of
Armenia, which extends eastward beyond the middle ofthe section. Arzan (Erzerum) is in
the southivest (of Armenia). To the north (of it) lie Tiflis and Dabil. East of Arzan isthe
city of Khilt followed by Bardha‘ah. In the southeast isthe (capital) city of Armenia.
"There, Armenia, entering the fourth zone, includes. alMaraghah, cast of the Mountain of
the Kurds which is called Mountain of Barimma, and which has been mentioned before in
‘connection with the sixth section of the fourth zone. In this section, and in the fourth zone,
‘Armenia is bordered to the east by the country of Azerbaijan, (Azerbaijan's) easternmost
point in tis section is Ardabil, on a portion of the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea enters
this section from the cast from the seventh section, and is called the Sea of Tabaristan
(Caspian Sea). On its northern shore, in this section, it contains a portion of the country of
the Khazars. They are Turkomans. At the northern end of this portion of the Caspian Sea,
a mountain range begins and runs due west tothe fifth section, crosses it encircles
Mayyafarigin, and entes the fourth zone at Amid, where it connects with the Chain
Mountain in the northeramost part of Syria, and from there (goes on to) connect withthe
‘Amanus, a has already been mentioned,

In these mountains in the northern part of this section, there are passes that
‘constitute a sort of gates giving entry from both sides. To the south is the country of the

Gates,” which extends eastward to the Caspian Sea. The city of Derbend,!8L which

belongs to this country, lies on the Caspian Sea, In the southwest, the country of the
Gates” adjoins Armenia. East of (he country ofthe Gates), between it and southern
Azerbaijan, is the country of Arran (Ar-Ran) EZ which extends to the Caspian Sea, North
of these mountains, there lies a portion ofthis section comprising inthe west the realm of
the Sari The northwest comer of that portion, which constitutes the (northwest) corner
of the whole section. is also occupied by a small portion ofthe Black Sea that connects
wit the Straits of Constantinople. (This) has been mentioned before. This portion of the
Black Sea is surrounded by the county of the Sarr. Trebizond, which belongs to (that
country) lies on it. The country of the Sarr extends between the mountains ofthe "Gates
and the northem part ofthe section, It eventually reaches a mountain in the east that
‘constitutes a barrier between it and the land ofthe Khazars. On the far boundary ofthe
(country of the Sart), isthe city of Sul. Behind this mountain barrer, there is a portion of
the land of the Khazars reaching the northeast comer ofthis section, between the Caspian
Sea and the northern end of the section

‘The seventh section of the fifth zone is entirely covered in the west by the Caspi
Sea, a portion of which protrudes into the fourth zone tothe south. On (the shores of his
portion are situated, as we have mentioned in connection with the Fourth Zone), the
country of Tabaristin and the mountains of the Daylam up to Qazwin. In the west of this
portion and connecting with it, here isthe small portion that lies in the sixth section of the
fourth zone. Connecting with it in the north i the portion that lies in the eastern part of the
six section above. A part of the northwest corner of this section, where the Volga flows
into it is not covered by the Caspian Sea. Inthe caster region of this section there (also)
remains a part which is not covered by the Caspian Sea. I consists of desert plains in
which the Ghuzz, a Turk nation, roam. They are also called he Khtiz. (Ghuzz) looks like
an Arabization, with tt becoming gh, and doubling of the z 184 This partis surrounded by
2 mountain (range) tothe south that enters the eighth section, runs not quite halfway
through the western part, turns north, eventually touches the Caspian Sea, hugs it closely
all the way through its remaining portion in the sixth zone, then tuens at its end, and
separates from it. There, it is called Mount Shiyah.L5S I runs westward to the sixth section
of the sixth zone, then turns back south to the sixth section of the fifth zone. I is this end
of the mountain (range) that lies in this section between the land of the Sarir and the land
of the Khazars, The land of the Khazars extends along the slopes of Ihe mountain called

Mount Shiyah in the si

‘The whole eighth section of the fifth zone contains desert plains where the Ghuzz,
a Turkish nation, roam. In the southwest is Lake Aral, into which the Oxus flows. Its
circumference is three hundred miles. Many rivers flow into it from these desert plains. In
the northeast the Lake of Ghurghun La fresh-water lake. Its circumference is four
hundred miles. In the northern region of this section stands Mount Murghar 12 which
means "Snow Mountain,” because the snow on it never melts. It lies atthe far end of the
section. South of the Lake of Ghurghun there is mountain of solid stone where nothing
grows. It is called Ghurghun Mountain. The lake is named after it. In the Ghurghun and
Murghar Mountains north of the lake, innumerable rivers have their origin. They flow into
the lake from both sides.

‘The ninth section of the (th zone contains the country of the Adhkish LS a
‘Turkish nation, west of the country of the Ghuzz, and east ofthe country of the Kimak. In
the cast at is end, (he section) is hugged by the Qifaya Mountains that surround Gog and
Magog. They stretch therefrom south to north, assuming this direction right after entering
from the tenth section, which they had, in tum, entered from the end of the tenth section of
the fourth zone. There, they border the Surrounding Sea on the northern boundary of the
section. They then turn west inthe tenth section ofthe fourth zone and extend almost 10
the middle of the section. From where they begin to this point, they surround the country
of the Kimak. Entering the tenth section of the fifth zone, they cross it in a westerly
direction to its end. South of them remains a portion of that section that stretches west in
an oblong shape and contains the end of the country ofthe Kimak.

‘The mountains, then, enter the ninth section at its northeastern border, soon turn
north, and run due north tothe ninth section of the sixth zone, where the Dam (of Gog and
Magog) is situated, as we shall mention, There remains the portion that is surrounded by
the Quíaya Mountains in the northeast comer of this section. ts oblong in shape and

ches southward. It belongs to the country of Gog. The tenth section ofthe fifth zone is
ely covered by the land of Gog, except for a portion of the Surrounding Sea which
covers par of it inthe east from south to north, and except forthe portion thatthe Quíaya
Mountains leave in the southwest on their way through the section. Everything else isthe
land of Gog.

and seventh sections, as will be mentioned

The sith zone
Half of the first section of the sixth zone is mostly covered by the sca, which
Stretches eastward in a curving line along the northern part then runs southward along the
‘easter part, and ends near the southern par (of the section). A portion of land in this part
is not covered by the sea. It is similar in shape to a peninsula, formed by two arms of the
Surrounding Sea. It is long and wide. All this is the land of Brittany. At the entrance 10 it,
between those two arms (of the sea) and in the southeast corner ofthis section, there i the
‘country of Sees which is adjacent to the country of Poitou. (The country of Poitou) has
been mentioned before in connection with the fist and second section of the fifth zone
"The second section of the sixth zone is entered by the Surrounding Sea in the west
and north. In the northwest, it covers an oblong portion (extending) over more than half
(the south-north extension) of (the section), LESA east of Brittany (which was mentioned) in
the fist section. (This portion of the sea) connects with Ihe other portion in the north (hat
extends) from west to cast It widens somewhat in the western half of (the section). The
a portion ofthe island of England is situated, Its large, far-Mung island which contains
a number of cities and isthe seat of a magnificent realm. The remainder of (England) lies
in the seventh zone. South of and adjacent to this western part and the island located there,
(and sil) in the western half of this section, are the countries of Normandy and Flanders.
‘Then, there is (northern) France in the southwest of his section, and, east of i, the country

of Burgundy. Al hese counties belong 1 the European Christa nos. The astern
Pal al the section contains te county of he Gemans(Alamana, The south i taken up
Dy the coun of Agua hn Con of Burgundy ater nor and hen the and
Sf Lords cn Sony. On porton othe Serna Sea th mens comer athe
Hand fia Al dese couse belong 1 the German (Alan aos

‘The vete paro the thi section ofthe sith zon consis, nthe south he
‘country of Bohemia, ® and in the north, the country of Saxony. The castern part contains,
ine South he county of Hungary and in the orth, the cour of Poland. lanas)
and Poland) are separated by the Carpathian Mountains (Balwat). They come from the
forth section, run northwest and evenly end nthe county of Sony the Boundary
Ofte meter al ths ton

"Te fouth section ofthe sith zone, in he south, contains the county a
Jathuliyah 182 and, in the north, the country of Russia, They are separated by the
seal Mons, rom he beging the secon I the wet ose i the
casera hal Bas ofthe and ol Jathlya i th county of Jarmanya I be outcast
Em ero land of Costnnopl nd te cof Consta he end of te
Stats coming om Ihe Meditenancan whet sons withthe Black Sea À sal
portion of tie Blok Seu connecting wi Salts appears ns som! Cree a the
section. The comer between the straits and the Black Sea contains Musannah [21.120

“Theft sein ofthe sich zone, in he south, contas he Blck Sen st
due es fom the stata the end ofthe fourth section averse bol O hs
‘econ and pa ofthe ii econ, covering a ditance (a eng) of 30 mies om is
Beginning and in wid) of GOO miles. Beyond the Black Sea in south ofthis econ,
Me els à Be of stand whic is oblong in ps and sues foes wet 0
cast The (stem portion) oft contin Hein 12 phe sore ofthe Black Sea a
Si) acento the county a aylaga ini fh zone. ne castor portion) o
iste land fhe Alan, mh its prnl place Sinope nt ck Se, Noho be
Black Sea in this section is the land of the Bulgars (Burjan) 122 in the west, and in the
taste county of Rusa. Al se counts) one shores ofthe Back Sea The
Er of Ruta surround the county ofthe Bulan Buje), ones) inthe
Essen prion of tis section, inthe nother pron of thei section ole seventh
2 and in he wesc porto) of he four sono he la zone

“The sih section ofthe sixth zone contains in the west the remainder of the Black
‘ea, where i ums lighlynorh. Between the Black Sea and the nother Boundary ofthe
section is the county ofthe Comans:123 Following the northward direction ofthe Black
Sea, thee the remainder of the county of the Alans, which was at he southern end of
the fifth section and which here becomes wider as in extends northwards, Inthe ester
part of this setion, de land ofthe Khazars continue, and farther eas isthe land of the
Bras 124 Inthe northcast comeris he land ofthe Bulgas(Bulgha) nthe southeast
‘commer isthe land of Balanjar.19S which is there traversed by a portion of Mount
Stiyah 136 These mountains follow (the cost of the Caspian Sea Later on inthe seventh
tection, and, afer separating from iran west cross tie par (of che sith secs), and
ner sixth section ofthe fh zone, where they are inked with the Mountains ofthe
Gates” The country ofthe Khazar is on bh ses ofthe

“The seventh ation ofthe sixth zone contains in the south an area that Mount
Shiya cuts across tothe westem boundary of the section, after leaving the Caspian Sea.
isa portion ofthe country ofthe Khazar. Fast of (he country of the Khazars) the
Porton of the coast of) the Caspian Sea thats raversed by Mount (Shiyah) inthe
"orcas, Beyond Mount Shiyah, in the worhwes she land ofthe Burp. In the case

192 198

potion) ofthe section sth land of the Bashirs andthe Pechenegs, Turkish

“The entire southem par ofthe eighth section of (the sixth zone) is occupicd by the
land of the Khulukh Turks. The northern region contains in the west the Stinking
Land200 and, in he cas, ih land Gog and Magog are said to have lid waste before the
Dam was constructed, In dis Sinking Land. he Volga, one of the largest rivers in the
world, originates. I passes trough he county of the Turks and flows it the Caspian
Sen inthe seventh section ofthe fit zone. The Volga makes many turnings, It originates
ina mountain inthe Sinking Land, from Which thee streams isue and unite o form one
river I flows due west to the boundary of the seventh section ofthe sith zone and tors
‘om into the seventh section of the seventh one, where lows along the southwestern
boundary I leaves th seventh zone in the sixth section flows a shor distance wet. then
turn south second imc, and reurs tothe sixth scion ofthe sixth zone, where a
branch comes out oft and lows westward into the Black Sea in hat section, (The Volga
itself nex) pases trough a portion of the county of the Bulgar (Bulghan in the
tortheat, faves the sixth zone inthe seventh section to um South a third time, flows
through Mount Shiyah, traverses the country ofthe Khazars, and enters the fifth zone in
the seventh section, There i flows into the Caspian Sea, in that portion ofthe southwest
‘comer of the section whichis no covered bythe sa.

“The ninth sesion of the sath zon, inthe west, contains the county ofthe
Khifshakh Turks-the Qipchags-and the country of the Turgish 2% who are also Turks. la
the cast, i contains the country of Magog which is separated from the west by the afore
‘mentioned surrounding 291* Qufaya Mountains. They start at the Surrounding Sea in the
Caster par ofthe fourth zoe, and follow (he Surounding Sea) tthe norte boundary
Ot the zone, There hy lave it and run northwesterly until ey enter the ninth section of
the fith zone, where they reto to thet former due motherly course into the nth secon
of the sixth one), which they cross from south to north, Baring à ite o the west,
“There, in tb middle of übe mountains), isthe Dam bil by Alexander, The mountains,
then, connue due not int the ninth section of he seventh zone, which they traverse
from the south on up tothe Sumounding Sea in the north. They follow along from there
‘westward int the fifth section of the seventh zone, where they encounter «portion ofthe
Surrounding Sea to the west

In the middle of is nim section isthe Dam bile by Alexander s we have
Comet information abou its found nthe Quan. Ubaydalla . Khurradadhtih
‘mentioned in his geographical work 22 that al-Wathig saw in a dream that the Dam had
Opened Frightened, he awakened and sent Salim (Salam) the dragoman to investigate the
‘Dam and to bring back information abou itand a description off which he did Ti ia
Jong story that has nothing to do with the purpose of our work

“The tenth section of the ih zoe is occupied bythe county of Magog, extending
to the end of tthe section. There borders ona portion ofthe Sumounding Sea which
Surrounds he section) to the east and noth This portion) is oblong in he north and
‘widens somewhat inthe eas

The seventh zone
‘The Surrounding Sea covers most ofthe seventh zone inthe north (from the
beginning) 10 the middle of the fit section, where it touches the Qufaya Mountains that
surround Gog and Magog.
‘The first and second sections are covered by water, except for the portion not
covered by water where the island of England is located, most of which les in the second
section. Inthe fist section, there is a corner of England which extends towards the north.

‘The remainder, with a portion ofthe sea that eneirles it esi the second section of he
sixth zone. I was mentioned there. The channel connecting England with the mainland is
there twelve miles wide. Beyond the island of England, in the north af the second section,
isthe island of Raslandah“* oblong in shape, stretching lengthwise from West to cast

Mos of the third section ofthe seventh zone is covered by water, except foran
‘oblong portion inthe south that is wider in its caster pat Her, the land of Poland
continues. I was mentioned in connection withthe ir section ofthe sixth zon, as ying
in the north of it Inthe western pat ofthe portion ofthe sea covering this section there
lis around, wide (land). is connected with the mainland by an isthmus in he South,
‘hich leas tothe land of Poland, Nori o tis the island of Norway 24 oblong in shape,
‘hich stretches lengthwise fom west to cas in ih north ofthe section)

‘The fourth section ofthe sevemh one i entirely covered inthe north by the
Surrounding Sea from the western to the easter (boundaries ofthe section). is southern
paris not covered by the sea, To the west i contains the land of the Finland (2) 205
Turks, To the cas lies he county of Tavast 28 followed by the land of Estonia (2) 202
‘extending tothe easter boundary ofthe section, (Estonia) is permanently covered by snow
and has litle civilization, I borders onthe country of Rusia in the fourth and fifth
sections of the sich one.

“The fifth section ofthe seventh zone contains inthe wes the country of Rusia In
the north, (Russia) 2078 extends to where the portion ofthe Surrounding Sea and the
Qufaya Mountains meet, as we have mentioned before, The ester region ofthe section
contains he continuation ofthe land ofthe Comans, which lis on (he shore of) «portion
of the Black Sea in the sinth section ofthe sixth zone. It reaches the Lake of T--m-y 208
in this section. This sa fresh-water lake into which dain many rivers rom the mountains
South and north of it Inthe northeast of his section i he land of the Nabariah 209
“Turks, which extends (othe boundary ofthe section,

‘The sith section ofthe seventh zone contains in the southwest the continuation of
the land ofthe Coma. I he middle ofthat region is Lake Ghn-w-n 20 This i a Fesh-
water lake into which drain the rivers fom the mountains in th regions esto e eis
constantly frozen because of the severe col, except fr a short while during tbe summer
East ofthe county of the Comans is the county of Russa, which stated inthe northeast
ofthe fifth section of de sixth zone In the southeast comer of this the sath) section. is
the remainder ofthe land ofthe Bulgars(Bulghar) that started inthe northeastern pa Of
the sixth section ofthe sixth zone. In the middle ofthis portion of the land ofthe Bulgars,
there isthe point where the Volga makes its frst um othe south as has been mentioned.
‘The Qufaya Mountains reich ll long the northern boundary ofthe sixth section from
the west fo the eat

‘The seventh section ofthe seventh zone, in the wet, contains the remainder ofthe
land ofthe Pechenegs Turkish nation. Begining in he nonastr part ofthe
preceding ah and coutwest ofthis section, then, nthe south entes the sith zone In
the east, there is the remainder of the land of the Bashgirs, followed by the remainder of
the Stinking Land, which extends o the ester boundary ofthe section, The mother
boundary ofthe section i formed by te saoanding Qufaya Mountains seeking (all
along rom the went tothe est

“The cighth section ofthe seventh zone conti ia the southwest the continuation of
the Stinking Land, Eat ofitis ih Sunken ZU Land, a remastabl place. I is an immense
opening in th an, o dep tht the bot cannot be reached. The appearince of smoke
ring the day and oie at ght, which by turns Mares up and disappears, least he
nlision tha the place inhabited Aver I occasionally seen tee cots hough it

from south to north. Inthe cast ofthis section is the Waste Country, which borders the
Dam. Across the northern limit of the section are the Qufaya Mountains, stretching all
along i (rom the west 10 the east

“The ninth section ofthe seventh zone contains inthe west the country of the
Kifshakh. that is, the Qipchags. It is traversed by the Qufaya Mountains where they tum
away from the north (of the section) at the Surrounding Sea and run southeast through the
imide (of the section). They then leave (this zone) forthe ninth section ofthe sixth zone
and pass across it. There, in the middle of them, is the Dam of Gog and Magog. which we
have already mentioned. The eastern part of this section contains the land of Magog,
behind the Qufaya Mountains, on the sea. It 2LL2 is not very wide and is oblong in shape
and sutrounds itin the east and north.

"The tenth section of the seventh zone is entirely covered by the sea.

"This Finishes the discussion of the world map with the se

In the creation of heaven and earth and the difference between night and day, there
are signs for those who know 22

THIRD PREFATORY DISCUSSION

The temperate and the intemperate zones. The inuence
of the air upon the color of human beings and upon many
(other) aspects of their condition.

WE 213 HAVE EXPLAINED that the cultivated region of that part of the
‘earth which is not covered by water has its center toward the north, because of the
‘excessive heat in the south and the excessive cold in the north. The north and the
south represent opposite extremes of cold and heat. It necessarily follows that there
must be a gradual decrease from the extremes toward the center, which, thus,
‘moderate. The fourth zone is the most temperate cultivated region.

“The bordering third and fifth zones are rather close to being temperate. The

sixth and second zones which are adjacent to them are far from temperate, and the
frst and seventh zones still less so. Therefore, the sciences, the crafts. the buildings,
the clothing, the foodstuffs, the fruits, even the animals, and everything that comes
into being in the three middle zones are distinguished by their temperate (well-
proportioned character). The human inhabitants of these zones are more temperate
{well-proportioned) in their bodies, color, character qualities, and (general)
conditions“! They are found to be extremely moderate in their dwellings, clothing,
foodstuffs, and crafts. They use houses that are well constructed of stone and
‘embellished by craftsmanship. They rival each other in production of the very best
tools and implements. Among them, one finds the natural minerals, such as gold,
silver, iron, copper, lead, and tin. In their business dealings they use the two
precious metals (gold and silver). They avoid intemperance quite generally in all
their conditions. Such are the inhabitants of the Maghrib, of Syria, the two ‘Irags,
Western India (as-Sind), and China, as well as of Spain; also the European
Christians nearby, the Galicians.21$ and all those who live together with these
peoples or near them in the three temperate zones. The Iraq and Syria are directly in
the middle and therefore are the most temperate of all these countries.

“The inhabitants of the zones that are far from temperate, such as the fist,
second, sixth, and seventh zones, are also farther removed from being temperate in
all their conditions. Their buildings are of clay and reeds. Their foodstuffs are durra
and herbs, Their clothing is the leaves of trees, which they sew together to cover
themselves, or animal skins. Most of them go naked. The fruits and seasonings of
their countries are strange and inclined to be intemperate. In their business dealings,
they do not use the two noble metals, but copper, iron, oF skins. upon which they set
a value for the purpose of business dealings. Their qualities of character, moreover,
are close to those of dumb animals. It has even been reported that most of the
"Negroes of the first zone dwell in caves and thickets, eat herbs, live in savage
isolation and do not congregate, and eat each other 216 The same applies to the
Slavs, The reason for this is that their remoteness from being temperate produces in
them a disposition and character similar to those of the dumb animals, and they
become correspondingly remote from humanity, The same also applies to their
religious conditions. They are ignorant of prophecy and do not have a religious law,
‘except for the small minority that lives near the temperate regions. (This minority
includes.) for instance, the Abyssinians, who are neighbors of the Yemenites and
have been Christians from pre-Islamic and Islamic times down to the present; and

the Mali, the Gawgaw and the Takrur who live close to the Maghrib and, at his
time, are Muslims. They are said to have adopted Islam in the seventh {thirteenth}
‘century. Or, in the north, there are those Slav, European Christian, and Turkish
nations that have adopted Christianity. All the other inhabitants ofthe intemperate
Zones in the south and in the north ase ignorant of all religion. (Religious)

scholarship is lacking among them. All their conditions are remote from those of
‘human beings and close to those of wild animals. “And He creates what you do not
knows 212

“The (foregoing statement) is not contradicted by the existence of the Yemen,
the Hadramawt, al-Ahgaf, the Hijaz, the Yamimah, and adjacent regions of the
Arabian Peninsula in the first and second zones. As we have mentioned,218 the
‘Arabian Peninsula is surrounded by the sea on three sides. The humidity of (the sea)
influences the humidity in the ait of (the Arabian Peninsula), This diminishes the
‘dryness and intemperance that (otherwise) the heat would cause, Because of the
humidity from the sea, the Arabian Peninsula is to some degree temperate

Genealogists who had no knowledge of the tre nature of things imagined
that Negroes are the children of Ham, the son of Noah, and hat they were singled
‘ut 10 be black as the result of Noah's curse, which produced Ham's color and the
slavery God inflicted upon his descendants. It is mentioned in the Torah 212 that
Noah cursed his son Ham. No reference is made thereto blackness. The curse
included no more than that Ham's descendants should be the slaves of his brothers’
“descendants. To attribute the blackness of the Negroes to Ham, reveals disregard of
the true nature of heat and cold and ofthe influence they exercise upon the air
(climate) and upon the creatures that come into being init. The black color (of skin)
‘common tothe inhabitants of the first and second zones is the result ofthe
‘composition ofthe ir in which they live, and which comes about under the
influence of the greatly increased heat inthe south. The sun is atthe zenith there
twice a year at short intervals. In (almost) all seasons, the sun isin culmination for a
Jong time. The light of the sun, therefore, is plentiful 220 People there have (to.
undergo) very severe summer, and their skins tum black because of the excessive
heat, Something similar happens in the two corresponding zones to the north, the
seventh and sixth zones. There, a white color (of skin) is common among the
inhabitants, likewise the result of the composition of the air in which they live, and
“which comes about under the influence of the excessive cold inthe north. The sun is
always on the horizon within the visual field (ofthe human observer), or close to it
It never ascends tothe zenith, nor even (gets) close 10 it. The hea, therefore, is weak
in this region, and the cold severe in (almost) al seasons. In consequence, the color
of the inhabitants is white, and they tend to have Hit body hair, Further
‘consequences of the excessive cold are blue eyes, freckled skin, and blond hair.

“The fifth, Fourth, and third zones occupy an intermediate position. They have
an abundant share of temperance22L which isthe golden mean. The fourth zone,
being the one most nearly in the center, is as temperate as can be. We have
‘mentioned that before 222 The physique and character of its inhabitants are
temperate 10 the (high) degree necessitated by the composition of the air in which
they live, The third and filth zones ie on either side ofthe fourth, but they are less
‘centrally located. They are loser to the hot south beyond the third zone and the cold
north beyond the fifth zone. However, they do not become intemperate.

“The four other zones are intemperate, and the physique and character oftheir
inhabitants show it, The first and second zones are excessively hot and black, and
the sith and seventh zones cold and white. The inhabitants of the first and second

led the Abyssinians the Zanj, and the Sudanese (Negroes)

‘These are synonyms used to designate the (particular) nation that has turned black
“The name "Abyssinians." however. is restricted to those Negroes who live opposite
‘Mecca and the Yemen, and the name "Zan" is restricted to those who live along the
Indian Sea. These names are not given to them because of an (alleged) descent from
a black human being, be it Ham or any one else. Negroes from the south who settle
in the temperate fourth zone or in the seventh zone that tends toward whiteness, are
found to produce descendants whose color gradually turns white in the course of
time, Vice versa, inhabitants from the north or from the fourth zone who settle in
the south produce descendants whose color turns black. This shows that color is
‘conditioned by the composition of he ar. In his rajaz poem on medi

said:

‘Where the Zan} live is a heat that changes their bodies

Until their skins are covered all over with black

“The Slavs acquire whiteness

Until their skins tum soft 2

“The inhabitants ofthe north are not called by thei color, because the people
who established the conventional meanings of words were themselves white. Thus,
whiteness was something usual and common (to them). and they did not see
anything sufficiently remarkable init 10 cause them to use it as a specific term.
“Therefore, the inhabitants ofthe north, the Turks, the Slavs, the Tughuzshur 22 the
Khazars, the Alans, most ofthe European Christians, the Gog and Magog are found
tw be separate nations 2S and numerous races called by a variety of names.

“The inhabitants ofthe middle zones are temperate in their physique and
‘character and in their ways of life. They have all the natural conditions necessary for
2 civilized life, such as ways of making a living, dwellings, erafts, sciences, political
leadership, and royal authority. They thus have had (various manifestations of)
prophecy. religious groups, dynasties, religious laws, sciences, countries, cities,
buildings, honicultue, splendid crafts, and everything else that is temperate.

Now, among the inhabitants of these zones about whom we have historical
information are, for instance, the Arabs, the Byzantines (Rum), the Persians, the
Israelites, the Greeks, the Indians, and the Chinese, When 2 genealogists noted
differences between these nations, their distinguishing marks and characteristics,
they considered these to be due to their (different) descents. They declared all the
Negro inhabitants ofthe south to be descendants of Ham. They had misgivings
bout their color and therefore undertook to report the afore-mentioned silly story
“They declared all or most of the inhabitants of the north to be the descendants of
Japheth, and they declared most of the temperate nations, who inhabie the central
regions, who cultivate the sciences and crafts, and who possess religious groups and
religious laws as well as political leadership and royal authority, o be the
descendants of Shem. Even ifthe genealogical construction were correct, it would
be the result of mere guesswork, not of cogent, logical argumentation. It would
merely be a statement of fact. I’ would not imply that the inhabitants ofthe south are
‘called “Abyssinians” and “Negroes” because they are descended! from “black” Ham,
“The genealogists were le into this error by their belief thatthe only reason for
differences between nations is in their descent. This is not so. Distinctions between
faces or nations are in some cases due toa different descent, as in the case of the
‘Arabs, the Israelites, and the Persians. I other eases, they are caused by
_geographical location and (physical) marks, as inthe case ofthe Zanj (Negroes) the
‘Abyssinian the Slavs, and the black (Sudanese) Negroes. Again, in other eases,
they are caused by custom and distinguishing characteristics, as well as by descent,
as in the case of the Arabs. Or, they may be caused by anything else among the
‘conditions, qualities, and features peculiar to the different nations. But to generalize

and say that the inhabitants ofa specific geographical location in the south or in the
north are the descendants of such-and-such a well-known person because they have
a common color, ai, or (physical) mark which that (alleged) forefather had, is one
‘of those errors which are caused by disregard, (both) of the true nature of created
beings and of geographical fats. (There also is disregard of the fact thatthe physical
‘circumstances and environment) are subject to changes that affect later generations;
they do not necessarily remain unchanged.

“This is how God proceeds with His servants. And verily, you will not be able
10 change God's way 222

FOURTH PREFATORY DISCUSSION

The influence of the air (climate) upon human character.

WE 2811 À V ES E EN that Negroes are in general characterized by
levity, excibiity, and great emotionalism, They are found eager vo dance whenever
they hear a melody. 22 They are everywhere described as stupid. The real reason for
bese (opinions) stat, as has been shown by philosopher inthe proper place oy
And gladness ae due o expansion and diffusion ofthe animal spt. Sadness due
to the opposite, namely, contraction and concentration ofthe animal spirit I has
teen shou tit beat enpund and rrfis ar and va and creates their
‘quantity. A drunken person experiences inexpresibe joy and sadness, because the
Vapor of the sprit in bis eats pervaded by natural het, which the power of he
vine generates in his spn. The spr, as esl, expands, and here joy
Likewise, when those who enjoy a hol bath inhale the ar of the bath, so that the eat
ofthe air enter ther spins and makes them hot. hey are found to experience joy I
ten happens tht they start singing as singing has is origi in lanes.

Now Negroes live he hot zone (ofthe earth). Heat dominatsthir
temperament and formation, Therefore, they have in thie spits an amount of eat
‘corresponding to that in their bodies and tha ofthe zone in which they five. ln
comparison withthe spirits of the inhabitant ofthe fourth zone, ir are hor
And. consequenl, more expanded. Asa seul, they are more quickly moved Io joy
And lanes, and they ar meme. Excitability is the direct sonsequence

In the same way, the inhabitants of coastal regions are somewhat similar o
the inhabitants ofthe south. The arin which they ive is very much ot because
ofthe reflection ofthe ight an the rays of (he sun rom) the surface othe sen
Therefore their share i the qualies resulting from heat, that i oy and evi,
lager han hat ofthe inhabitants o) cll and ily or mounainous countries. To a
degree. this may be observed inthe inhabitants of dhe Jardin the third zone. The
heat is abundant in and in hear there, since it es south of the coastal plain and
hills Another example i fomised bythe Essptians. Egypt lies at about he same
Tide a the Jai The Egyptians are dominated by joyfulne, levity, and
iregad forthe future. They store no provision of fod nether for a month nor a
Year ahead, but purchase nos of i (dl) inthe marke. Fez inthe Maghrib, on the
‘ther hand, lies inland (nd 1) surounded by col ils inhabitants ean be
served to look sad ad gloomy and to be too much concerned fr he future
Although a man in Fez might have provisions of wheat stored, sufficient to last hi
for yeas he always goes to the marke early to buy his fod forthe day, because he
is afraid vo consume any of his hard food

Ione pays attention to this sor of thing in the various zones and counties,
the influence a he varying quality ofthe air upon he character (othe inhabitant)
‘will become apparent. God is “the Creator, the Knowing One." ZU Al-Masudi
amderook to instigate the reason for he levity, excitability, and emotionalism in
Negros, and atempied o explain However, be did no beter tan o report, on
the authority of Galen and Ya'qb b sha ak, that the reason isa weakness of

E

their brains which results in a weakness oftheir intellect. This is an inconclusive
and unproven statement. "God guides whomever He wants to guide” 22

FIFTH PREFATORY DISCUSSION

Differences with regard 10 abundance and scarcity of
{food in the various inhabited regions Cumran) and how
‘they affect the human body and character.

IT 25 SHOULD BE KNOWN that not all the temperate zones have an
abundance of food, nor do all their inhabitants lead a comfortable life. In some
parts, the inhabitants enjoy an abundance of grain, scasonings, wheat, and fruits,
because the soil is well balanced and good for plants and there isan abundant
«iviliation. And then, in other parts, the land i strewn with rocks, and no seeds or
herbs grow at all. There, the inhabitants have a very hard time. Instances of such
people are the inhabitants of the Hijaz and the Yemen, or the Veiled Sinhajah who
live in the desert of the Maghrib on the fringes of the sandy deserts which lie be-
tween the Berbers and the Sudanese Negroes. All of them lack al grain and
seasonings. Their nourishment and food is milk and meat. Another such people is
the Arabs who roam the waste regions. They may get grain and seasonings from the
hills, but this is the case only at certain times and is possible only under the eyes of
the militia which protects (the hill country). Whatever they get is litle, because they
have little money. They obtain no more than the bare necessity, and sometimes less,
and in no case enough for a comfortable or abundant life. They are mostly found
restricted to milk, which js for them a very good substitute for wheat. In spite of
this, the desert people who lack grain and season
body and better in character than the ill people who have plenty of everything.
“Their complexions are clearer, their bodies cleaner, their figures more perfect and
better, their characters less intemperate, and their minds keener as far as knowledge
and perception are concerned, This is attested by experience in all these groups.
‘There isa great difference inthis respect between the Arabs and Berbers (on the one
hand), and the Veiled (Berbers) Land the inhabitants ofthe hills (on the other)
"This fact is known to those who have investigated the matter.

As to the reason for it it may be tentatively suggested that a great amount of
food and the moisture it contains generate pernicious superfluous matters in the
body. which, in turn, produce a disproportionate widening of the body, as well as
many comupt, putrid humors. The results a pale complexion and an ugly figure,
because the person has too much flesh, as we have stated. When the moisture with
its evil vapors ascends to the brain, the mind and the ability to think are dulled, The
result is stupidity, carelessness, and a general intemperance. This can be
‘exemplified by comparing the animals of waste regions and barren habitats, such as
gazelles, wild cows (maha), ostriches, girafles, onagers and (wild) buffaloes (cows,
Bagar) with their counterparts among the animals that live in hills, coastal pains,
and fertile pastures. There isa big difference between them with regard to the
slossiness of their coat, their shape and appearance, the proportions oftheir limbs,
and their sharpness of perception 23 The gazelle isthe counterpart of the goat, and
the giraffe that of the camel; the onagers and (wild) buffaloes (cows) are identical
‘with (domestic) donkeys and oxen (and cows). Still. there is a wide difference
between them, The only reason for it is the fact thatthe abundance of food inthe
hills produces pernicious superfluous matters and corrupt humors in the bodies of
the domestic animals, the influence of which shows on them, Hunger, on the other

hand, may greatly improve the physique and shape ofthe animals ofthe waste
regions.

“The same observations apply to human beings. We find thatthe inhabitants
‘of fertile zones where the products of agriculture and animal husbandry as well as
seasonings and fruits are plentiful are, as a rule, described as stupid in mind and
‘coarse in body. This isthe case with those Berbers who have plenty of seasonings
and wheat, as compared with those who lead a frugal life and are restricted to barley
or durra such as the Masmudah Berbers and the inhabitants of as-Sus and the
Ghumarah. The latter are superior both intellectually and physically. The same
applies in general tothe inhabitants of the Maghrib who have plenty of seasonings
and fine wheat, as compared withthe inhabitants of Spain in whose country butter is
altogether lacking and whose principal food is dura, The Spaniards are found 10
have a sharpness of intellect, a nimbleness of body, and a receptivity for instruction
such as no one else has. The same also applies tothe inhabitants of rural regions of
the Maghrib as compared with the inhabitants of settled areas and cities. Both use
many seasonings and live in abundance, but the town dwellers only use them after
they have been prepared and cooked and softened by admixtures, They thus lose
their heaviness and become less substantial. Principal Foods are the meat of sheep
and chickens. They do not use butler because of its tatelessness. Therefore the
‘moisture in their food is small, and it brings only a few pernicious superfluous
matters into their bodies. Consequently, the bodies of the urban population are found
to be more delicate than those ofthe inhabitants ofthe desert who live a hard life
Likewise, those inhabitants of the desert who are used to hunger are found to have
in their bodies no superfluous matters, thick or thin,

It should be known that the influence of abundance upon the body is
apparent even in matters of religion and divine worship. The frugal inhabitants of
the desert and those of settled areas who have accustomed themselves to hunger and

abstinence from pleasures are found to be more religious and more ready for
divine worship than people who live in luxury and abundance. Indeed, it can be
“observed that there are few religious people in towns and cities, in as much as
people there are for the most part obdurate and careless, which is connected with the
use of much meat, seasonings, and fine wheat, The existence of pious men and.
ascetics is, therefore, restricted to the desert, whose inhabitants eat frugally.
Likewise, the condition of the inhabitants within a single city can be observed to
“differ according tothe different distribution of luxury and abundance.

lt an also be noted tha those people who, whether they inhabit the desert or
settled areas and cities, ive a life of abundance and have all the good things to cat,
‚die more quickly than others when a drought or famine comes upon them. This isthe
‘ease, for instance, with the Berbers of the Maghrib and the inhabitants of the city of
Fez and, as we hear, of Egypt (Cairo). It is not so with the Arabs who inhabit waste
regions and deserts, or with the inhabitants of regions where the date palm grows
and whose principal food is dates. or with the present-day inhabitants of Itiqiyah
‘whose principal food is barley and olive oil, or with the inhabitants of Spain whose
principal food is dura and olive oil. When a drought or a famine strikes them, it
‘does not kill as many of them as of the other group of people, and few, if any, dic of
hunger. As a reason for that, it may tentatively be suggested thatthe stomachs of
those who have everything in abundance and are used o seasonings and, in
particular, to butter, acquire moisture in addition to their basic constitutional
‘moisture, and (the moisture they are used fo) eventually becomes excessive. Then,
‘when (eating) habits are thwarted by small quantities of food, by lack of seasonings,
and by the use of coarse food to which its unaccustomed, the stomach, which is a
very weak part of the body and for that reason considered one of the vital parts,
soon dries out and contracts. Sickness and sudden death are prompt consequences to.

the man whose stomach isin this condon. Those who die station, ot af the
hunger hat now alles them forthe first time, In those who are accutomed o hist
254 and to doing without seasonings and butter, the basic moisture, which is good
for all natural foods, always says within is proper Tints and does not increase.
‘Thus, their stomachs are not affected by dryness or intemperance in consequence of
a change of nourishment. Asa rule, they escape the fate hat awaits others on
Account of he abundance of thee food and the great amount of seasonings in

“The basic thing to know i tha foodstuff, and whetber to use or orto Use
them, are mates of custom. Whoever accustom himself a particular pe of food
that agrees with him becomes used 1 it He finds it punt ult give it up orto make
any changes (in his diet). provided (he type of food) is not something that does not
{Ui the (ca purpose of food, such as poison, or alkaloids 236 or anything
‘excessively inemperate, Whatever can be used as food and is agreeable may be
{sod as customary food, Ha man accustoms himself tothe use of milk and
‘Vegetables instead of wheat, unl (he use of then) gets to be his custom, milk and
‘vegetables become for him (his habitual) food, and he definitely has no longer any
teed for whet or grains

“The same applis o hose who have accustomed themselves o suffer hunger
and do without food. Such things are reported about trained (ascetics). We hear
remarkable things about men ofthis ype. Those who have no knowledge of things
ofthe sort can scarcely believe them. The explanation lis in custom. Once the soul
gets used to something, it becomes part of it make-up and nature, because (the soul)
is able to take on many colorings. I through gradual taining has become used to
anger, (hunger) becomes a natural custom ofthe soul

“The assumption of physicians that hunger causes death is not correct, except
when a person is exposed suddenly to hunger and is emirey cutoff fom Food.
“Then, he stomach i isolated, and contrats an less that may be fatal, When,
however, the amount of food one cts is slowly decreased by gradual raining, there
is no danger of death, The adpts of Suffam practice (such gradual abstinence from
food). Gradualnes is alo necessary when one gives up the training. Were a person
sucenly to retum to his original die, he might de. Therefore, he must end the
traning as he stated it, that, gradually.

‘We personally saw a person who had taken no food for forty or more
‘consecutive days. Our shayths were preset at Ihe court of Sultan Abul-Hasan 232
when two women from Algeciras and Ronda were presented to him, who had for
year abstained fom ll food, Their story became Known, They were examined, and
{he mater was found to be correct. The women continued this way untl they died
Many persons we usd to know restricted themselves to (a die of) goats milk. They
drank from the wdder sometime during the day or at breakfast, 222 This was hei.
only food for Bien years. There are many others (who live similar. should ot
te considered until.

It should be known that everybody who is able to suffer hunger or eat only
tide is physically beer off if he says hungry than i he eats too much. Hunger has
à favorable influence onthe health and well-being of body and intellect, as we have
ated, Tis may be exemplified by the different influence of various Kinds of food
upon the body. We observe that those persons who lve onthe meat of strong, large»
bodied animals grow up as a (strong and large bodia) race. Comparison of the
‘habitats of the desert with those of sed areas shows this. The same applies to
persons who live onthe milk and meat of camels. This influences their character, so
that they become patient, persevering, and able 10 cary Toads si the case with
‚camels,228 Their stomachs also grow to be healthy and tough as the stomachs of

‘camels. They are not beset by any fecbleness or weakness, nor are they affected by
“unwholesome food, as others arc. They may take strong (alkaloid) cathartics
‘unadulterated 10 purify their bellies, such as, for instance, unripe eolocyaths,
Thapsia garganica, and Euphorbia. Their stomachs do not suffer any harm from
them, But i he inhabitants of seuled areas, whose stomachs have become delicate
because of their soft diet, were to partake of them, death would come to them
instantly, because (these cathartcs) have poisonous qualities

‘An indication ofthe influence of food upon the body isa fact that has been,
mentioned by agricultural scholars 232 and observed by men of experience, that
‘when the eggs of chickens which have been fed on grain cooked in camel dung, are
‘sett hatch, the chicks come out as large as can be imagined. One does not even
have to cook any grain to feed them; one merely smears camel dung on the eggs set
{0 hatch, and the chickens that come out are extremely large. There are many similar
things.

‘When we observe the various ways in which food exercises an influence
‘upon bodies, there can be no doubt that hunger also exercises an influence upon
them, because two opposites follow the same pattern with regard to exercising an
influence or not exercising an influence, Hunger influences the body in tha it keeps
itfree from corrupt superfluities and mixed fluids that destroy body and intellect, in
the same way that food influenced the original) existence of the body.

God is omniscient

SIXTH PREFATORY DISCUSSION

The various types of human beings who have
supernatural perception either through natural disposition or
through exercise, preceded by a discussion of inspiration
‘and dream visions.

IT SHOULD BE KNOWN that God has chosen certain individuals. He
honored them by addressing (them). He created them so tht they might know Him.
He made them connecting links between Himself and His servants (These
individuals are to acquin ther fellow men with what is good for them and o urge
them to let Uemselves be guided aight. They are to make it hir task to Keep (hee
fellow men) out ofthe fre of Hell and o show them the path to salvation. The
knowledge that God gave these individuals, and he wonders He manifested through
thei sitement, indicated that thee exist things beyond the reach of man ha can
be Leamed only from God though the mediation of hese individuals) and that
¿bese individuals themselses) cannot know unless God instrcts hem in them,
Muhammad sid Indeed. know only what Got

that the information hey give i intrinsically ad necessarily tre, a will become
clear when the realty of prophecy is explained,

“The sign by which his typeof human being can be recognize is ha, in he
state of inspiration, they scm to be removed from those who are reset. This is
accompanied by fing of being choked that looks ike swooning or
"unconsciousness but has nothing 1 do with ether 22 tn ray. is an immersion
in (and) encounter with the spintual kingdom, the result of perceptions congenial to
them but entirely foreign othe (ordinary) perceptions af men. (These extraordinary
perceptions) ae then broug down tothe level of human perceptions in ie form of
Some speech sound the person (who receives the revelation) hears ad i bl 0 10
Understand, or inte form of an individual delivering the divine message to him
‘This state (of remoteness hen caes im. ut be reais the content ofthe given
revelation. When Mohamad was asked abou vla
comes to me like the ringing o a bell Ths affects me mos. When i eaves me,
have retained what was sa, At oer mes, he angel appears 1 mein Ih form of a
man. He talks tome, and I ean the things he says 240 During that (proces, the
person who receives the revelation shows inexplicable signs of strain and choking.
À tuition says: "There was some anxiety in connection with the revelaon that he
had to calm."Æl'A'ishah said: "The revelation would come to him on very cold days.
Nevers, when i eft him, hor was sweat om his forchcadZ42 God says in the
Quran: "We shall lay upon you a heavy message." 2

Because the act of receiving revelations leads to such conditions, the
poythests used to accuse the prophets of being possesed (by Jin) They said: “He
has jinn as his donbleganger, or companion.” The outward appearance ofthe
‘condition they observed misled them. "He whom God leads astray has no guide.” 244

Another sign by which inspired human beings can be recognized isthe fact
that even) before rociving revelations, ey are good, innocent, and asc o any
blameworthy, sinful action. This is what i meant by ismah (immunity from sin and
or, inflibility)- I looks a if, by nature they were disposed 10 avoid and shun

blameworthy actions, and as ifsuch actions were the negation oftheir very nature.
According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, when Muhammad was a young man
he carried stones with his uncle al-’Abbas forthe restoration of the Kabah. He was.
‘carrying them in his cloak, and thus, he was undressed. (As this was unbecoming,)
e fell down in a swoon that lasted until he was covered with his cloak 245 (On
another occasion.) he was invited to a wedding party where there was much
merrymaking. He fell fast asleep. and slept until the sun rose. Thus, he had nothing
to-do with the things the others did on that occasion. God kept him from all that. It
"was his nature. He even avoided food that was considered objectionable. Thus, he
never touched onions or garlic. When he was asked about it he said: “I
communicate with One with whom you do not communicate.” 25

Attention should be paid (in his connection) to what Muhammad told
Khadijah about the revelation when he first experienced it, and she wanted 10 know
‘what it was like, She asked him to embrace her, and when he did so, i eft him.
Khadija, thereupon said that it was an angel, and not a devil, meaning that (a devil)

(for the angel) to wear during the revelation, and be replied, “White and green ones.”
‘Whereupon Khadijah said that it was an angel, meaning that green and white are the
‘colors of goodness and of the angels. Black, on the other hand, isthe color of evil

Another sign by which (inspired human beings can be recognized) she fat
that they make propaganda for religion and divine worship by means of prayer,
lisgiving, and chas. Khadjah as wll as Abu Bakr, took that (condot) as
proof of Muhammad's wuhfulnes. Thy di not need any further prof of his
mission beyond his conduct and character. According o (te sound tration of the
‘Sahih when Hera received the Prophets Iterin which he was asked to
become a Muslim, he sad to have called the Quashtes who could be found in
his country, among them Abu Sufyan. and Yo have asked them about Muhammads
‘condition, One of the questions be asked concemed the things Muhammad
‘commanded them to do. Abu Sufyan's reply was: "Prayer almsgiving, gis, and
hast." Similar replies were given to all he other questions Heraclvs asked
Herat’ comment was: “If itis all really as you say be isa prophet and he wil
take possession ofthis very ground upon which I am standing.” 242 The “chasiy”
10 which Heractis refered I Tsmah (immuniy from sin and eto, inflbiy)
is worth noting that Heraclio considered sma and propaganda for religion and
divine worship as proofs of the genuineness of a prophecal mission, and did not
‘qi a miracle. This story, erfor, is prof that thse quals are among the
Signs of prophesy:

Another sign by which (inspired human beings can be recognized) is the fact
that hey have prestige among her peopl. According to (Ihe sound tradition of) the
Sahih, God "sent no prophet who did not enjoy the protection of his peopl.” 248
Another recension reads... who did not enjoy wealth among his people." 262
"This is al-Hakim's correction of the two Sahihs 252 According to (the sound tradition
OD the Sahih, Abu Sufyan replied to Heraclus’ question concerning Muhammad's
Standing among the Qurashis. by saying) that he had prestige among them
‘Whereupon Herelius said, “Whenever messenger are set, hey have Prestige
among their people." 251 That means that (such a man) has group feeling and
insluenos which protest him from harm atthe hands of unboives, uni he has
<elverd the messages of hs Lord and achieved the degree of complete perfection
wih espect to his religion and religious organization that God intended fo him.

29

‘Avother sign by which Gnspired human beings can be recogni) i tha
they work wonders which atest to her truthfulness. "Wonders" 25 are actions the
Tie of which itis impossible fr other human beings o achieve. They ae, therefore,
«alle “rales” They are fot within the ability of men, but beyond thet power
There ia difference of opinion as wo how they vecur and as 1 how they prove the
truth of the prophets. Speclative theologians bas themselves onthe doctrine ofthe
“voluntary agent” 254 and say that miracles occur through the power of God, and
not through the action ofthe prophet, The Mutazilah maintain ha human actions
proseed from man himself, Sil, miracles do not belong tothe (ype of actions that
Human beings perform. According 1 all (schools), the prope’ Place in the
performance of miracles is (circumscribed by) the “advance challenge” (rahaddi) 2S.
Which he offers by divine permission. Tat ste prophet uses the miles before
they occur as peu of th truth of is clas. They thus tak the place of on exp
Statement fom God tothe effect ha a particular prophets thf and they are
define proof ofthe rath. An evidential miracle is the combination of a "wunder"
And the “advance challenge" had) that (announces). Therefore, the later
ons par ofthe miracle

“The notion ofthe speculative theologian (conceming the “voluntary agen”)
isselfexplanatory. (The “voluntary agent”) is Gus) one. For they bold that
“essential” means (being just one) 532 According to the notion of the speculative
theologians, the "advance challenge” (aha) is what makes the difference Between
{miracles onthe one hand), and ats of divine grace and sorcery (onthe othe).
Since (the ater two ned no confirmation of cr truthfulness. The "advance
<tallenge” i i occurs at lin these cases) exis in bem) only by chance.

In he opinion of those who adit the existence of acts of divine rac, if an
“advance challenge" (raha) occurs in connection with them, and ifs roo of
them. itis proof only ofsaindinss, which is diferent rom prophecy. This why
Professor Abu Ishaq 256 and others did not admic the occurence of wonders as acts
‘of divine grace, They wanted to avoid confusion between the “advance challenge”
Calado of the saint and prophecy. We, however, have Gus) shown ha hee is à
difference between the two. The “advance challenge” (had) ofa sait is
‘sneered with ther things tha that o a prophet. There can he no doubt that he
report on the authority of Professor Abu Ishaq is not clear and has often led to
‘denial of (he possibly) that the wonders ofthe prophets could have been wrought
ty (aim), on th ground that ach of the two groups hs is own Kind of wonder

“The Muah donot admit the occurrence of ts of divine grace, because
wonders do nt belong t the actions of man that are customary and allow of no
teak Ga he atom proce

nis absurd to believe that miracles could be produce fraudulently by a la.
According to the Askari, his is absurd because the essential part of a miracle i
defined as “confirmation of truthfulness and right guidance.” Were a miracle to
‘occur under the contrary conditions, proof would become doubt, guidance
msquidance, and. [might add. the confirmacion of truthfulness, unnuh. Reales
‘would become absurdities, and the essential quals would be ted upside down
Something, the occurence of which would be absurd, cannot be posible 22

‘According tothe Mutaziah,fawdulent miracles are absurd, because itis
improper for proofs 0 tum ito doubts and for guidance to tum into misguidanos
Such. therefore, could not come from God

“The philosophers hold that wonders are acts of the prophet (who performs.
them, even though they have no place in the power (of the prophet himself). This is.

tase upon thir ocn that (there exis) an essential and necessary (csi)
and that vets develop ce a each ther accord 1 conditions end ass tat
(away) come up anc and. tthe ast ntance go bck 1 Ihe Necsary per se
that at pera and wt by choice. In their opio, te prpboticl soa hs special
‘sential quals which produce wonders, wih te help ofthe power of (he
Necessary per se) and he obediene ofthe element to Him for parpses of
ecran (Te role of the prophe Gn this proces) i thei opin, that
through those qualities that God put into him, he is by nature fitted for being active
ong al) crested things, whenever he dene mue to them and consent
‘on them. They hold that wonders are wrought by the prophet (himself), whether
there an "avance challenge (fa) or nt. Tey ate evidence ol he prophets
«raíles, in av much they rove that he fatve song the erated things,
Such uv constituting special quality ofthe prophetic sul, no because they
take the plat ofa clear ste of his ota: ln ei opinion therefore,
(wonden) are o definitive proof ofthe prophets uns) as they ae in the
Opinion othe secutive Ueologims “Advance awarenes for them docs not,
onsite part tte miracle I Joes nt sland out as the thing that diferentes
rac) fom acs of divin rae. Thy Bak that rac) ae erated
{fom sorcery bythe fc at prophet is by natu ited foe good sona nnd averse
so evi ds. Therefore, he could no da evil ought wonders he works The
‘opposite isthe case withthe sorcerer. All his ations ar evil and done for vil
purposes 255 Furr, (miracles) ar fered from acts of divine race bythe
falta the woaders of «prophet ae of an unusual character, ach as tend o
even, psa trough sla bodies, revving the dsd, conversing wit angels and
flying through the air 252 The wonders of a saint, on the other hand, are of a lower
ch out of lite speaking about something ta il happen
in he frre, and sina things inferior othe power of acon of props. A
prop an produce the wonders ol ans, bu à ai not able produce
Wonders of prophets, his hasbeen conned by te Sufs in what
A have writen our ie una ah and por Of ir esac experience,
Now that his has been established, it shouldbe known tha he evidence of
the noble Quran which was revealed our Prophet, isthe greatest nobles, and
retrace Wonders ae a a al wroug by à prophet separate and pat
from the revelaion hs reeves. Te mice comes a evidence fori ralla)
“This is obvias. Te Quran, onthe ote and, sin Hel the ea rev ation
is iol the wondevas mile It iss own prof. requires no outside poof at do
the other wonders wrought in conection wth revelations Is the clearest proof
that can be, Because it unites ise bo the prof and what I 1 be proved. This
Inthe meaning of Muhammad statement, "Every prophet was given sin key to
provide reasstrance for mankind, What 1 have boon given isa revelation that was
Fevealed 10 me. Therefore hope to have te retest number of followers on the
day of resurrection.” 2594 He refers othe fact that a miracle which s dema with
the revelation (confirmed yi) sof uch laity and foes of evidence that til
be found ttf because oft cry, by the greatest number ot people. There.
many ar hose who consider (he Prophe) tuba and eine, Thy ar the
followers the nation of sam

And God, praised be He, knows better.

AZ his indices tht the Quan i alone among the divine books, in that

‘our Prophet received it directly 2£L in the words and phrases in which it appears. In
this respect, it differs from the Torah, the Gospel, and other heavenly books. The
prophets received them in the form of ideas during the state of revelation. After ther

return to a human state, they expressed those ideas in their own ordinary words
‘Therefore, those books donot have "inimitabiliy.* 22 Inimitablity i restricted to
the Quran. The other prophets received the books in a manner similar to that in
‘which our Prophet received (certain) ideas that he atubuted to God, suchas ae
found in many traditions 253 The fact that he received the Quran directly, in its
Ira form, is attested by the following statement of Muhammad on the authority of
his Lord who said: "Do nor sl your tongue in motion to make haste with (he
revelation ofthe Quran). It is up to us to put it together and to recite it.” 25

“The reason for the revelation ofthese verses was Muhammad's hast to study
the (Quranic) verses, because he Feared hat he might forget (them), and because he
‘wished 10 keep the direc and literally revealed text in memory. God guaranteed
im that He Himself) would "keep" tin the following verse: "We revealed the
reminder, and we are keeping ¡1205 This is the meaning of “keeping” whichis
peculiar tothe Quran. The meaning of tis not what the common people think
{Their opinion) is far off the mark

Many verses of the Quran show that He directly and literally revealed the
Quran, of which every surah i inimitable. Our Prophet wrought no greater miracle
than the Qur'an and the fact that he united the Arab in his mision. “It you had
‘expended al the treasures on cart, you would ave achieved no unity among them,
But God achieved unity among them.” 2

‘This should be known. It should be pondered. twill then be found to be
‘correct, exactly a have sated, One should also consider the evidence that les in
the superiority of Muhammad rank over that of the other prophets and in the
exaltedness of his position.

We shall now give an explanation of he eal of prophecy as
interpreted by many thorough scholars, We shal then mention the real meaning of
scothsaying, dream vision, divination, and other supernatural ways of perception
We say

(The real meaning of propheey)

11252 should be known that we-May God guide you and us 2 notice that
this world wih al he created things in it has a certain order and solid construcion.
I shows nexuses between causes and things caused, combinations of some parts of
‘creation wit others, and transformations of some existent things into others, in a
pattern that is both remarkable and endless, Beginning with the world of the body
and sensual perception, and therein first with the world ofthe visible elements, (one
notices) how these elements are arranged gradually and continually in an ascending
‘order, from earth to water, from water) to air, and (from air) to fire, Each one of the
‘elements is prepared tobe transformed into the next higher or lower one, and
sometimes is transformed. The higher one is always finer than the one preceding it
Eventually, the world of the spheres is reached. They are finer than anything else
‘They are in layers which are interconnected, in shape which the senses are able to
perceive only through the existence of motions. These motions provide some people
‘with knowledge of the measurements and positions ofthe spheres, and also with
knowledge of the existence of the essences beyond, the influence of which is
‘noticeable inthe spheres through the fact (that they have motion).

‘One should then look at the world of creation, I started out from the
‘minerals and progressed, in an ingenious, gradual manner, co plants and animals
The last stage 2 of minerals is connected with the frst stage of plants, such as

herbs and seedless plants. The last stage of plants, such as palms and vines is
‘connected with the first stage of animals, such as snails and shellfish which have
‘only the power of touch. The word “connection” with regard to these created things
means that the last stage of each group is Fully prepared to become the first stage of
the next group.

“The animal world then widens, its species become numerous, and, in a
gradual process of creation, it finally leads 10 man, who is able to think and to.
zeflect. The higher stage of man is reached from the world ofthe monkeys. in which
both sagacity and perception are found, but which has not reached the stage of
actual reflection and thinking. At this point we come 10 the first stage of man after
‘the world of monkeys). This is as far as our (physical) observation extends.

Now, in Z2 he various worlds we find manifold influences. In the world of
sensual perception there are certain influences of the motions of the spheres and the
‘elements. In the world of creation there are certain influences of the motions of
growth and perception. All this is evidence ofthe fact hat there is something that
‘exercises an influence and is different from the bodily substances). This is
something spiritual. It is connected with the created things, because the various
words must be connected in their existence, This spiritual thing isthe soul, which
has perception and causes motion. Above the soul there must exist something else
that gives the soul the power of perception and motion, and tha is also connected
‘with i. Is essence should be pure perception and absolute intellection. This isthe
‘world of the angels. The soul, consequently, must be prepared to exchange humanity
for angelicaliy, in order actually to become part of the angelic species at certain
times in the flach of a moment. This happens after the spiritual essence ofthe soul
as become perfect in actuality, as we shall mention later on.

{The soul) is connected with the stage next it, as are all the orders ofthe
existenta, as we have mentioned before. I is connected both upward and downward
Downward, it is connected with the body. Through (the body, the soul) acquires the
sense perceptions by which it is prepared for actual intellecion221 Upward, itis
connected with the stage of the angels, There, it acquires scientific and supernatural
perceptions, for knowledge of the things that come into being exists timeless in the
intellections of (the angels). This isin consequence of the well-constructed order of
‘existence mentioned above, which requires thatthe essences and powers of (the
‘world of existence) be connected with one another.

“The human soul cannot be seen, but its influence is evident inthe body. I is.
as if al (the body’s) parts, in combination or separately, were organs of the soul and
its powers. The powers of action are touching with the hand, walking with the foot,
speaking withthe tongue, and the total combined motion withthe body.

“The powers of sensual perception are graded and ascend to (he highest
power, thats, the power of thinking, for which there exists the term "rational
power.” Thus the powers of external sense perception, with the organs of vision,
hearing, and all he other (organs), lead up o inward (perception).

“The first (inward sense) isthe "common sense,” 22 that is, the power that
simultaneously perceives all objects of sensual perception, whether they belong o.
hearing seeing, touching, or anything else. In this respect, it differs from the power
of external sense perception, asthe objects of sensual perception do not all crowd
upon external sense perception al one and the same time.

‘The common sense transfers (the perceptions) o the imagination, which is
the power that pictures an object of sensual perception inthe soul, as iti, abstracted
from all extemal mater, The organ for the activity of these two powers (common
sense and imagination) is the first cavity ofthe brain, The front part of that cavity is

for the common sens

and the back part forthe imagination

Imagination lads upto the estimative power 2 and the power of memory.
‘The esimativ power serves for perceiving (abstract) ideas tha refer to
individuaities, such a the hostility of Zayd, the friendship of ‘Amr, the compassion
‘ofthe father, or the savagery ofthe wolf. The power of memory serves as a
‘repository for all objets of perception, whether they ae imagined or ot. His like a
siorehouse tha preserves them for the time when they are needed, The organ forthe
Activity ofthese two powers isthe back cavity ofthe brain. The front par of that
<avity is forthe estimative power, and the back forthe power of memory.

All these powers then lead up o the power of thinking. Its organ isthe
middle cavity ofthe brain, It is the power that causes reflection o be set in moti
and leads toward itlleeion. The sou is constantly moved by it asthe result of
‘constitutional desire to (think). I wants o be fre from the grip of power 2 and the
human kind of preparedness. Iwas to proceed to active intlletion by
assimilating set the highest spiritual group (that of he angel). and to get into
the fist order o the spriwala by perceiving them without the help of bsy
‘organs. Therefore, he sou is constantly moving in that direcion. I exchanges all
humaniy and human spirituality for angelical ofthe highest stage, without the
help of any acquired faculty but by vire ofa primary natural disposition that God
as placed in it

[As far as this (proces) is concerned, human souls are of three kinds. One is
by nature too weak to amive at spiritual perception. Therefore, itis satisfied to move
-downwards toward the perceptions ofthe senses and imagination and the formation
‘of ideas with the help ofthe power of memory and the estimative power, according
10 limited rules and a special order. In this manner, people acquire perceptive and
apperceptive 225 knowledge, which isthe product of thinking inthe body. Al this is
the resul of the power of) imagination and limited in extent, sine from the way it
Stats can reach the primary (intlligbilia) but cannot go beyond them. Al, if
they are corrupt, everything beyond them is also corupt 226 This, as a rule isthe
‘extent of human corporeal perception. It is the goal ofthe perceptions of scholars I
ds in itthat scholars ae Firm grounded,

A (second) kind (of soul), rough thinking, moves in the direction of
spiral intellection and (a type oP perception that docs not need the organs of the
body, because ofits innate preparedness frit. The perceptions ofthis Kind of soul
‘extend beyond the primary (intelligbilia) to which primary human perception is
restricted, and cover the ground of inward observations, which ae all intuitive
‘They are unlimited as to thee beginning and their end. They are the perceptions of
saints, of men of mystical learning and divine knowledge. The blessed obtain them
after death, in Purgatoy (barcakh) 228

A third) Kind (of soul) is by nature suited to exchange humanity altogether,
both corporeal and spiritual humanity, for angelicality of the highest stage, so that it
‘may actually become an angel in the Nash of a moment. glimpse the highest group
within their own stage, and listen to essential speech 222 and divine address during
that moment. (Individuals possessing this Kind of soul) are prophets. God implanted
and formed in them the natural ability o slough off humanity in that moment whieh
isthe state of revelation, God freed them from the lets and hindrances ofthe body,
by which they were afflicted as human beings. He did this by means of ‘ismah
‘immunity from sin and error, infllbiiy) and staightforwardness, which He
‘implanted in them and which gave them that particular outlook, and by means of a
desire for divine worship which He centered in them and which converges from all

sides toward that gol, They bus move ward the (angel) stage, sloughing off
at wil y vinos Of ther natural constitution, and not with he help of any
ny or eat
{The prophets) move in tha direction, slough off heir human, and once
mong the highest grow (of angel), Iam ali hat may here De ame Tey hen
Bring wat the have learned back down othe level ofthe powers of ua
perception as his he way in which canbe transmet human beings A
ties tas may happenin te form of a nose the prophet hear ie taint
Words rom which drives th ea conveyed 10 hm, As soon ns ih ole has
opel. retains and understand (tees). At ter men the angel who
Convey (te message) 1 he pop caso him im he form ofa man who tls
‘ohn, and the prophet comprehends sat he sys Leming the mesa fom the
angel. reverting ote level of human pereption, and understanding the message
<omveyod to him al his appears to tae place in one momen, rather, ina Hash,
Dos no ae place in tne, ut everyting hopponesnlincoily. Therefore
appear pp very quick, Fo te reson ie cad aly Cree.
Vease the root why asthe meaning "to hasten 20

A shou be known hatin the judgment of thorough chola the fics
(degre) be of nes haa ropes who as mo sent as messengers The
Second deger, the tate when an ange appear in he form of man who adresses
the prophet is hat of prophets who are sem as messengers, Therefore ih more
perfect han he ist (dore), This sh meaning of he radon in which tbe
Prophet explained elation, in reply o question by alba b,Hisham28L Asked
how the revelation came to him, Mohammad replied A! times, comes 0 me ke
the raging of el, This affects me mon. When it leaves me, have retained what
Was sak At ober times, the angel appears to mein the form of a man. Heals to
me, and tain he things he say The ist (ese) ft hi more, Bing te
firs temp to advance rom potential actual contac (withthe superna,
‘Thus was somewha eu, When the Propet retard in ne eae to he level
‘ot hamanpercepins, all he retained was anorg (impression). All ate were
dificult When the revelation was repeated and he messages became names
‘onac (wih dhe supernatural became easy. When the Prophet retuned othe level
human perceptions. now sl his sense ed especially the lerest sense, tha of
Mision convey (de even).

“Te use ofthe perfect Lee "hase relied!” the Fis case, and of he
present lense rein inthe second, is a meaingal style dsinction. In both
nes the words that were spoken ring the revelation came in dispuso, othe

st case they appeared in the form of case," which, according accepted ung,
is someting liz (om speech, Muhammad indice Bat understanding and
comprehension followed immediatly pon tale ad stopped He propery used
the perfect ese, which i stable ( sin) what as ended or stopped nore
10 indicate comprehension at moment he ered that (oie) ad end
and stopped 22 In the second case, the angel appeared in the form of a man who
Address e Prope ad poke ohn, Compresion (in ds cae) ran parle
Mit speech Theefre, Muhammad propery sed ihe reset tens, which of
ecc) expres renewed (poned) ao

JE should be know la in general, the state of revelation presents
difficulties and pains throughout. This has been indicated in the Qur'an: 283 "we.
Shall ay upon youa nny message À ia sd; “There was some an
onnetion wih the revelation, with whic he had to stmgele Sh sal:
revatio woul! cme to him on very cold days Neverthe, hen if Him,

there was sweat on his forehead." This isthe reason fr his wel-Lnown remoteness
{irom sensual perception) and the choking (fing) when in that condition of w
the Prophet used to speak. The reason, as we have established, i that revelation
ans [envio one's human, In oder to ain angelic perceptions ad to bra the
speech of the soul 2% This causes pain, since it means that an essence leaves its own
sence and exchanges its own stage for the ultimate stage (ofthe angels). This is
the meaning ofthe choking feling which Muhammad refereed to in connection with
the beginning of revelation in his statement: "And he (Gabriel) choked me unt it
became to much forme; then he released me. Then he sai, Read. and 1 replied 1
‚cannot read. 2% He did this a second and a third time, as the tradition tells.

Gradual habitation vo (the process of revelation) bring some rele, as
‘compared 1 how it was before. Iti for this reason that the earliest passages, ura
Amd verses ofthe Quran, revealed to Muhammad in Mecca are rier than those
revealed o him in Medina. One may compare the ation about how the ninth
Sur (Soa: Bucal vas revealed during the expedition 10 Tabu. The whole of
this lone sural), or mos of lt was revealed to Muhammad while he Was riding his
‘camel 238 Before this, when he was in Mecca, part of one of the shortest surahs in
the latter part of the Qur'an 2 was revealed on one occasion, and the rest on another
Occasion. Alo, one ofthe las revelations received in Medina was the “Verse ofthe
284 which is very long. Before this, in Mecca, the verses revealed were
short ike those of the sur ar-Rahman, adh-Dharya, a Muda ad Duh,
and Al 282 and similar auras, This may serve as criterion fr distinguishing
the Meccan sarah and verses fom the Medinese. God least that which i
‘correct This isthe quintessence of prophecy

Soothsaying (Lahanah) i alo one ofthe particular qualities ofthe human
soul, This is follows.

Inthe previous discussion, we have always std that the human soul is
prepared to exchange is humanity or the spirituality that lies above (human).
‘Human beings have an intimation of that (exchange) in prophets who are by nature
fied to achieve it Ith been established that they nether need acquired qualities
for that exchange), or are they dependent on any help from perceptions, notons
Aasannvur, bly activities, be they speech or motion, r anything lso, es with
them a natural change from humanity o angelical in the fash ofa moment.

IT this isso and if such preparedness exists in human nature logical
<lassification require ha there must be another kind of human Beings as inferir to
the rt kind a anything that as something perfect a hs oppnie, must be inferior
to that (perfec opposite Independence from al help in (acheving contact with the
supernatural) isthe opposite al dependence on help in connection with it They are
two very diferen things

Now, the classification ofthe world of existence requires that there must be
à kind of human beings fted by nature forthe proces of thinking voluntarily under
the impulse oftheir rational power, whenever that power as a deir fort (Ba the
rational power) snot by nature capable of (the process of spematral perception)
“Thus, when its weakness prevents (the atonal power) fom (contact with the
Supernatural). ti natural fr he rational power) 1 get involved with paca
(ihr of Sensual perception or ofthe imagination, such as transparent bods, animal
bonos, spesch in rhymed prose or whatever bird or animal may present sll. (A
person whose rational power is thes engaged aicmpts 1 cain Such aensual or
imaginary perceptions, since he depends om thei el in taining the supematural
perception he desires, They give him a sort of assistance,

“The power which in (such persons) constitutes the starting point of
supernatural perception is soathsaying, The souls of such persons are inferior by
‘ature and unable alain perfection. Therefore, they have a eter perception of
Particulars than of universal. They get involved withthe former and neglect the
later. Therefore, the power of imagination is 22 most strongly developed in those
persons, because it is the organ of the particulars. (The particulars) completely
pervade (he power ofthe imagination) 221 bot in the sleeping and the waking
Sate, They are ever ready and present ini. The power of imagination brings (he
particulars) tothe attention of (hose persons) an serves as a minor in which they
de seen constantly.

“The soothsayer is not ale to achieve perfection in his perception of the
intelligibiia. because the revelation he receives is inspired by devils. The highest
Slate this typeof person can reach iso achieve disregard forthe senses, with the
hp of rhymed prose and the us of words of an identical structure atthe end of
successive cola 22 and (thereby) 1 attain an imperfect contact of the sont described
(with supernatural things) From that motion and the foreign support that
accompanies itis heart receives some inspiracion o express itself in words. The
Soothsiycr, thus often speaks dhe truth and agrees with reality. Ofen, however,
‘what he says are falsehoods, because he supplements his del something
foreign wo, different from, and incompatible with, his perceptive essence. Thus, tah
and falsehood are umbed together in him, and he is not ustworthy. He often takes
refuge in guesses and hypotheses, because, in his self-deception, he desire o have
{supernatural perception and is willing to cheat those who ask him (or
information)

Men who se such rhymed pros are distinguished by the name of
soothsayes ain pl. kuhfan). Tey rank highest among hei kind. Muhammad
Said regarding something ofthe sort, "This belongs to the thymed prose of he
soothsayers." 2 The use ofthe genitive construction Crhymed prose of") indicates
‘hat Muhammad considered hymed prose a distinctive (mark of the soothsayer). He
also questioned Ibn Sayyad.22% in oder o find out about him. and he asked him
how that thing came to him. Ibn Sayyid replied “Rt comes to me in the form of both
truth and falschood.” Whereupon Muhammad sai, "You are confused with regard
to the matter" He meant that prophecy is characterized by truthfulness and can in o.
way be affected by falschood For prophecy isa direct and independent contact of
the essence of the prophet with the most high group (he angels. Because of his
‘weakness, the soothsayer depends onthe help of foreign notions (asawwun). (These
foreign notions) entr ino his perception and mingle with the perception toward
hich he aspires. He thas becomes confused by them, So itis that falsehood makes
is way o his (oor. tis, herefore, impossible (for his activity) 0 be prophecy.

We have stated thatthe highest rank of sootsaying i he state in which
hy med prose is used, because the suppor derived from rhymed pros is lighter than
any other support, such as that derived from vision or hearing. Such light suppor (as
is piven by the use of rhymed prose) points to ncamess of contact and perception
and 1 à certain freedom from Weakness.

‘Some people assume hat soothsaÿing of his type stopped withthe time of
prophecy, as he result of the stoning of he devil with meteor, in view of the
prophetic mission, which occurred in order to Keep them away from heavenly
information a is mentioned in the Quin 22 The sootheayers had recived
heavenly information from he devils, and now. from the day on which the devils
were soned,soothsaying ceased to exist. There is no proof for his contention.
Soothsayers obtain knowledge from ther own souls as well a from the devis, as

‘we have established. Furthermore, the verse of the Qur'an shows only that the devils
‘were kept away from one particular kind of heavenly information, namely, that
‘connected with the (prophetic) mission. They were not kept from other information,
‚Also, soothsaying stopped only in view of the existence of prophecy. It may
afterwards have retumed to its former state, This would seem to be an obvious

A fact), because all such (supernatural) perceptions are in abeyance at the time of
prophecy, just as stars and lamps lose their brilliance beside the sun. Prophecy is the
greatest light, in whose presence every other light is obscured or disappears.

‘Some philosophers think that (soothsaying) exists only in view of prophecy,
and then stops226 This happens at each occurrence of prophecy. They argue that
the existence of prophecy needs a particular constellation that makes it necessary.
‘The perfection of that constellation coincides with the perfection of the particular
prophecy to which the constellation has reference. As long as the constellation is
imperfect, it requires the existence of some imperfect related element. This is the
meaning of "soothsayer,” as we have established it. The perfect state of the
‘constellation is preceded by an imperfect one, which requires the existence of one or
more soothsayers. When the constellation reaches perfection, the prophet' existence
reaches perfection. The constellations that point to the existence of a(n infer
‘element such as soothsaying have passed by, and soothsaying ceases to exist 22
“This (theory) is based upon the assumption that any part of a particular constellation
must exereise part of the influence that the constellation (in its perfect state) would
‘exercise. This assumption is not fully acceptable. It may be that a particular
‘constellation exercises its influence only when it has taken on its proper form. If
some aspects are missing, it may exercise no influence whatever, not even, as they
say, a restricted influence.

Soothsayers who are a prophets contemporaries are aware of the prophet’s
Aruthfulness and the significance of his miracle, since they derive some intuitive22
‘experience from prophecy, such as every human being derives from sleep.
Intellectual awareness of this relationship is stronger in the soothsayer than in the
sleeper. What prevents soothsayers from acknowledging the truthfulness of the
prophet, and causes them to deny (him), is simply their misguided desire to be
prophets themselves. This leads them to spiteful opposition. This happened to
Umayyah b, Abi s-Salt, who desired to be a prophet, It also happened to Ibn Sayyid.
Musaylimah, and others 222 When faith gains the upper hand and they stop aspiring
10 become prophets themselves, they make the most faithful of believers. This
happened to Tulayhah al-Asadi and Qari b. al-Aswad 200 The actions of these wo
men in the Muslim conquest show that they were faithful believers.

(Dream visions)
Real dream vision isan awareness on the part of the rational soul in its
spiritual essence, of glimpse(s) of the forms of events, While the soul i spiritual, the

forms of events have actual existence in it as isthe case with all spiritual essences,
“The soul becomes spiritual through frecing itself from bodily matters and corporeal
perceptions. This happens to the soul (in he form of) glimpse(s) through the agency
of sleep, as we shall mention. Through (these glimpses) (he soul) gains the
knowledge of future events that it desires and by means of which it regains the
perceptions that (properly) belong to it, When this process is weak and indistinct
soul applies (oi allegory and imaginary pictures, in onder to gain (he desired
Knowledge). Such allegory, then, necessitates interpretation 2 When, on the ther
hand, his proces is strong, it can dispense with allegory. Then, no interpretation is
necessary, because (the process) is then free from imaginary pictures.

“The occurrence, inthe soul, of such glimpse(s) is caused by the fact thatthe
soul is potentially a spiritual essence, supplemented by the body and the perceptions
of (the body). Is essence, thus, eventually becomes pure intellection, and its
‘existence becomes perfect in actuality. The soul, now, isa spiritual essence having
perception without the help of any ofthe bodily organs. However, among the
spiritucia, itis of a lower species than the angels, who inhabit the highest stage,
and who never had to supplement their essences with corporeal perceptions or
Anything else. The preparedness (for spirituality) comes to (the soul) as long as itis
in the body. There isa special kind (of preparedness), such as saints have, and there
isa general kind common to all human beings. This is what "dream vision” means.

In the case of the prophets, this preparedness i a preparedness to exchange
humanity for pure angelicality, which isthe highest rank of spiriuali. I expresses
itself repeatedly during revelations. I exists when (the prophet) returns to the level
‘of corporeal perceptions. Whatever perception (he prophet) has at that moment is
‘clearly similar to What happens in sleep, even though sleep is much inferior to
‘revelation)

Because ofthis similarity, the Lawgiver (Muhammad) defined dream vision
as being the forty-sixth- or, according to other recensions, the forty-third, or the
seventeth-part of prophecy 22 None of these (fractions) is meant to be taken
literally. They are to indicate the great degree of difference between the various
stages (of supernatural perception). This is shown by the reference 10 "seventy" in
‘one ofthe recensions. The number “seventy” is used by the Arabs to express (the
idea of) a large number

“The reference to “forty-six” has been explained by some scholar as follows.
In its beginning, the revelation took the form of dream visions for six months, that
is, for half a year. The whole duration of (Muhammad's) prophecy in Mecca and
Medina was twenty-three years, Half a year, thus, is one forty-sixth (of the whole
‘duration of prophecy). This theory cannot he verified. The given (figures) apply only
to Muhammad. How can we know whether they also applied to other prophets?
‘Moreover, this (theory) describes the relationship of prophecy to dream vision in
point of time only, and does not consider the true character of dream vision
relation to the true character of prophecy. If our previous remarks were clear, it will
be realized that the fraction refers tothe relationship between the primary
preparedness general to all mankind, and the close preparedness limited to the
Aprophets) and natural o them.

“The remote preparedness is commonly found among human beings.

However, there are many obstacles and hindrances that prevent man from translating
tinto actuality. One ofthe greatest hindrances isthe external senses. God, therefore,
created man. in such a way that the veil ofthe senses could be lifted through sleep,
‘hich is a natural function of man. When that veils lifted, the soul is ready to learn
the things it desires to know in the world of Truth (hagg). At times, it catches a

pse of what it seeks. Therefore, the Lawgiver (Muhammad) classified dream
visions among “the bearers of glad tidings” (muhashshirar). He said, “Nothing.
remains of prophecy except the bearers of glad tidings.” Asked what they were, he
said: "A good dream vision, beheld by - or shown to - a good man,” 22

“The reason why the veil of the senses is lifted in sleep is as follows. 304 The
perceptions and actions of the rational soul are the result of the corporcal animal
spirit. This spirit is a fine vapor which is concentrated in the eft cavity of the heat,
as slated in the anatomical works of Galen and others 25 I spreads with the blood
in the veins and arteries, and makes sensual perception, motion, and all he other
corporeal actions possible. Is finest part goes upto the brain. There, iis tempered

by the coldness of (the brain), and it effects the actions of the powers located in the
‘cavities of the brain. The rational soul perecives and acts only by means of that
vaporous spirit 1 is connected with it (This connection i) the result of the wisdom
‘of creation which requires that nothing fine can influence anything coarse. OF al the
“corporeal matters, only the animal sprit is fine. Therefore, itis receptive (0 the
influence of the essence, which differs from it only in respect of corporcality that
(he rational soul. Thus, through the medium of (he animal spirit}, the influence of
the rational soul reaches the body.

We have stated before “thatthe perception of he rational soul is of two,
kinds. There is an external perception through the five senses, and an inward
perception through the cerebral powers. All these perceptions diver the rational soul
from the perception for which SZ it is prepared by nature, (namely. that) of the
‘essences of the spirituatia, which are higher han i

Since the external senses are corporeal, they are subject to weakness and
lassitude as the result of exertion and fatigue, and to spiritual exhaustion through too
much activity. Therefore, God gave them the desire 10 rest, so that perfect
perception may be renewed afterwards. Such (rest) is accomplished by the retirement
of the animal spirit from all the external senses and its return tothe inward sense.
‘This process is supported by he cold that covers the body during the night. Under
the influence of the cold of the night, the natural eat repairs to the innermost
recesses ofthe body and turns from its exterior o the interior. I thus guides its
vehicle, the animal sp, nto the interior of the body. This is the reason why human
beings, as a rule, sleep only at night

“The spirit thus, withdraws from the external senses and returns fo the inward
powers. The preoccupations and hindrances of sensual perception lessen thir hold
‘over the soul, and it now returns to the forms that exist in the power of memory.
“Then, through a process of synthesis and analysis, (these forms) are shaped into
‘imaginary pictures. Most of these pictures are customary ones, because (he soul) has
only) shorty before withdrawn from the conventional objects of sensual perception.
It now transmits them 10 the common sense, which combines al the five external
senses, to be perceived in the manner of (those five senses. Frequently, however,
‘the soul turns to its spiritual essence in concert with the inward powers. It then
accomplishes the spiritual kind of perception for which itis fitted by mature. It takes
‘up some of the forms of things that have become inherent in its essence at that time,
Imagination seizes on those perceived forms, and pictures them in the customary
‘molds either realistically or allegorically. Pictured allegoricaly, they require
interpretation. The synthetic and analytic activity which (the soul) applies to the
forms in the power of memory, before it perceives its share of glimpses (of the
supernatural), is (what is called in the Quran) “confused dreams."

According to (the sound tradition of) the Sah. the Prophet said, "There are
three kinds of dream visions. There are dream visions from God, dream visions from
the angels, and dream visions from Satan,” This threefold division agrees with
our preceding statement. Clear dream visions are from God. Allegorical dream

ns, which call for interpretation, are from the angels. And "confused dreams”
are from Satan, because they are altogether futile, as Satan is the source of fuiliy.

“This is what "dream vision” really is, and how itis caused and encouraged
by sleep. It is a particular quality ofthe human soul common £o all mankind
[Nobody is free from it. Every human being has, more than once, seen something in
his sleep that tumed out to be true when he awakened. He knows for certain that the
soul must necessarily have supernatural perception in sleep. If this is possible in the
realm of sleep, it is not impossible in other conditions, because the perceiving

‘essence is one and its qualities are always present. God guides toward the truth

Dream words

‚Note: Most of the (afore-mentioned supematural perception by means of
dream visions) occurs to human beings unintentionally and without their having
power over it, The soul occupies itself with a (hing. As a resul, obtains that
glimpse (of the supernatural) while iti asleep. and it sees that thing. It does not plan
that way.

In the Ghayatl and other books by practitioners of magic, reference is
‘made o word that shouldbe mentioned on falling sleep so as to cause the dream

don to e about the things one desires, These words are called by (he magicians)
ream words” (al-halumah). Inthe Ghayah, Maslamah mentioned a dream word
that he called “the dream word ofthe perfect nature." consists of saying. upon
falling asleep and after obtaining freedom of the inner senses and finding ones way
ler (for supematral perception), the following non: Arabic words: vomaghis
adan yaswadda waghads nawfana ghadis The person should then mention
‘what he wants, and the thing he asks for wil be shown to him in his sleep.

À man is sid to have done this after he had aten but litle and done dir
exeresesêL2 for several nights. A person appeared to in and sad," am your
Perfect nature.” A question was pt to that person, and he gave the man the
Information he desired.

With the help ofthese words, have myself had remarkable dream visions,
through which camed things about myself that I wanted to know. However, (he
‘existence of such dream words) i o proof that the intention 0 have a dream vision
an produce The dream words produce a preparedness inthe soul forthe dream
vision I that preparedness i à strong one, (he soul) 3123 wil be more likey to
‘obtain that for which itis prepared. A person may arrange for whatever preparedness
he likes, bt that sno assurance that the thing for which preparations have been
‘made will actually happen. The power to prepare for a thing s not the same as
power over the thing sel). This should be known and considered in similar cases
God "is wise and knowing. 213

Other types of divination

In the human species we find individuals who foretell things before they take
place. They have a special natural qualification for it, Through that qualification,
they are distinguished from all other human beings. They do not have recourse 10 a
‘raft for their predictions, nor do they get them with the help of astral influences or
Anything else. Their forecasts are the necessary result of their natural disposition
Among such people are diviners (arraf): men who gaze ino transparent bodies such
as mirror or bowls of water, men who examine the hearts, lives, and bones of
animals; men who draw auguries from birds and wild animals; and men who cast
pebbles, grains of wheat, or (date) pits“ Ai these things are found among
‘mankind: no one can deny them or be ignorant of them. Statements concerning
supernatural things are also placed upon the tongues of the insane, who are thus able
10 give information about (supernatural things). Sleeping and dying persons, being.
about to die or 1 fall asleep, likewise speak about supernatural things. Men who
have followed Sul training have, as is well known, as ats of divine grace, obtained
perceptions of supernatural things.

The different kinds of supernatural perception

We are now going o discus all hese ways of (supernatural perception, We
are going to start with soothsaying. Then, we shall discuss all he other kinds, one by
one. Before tha, however, we want to discuss how the human soul sit exists in all
the types of human beings mentioned, is prepared for supematual perception. This
isa follows.

The soul isa spiritual essence which, as we have mentioned before, i the
only spiritual being that exists potentially. I exchanges potentiality for actuality with
the help of the body and (bodily) conditions, This is something everyone can atain

Now, everything that exists potentially has matter and form. The form ofthe
soul, trough which its existence materializes, is identical with perception and
intllction. The soul at frst exists potential. I i prepared for perception and for
{he reception of the universal and particular forms. Is growth and actual existence
then materialize through Keeping company with the body, through the things to
whic (the body) secustoms (the soul when (he formers) sensual perceptions are
foisted upon ihe later, and through the universal ideas which (he sou se)
abstracts from the sensual perceptions of the body. It inellctualizs the forms time
Mtr time, unt perception and intlecion become he actual form o the sul
‘Thus its essence materializes. The soul, then is ike matter and, rough perception,
te forms come to it one afer the other in an uninterrupted sequence.

“This is why we find that a child in the earliest stages of his growth is unable
tw achieve the perception which comes o the soul rom its essenc, either in his
sleep or through removal (ofthe veil of sense perception), Sor anything else. For
the form ofthe soul, which sits very essence, namely, perception and ineletion,
Jus not yet materialized (in the child). Nor has the power ofthe soul to abstract the
universal materialized, Later on, when the essence of (the soul has materialized
‘tual, the soul has two kinds of perception, a long as it remains in the body: one
{trough the organs of the body. for which the sul is enabled by the corporeal
perceptions, and the othe through its oxen essence, without any intermedias. The
soul is prevented 21 rom (ihe later Kind of perception) by is immersion in the
body and the senses, and the preoccupations of (body and senses). By means of
corporel perception, for which the senses were originally created, they alas draw
the sol the external. Frequently, however the soul plunges from the external into
the intemal. Then, the veil ofthe body is ited fora moment either by means OÙ à
‘quality that belongs to every human being, suchas sleep. or by means of a quality
that is found only in certain human beings, such as soohsaying or easing (of
pebbles, etc.) or by means of exercises such as those practiced by (certain) Sufis
‘who practice the removal (ofthe veil of sense perception). At such moments, the
soul turns 10 the essences of the highest group (the angels), which ae higher than
"sel. This is possible) because in the orde of existence the stages ofthe soul and
the angel are connected with each other, as we established cartier 2 These
essences are spritul. They ar pure perception and intellects in ation. They
‘conain the forms and realities ofthe existent, as was (Just) mentioned. Something
of those forms is then disclosed in (he soul) I derives some knowledge from them.
Frequently, transmis th perceived forms to the imagination which, in tum. puts
them into the customary molds. (The sou, then has recouse to sensual perception
to explain the things it his perceived. either in their abstract form or in the molds
into which (they were put bythe imagination) In this way it gives information about
them. This is how the preparedness ofthe soul for supernatural perception must ho
explained.

Let us now return to the explanation we promised, ofthe various kinds (of
supernatural perception) Persons who gaze ito transparent bodies, such as mirrors,
bowls, or water, and (examine) the hears, livers, and bones of animals, as well as
those who cast pebbles and (date) pts, all belong to the class of soothsayers. Only,
they are constitutionally less well fitted for supematural perception than soothsayer.
‘The soothsayer does not need to make much of an effort in order to lift the veil of
sensual perception. They. however, expend much effort to concentrate all sensual
perception in one particular sense, the noblest one, which is vision. I is applied
‘exclusively to whatever plain visual object has been (selected for concentration),

‘uml the perception about which information is to be given appears. is often
thought that the place where those (who gaze into mirrors see something, is the
surface of the mirror, This is not so, They continue gazing at the surface of the
‘mirror nti it (he surface) disappears. Between their eyes and the mirror appears a
veillike a white cloud. In it, forms are pictured, and (these pictures) ae the objects
they perceive. This gives them the facts of a negative or positive character they
‘wanted to obtain, and they pass on (these Facts) as they perceived them. Neither the
mirror nor Ihe forms perceived in it are now present to them. A different kind of
perception originates in them in (that state). IL is a psychic one that has nothing to do
‘with vision, Through it, objects of psychic perception take on shape (for
observation) by sensual perception, as is known. Something similar happens to those
‘who examine the hearts and livers of animals, and to those who gaze into water,
bowls, and similar things,

Among these people we have observed persons who keep their senses
‘occupied only by means of incense, as well as incantations, in order to be prepared.
(for supernatural perception). Then, they tell what they have perceived. They think
that they see the forms take on concrete shapes in the ai, felling them what they
‘want to know in the form of pictures and allusions. These persons are less remote
from sensual perception than the fist group. The world is full of remarkable things.

Augury (zj) is talk about supernatural things which originates in some
people when a bird or animal appears, and they reflect about it after it has gone. It is
power in the soul that calls for sagacty and the ability to think about (the things of

interest) which augur see or hear. As we mentioned earlier LÉ the power of
on is trong in augurs and they exer that power in ther researches, while
es they have seen or heard. This gives them
some supernatural perception. The power of imagination acts here a it does in
Sleepers. When the senses are asleep (he power of imagination) intervenes among,
the things seen inthe waking state, and combines them wit the products ofits own
thinking. Thus he power of imagination brings about vision.

In the insane, the rational soul is bu weakly connected with the body.
because the humors, a a ful, are corrupt and have weak animal spirit. Therefore,
the soul belonging to (the body of an insane person) is not deeply immersed in the
senses. The painful disease of deficiency that affects it keeps it 100 much occupied
Frequently was pushed ino attaching itsel to (the insane) by some ether Satanic
spinualt, which clings to them and which (the soul ss too weak to keep
away. The insane thus become possessed 2188 When they have become possessed in
this manner, iter because of the corruption oftheir constitution asthe resul ofthe
essential corruption of thei soul, or because ofthe onslaught the Satanic sous make
upon them when they are attached o (their bodies) they are totally removed from
sensual perception. They perceive a glimpse of the world oftheir sul. (Their soul)
receives the impress of forms which, in tum, are trnsformed by the imagination. In
this condition, they frequently speak without wanting o speak

Supernatural) perception in all these (groups) contains truth and falsehood

ine toga. For although ty may active the los of seta pere, its
cnly wth the help of fora noone instru) tha they achieve cont (wih the
Spa), a we have established Ths lads to untrue, (eich so be
foun in tev (ys of eepernateal) pres,

“The diviners (‘arraf) somehow enjoy this kind of perception, but they do not
have the sme contact (ith de opera) They concentrate th tiking upon
‘the matter in which they are interested and apply guesses and hypotheses to it. They
tase thetselves upon an unfounded assumption a 10 what basally consis
‘oac with, ad perception of, (cape, They claim suaimance
Saperatua, but reality (her procedure) has noting odo with

“This is the manerin which such (upermaturl knowledge) i obtained. Al
Masudi discussed the subject in his Mura adh-dhahab 212 He did not hit upon the
right explanation, It is evident from his discussion that he was not firmly grounded
inthe various kinds of (petnen) knowledge. He merely reports what he earned
from people experienced in the subject, and from others.

All he kinds of (upenaur perception mentioned ar fund in man. The
Arab ated 1 epale sous In oe o lar about From evens. They
‘onsite them in cir quel to Iam th ruth by meats of sopera

cepa. Laer comas rauch Information abou ths mati, In pre-Islamic
ns Sg ofthe tbe of Ana 6. Na, and Sa, ofthe wie af Marin b
Ghassan 220 were famous (soothsayers) (The latter) used to fold up like a garment,
28 he had no bons save fo his stl.

A famous soy is their interpretation ofthe dream vision of Rabah Nast,
in which they informed him tat he Ahyssinians would ake pates of he
Yemen, that the Mudar would ule fer Ihe, and tht the Mehammadan prop
‘would make its appearance among the Quraysh.=2 Another famous story is that of
the dream vision ofthe Mobedhan 22 Sa Interprete it when the Persian emperor
{Rowan sent A/a Masih 1 hi with he dean) (On that caso, Sa)
informes him about the prophecy (ol Muhammad) andthe are) destruction ofthe
Pern realm. AN dis is wel kn.

“There were also many diviners among the Arabs. They are mentioned by the
Arabs in their poems. (One pot sad

th the

I sai o the diviner of the Yamamah: Cure me,
For if you cure me, you are indeed a physician 223

Another poet sad:

1 promised 10 give the diviner of the Yamamal whatever
e would ask me for,

‘And ( promised the same) to the diviner of Najd, if they
‘would cure me (of my love).

But they said: Let God cure you. By God, we have no
Power over (ihe disease) that you carry around with you
in your body 22

“The "divine of the Yamamal” is Riyah b. jh 25 and the “diviner of
[Naja is al-Ablag al-Asadi.

Some people have another way of supernatural perception. I occurs in the

stage of transition from waking to sleeping, and is in (the form of unconsciously)
speaking about the thing one wants to know and thercby obtaining supernatural
Knowledge of the matter as desired. This happens only during the transition from
‘waking to sleeping, when one has lot the power to control one's words. Such a
person talks as if by innate compulsion, The most he can do is to hear and
“understand what (he says).

Words ofa similar nature come from those who are about to be killed, at the
moment when ther heads are being severed from their trunks, We have been
informed that certain criminal tyrants used to kill their prisoners in order to learn
{eit own future from the words the prisoners would utler when they were about to
be killed. It was unpleasant information they received from them.

In the Ghayah 26 Maslamah similarly mentioned that when a human being is
placed in a bar of sesame où and kept init for fry das, fed with is and nuts
tnt his es i gone and only the arteries and sutures EL or the skull remain, and
is then taken out of the oil and exposed to the drying action of the air, he will
answer ll special and general questions regarding the future that may be asked
Thins detestable sorcery, However, it shows what remarkable things exist inthe
world of man

“There are men who attempt o obtain supernatural perception through
‘exercise. They attempt an artificial (state of) death through self-montification 24
“They kil al corporeal powers (in themselves, and wipe out al influences of those
Powers that color the soul in various ways 22 This is achieved by. concentrated
thinking, and doing without fod or long (periods) I is definitely known that when
‘death descends upon the body, sensual perception and the velit constitutes
disappear, andthe soul behold its essence and is world. (These men) attempt to
produce, aiicially before death the experience they wil ave after death, and to
Fave thir soul behold the supernatural

‘ther such people are Ihe men who rin themselves in sorcery. They train
themselves in these things, inorder tobe abl to behold the superatra and tobe
active inthe various words. Most sich live in the intemperate zones ofthe north
nd the south, especially in India, where they are called yous. They possess a large
literature on how such exercises ae tobe done. The stores about them in this
‘comection ae remarkable.

“The Suf traning i a religious one. tis fre fom any such reprehensible
intentions. The Sufi aspire to tll concentration upon God and upon the approach
10 Him, in order to obtain the mystical experiences 24 of gnosis and Divine
oneness. In addition to their traning in concentration and hunger, the Sufi feed on
«lit crac EL by wich ir devotion to that tating can folly meerlie
‘When the soul is reared on dh exercises, i comes closer tothe gnosis of God,
vers, without it comes to be a Satanic one

Whatever supernatural knowledge or activity is achieved by the Sufis is
accidental, and was no originally intended, Had it been intentional, the devotion of
the Sufi (aho intended to have supernatural perception) would have been directed
toward something other than God, namely, toward supematural activity and vision
What a losing business that would have been! In ely, it would have been
polytheism, A (Sul) has said, "Whoever prefers gnosis forte sake of gnosis comes
ut Tor the second (stage of being.” Through ther devotion, (SU) intend (o come

the Master, and nothing else I meanwhile, some supernatural perception) is
obtained, iis accidental and unintentional. Many (Sus) shun (supernatural
perception) when it accidently happens them, and pay no attention cot 232

“They want God only forthe sake of His essence, and nlhing cle. I is well known
that (supernatural perception) occurs among the (Sufi) They call ther supernatural
«experiences and mind reading "physiognomy” (frasah) and “removal” (of the ve

of sense perception, las). Their experiences of (supernatural) activity they call
“acts of divine grace” (karamah). None of these things is unwordy of thet.
However, Professor Abu Ishaq al Isfaaini and Abu Muhammad b. Abi Zayd al.
333 among others, disapproved of it in order o avoid any risk of (prophet
miracles becoming confused with something ele. However, ihe speculative
theologians rely on the "advance challenge” (hdi as the distinguishing
<haraciersic of the (prophetic) miracle. This is suficien.

According 10 (he sound tation of the Sahih, Muhammad sai, “Among
you, there are men who ae spoken to, and "Umar is one of them,” A The men
Around Muhammad, a is wel known, had experiences ofa sor that confins the
fact (that mystics and pious persons may have some sor of supernatural perce Plon)
For instance there isthe sory of Umar saying. “O Sariÿah beware ofthe
‘mountain! Sarga is Sariyah b, Zunaym. He was the general of a Muslim army in
the Ira during he conquest He had gotten into a bate with the polyteists. He
thought of withdrawing. Near hin, there was a mountain toward which he was
dieeting himself and where the enemy was ling in ambos). This came
{superatually) to Umar attention while he was preaching from the pulpit in
Medina He called out to hin: "O Sariyah beware of the mountain” Sciya heard
‘there where he was (in faraway Ira), and he also saw (Umar her in person.
“This sory is well known A

‘Something similar happened to Abu Bakr in connection with bis last will,
addressed to his daughter ‘Aisha. He had given her a certain amount of dates from
his orchard, as «gift, and then, (when he was near death, he suggested to her that
she harvest them, so thatthe (other) heirs would not get them. Then he said, "They
are your two brothers and your two sisters.” Whereupon 'Alshah said, "There is
‘Asma’, but who isthe other?” Abu Bakr replied, "I see that the child in Bint
Kharijahs womb isa gid,” and so it was. This is mentioned in the Munera" inthe
‘chapter on gifts that are not permitted =

‘The men around Muhammad) and the pious and exemplary men afer them
had many similar experiences. However, the Sufis say that such experiences are rare
in the time of prophecy, because, in the presence of the prophet, the adept of
mysticism cannot continue in his mystic state, They go so far as to say that the adept
‘of mysticism who comes to Medina is deprived of his mystic stat, so long as he
remains there and until he leaves,

May God provide us with guidance, and may He lead us to the truth,

Among the adepts of mysticism are fools and imbeciles who are more like
insane persons than like rational beings. Nonetheless, they deservedly attained
stations of sainthood and the mystic states of the righteous, The persons with
mystcal experience who learn about them know that such is their condition,
although they are not legally responsible. The information they give about the
Supernatural is remarkable. They are not bound by anything. They speak absolutely
freely about it and tell remarkable things. When jurists see they are not legally
responsible, they frequently deny that they have attained any mystical station, since
saimthood can be obtained only through divine worship. This is an error. “God
bestows His grace upon whomever He wants 10." 22 The attainment of sainthood is
‘not restricted o (Ihe correct performance of) divine worship, or anything else. When
‘the human soul i firmly established as existent, God may single it out for whatever
sis of His He wants to give it, The rational souls of such people are not

nonexistent, nor are they corrupt, as is the case with the insane. They (merely) lack
the intellect that is the basis of lega responsibility. (That intellect is a special
atribute of the soul. I means various kinds of knowledge that are necessary to man
and that guide his speculative ability and teach him how to make a living and
‘organize his home. One may say that if he knows how to make a living, he has no
‘excuse left not to accept legal responsibility, so that be may prepare for his life after
“death. Now, a person who lacks that (special) attribute (of the soul called imellect)
still docs not lack the soul itself, and has not forgotten his reality. He has reality,
though he lacks the intellect entailing legal responsibility. that is, the knowledge of
how to make a living. This is not absurd. God does not select His servanıs for gnosis
‘only on the basis of (the performance of) some legal duty

this is correct, it should be known thatthe state of these men is frequently
‘confused with that ofthe insane, whose rational souls are corrupted and who belong
to (the category of) animals, There are signs by which one can distinguish the two
groups. One of them is that fools are found devoting themselves constantly 10 cenain
“hike exercises and divine worship, though not in the way the religious law requires,
Since, as we have slated, they are not legally responsible. The insane, onthe other
hand, have no (particular) devotion whatever.

Another sign is that fools were created stupid, and were stupid from their
‘earliest days, The insane, on the other hand, lose their minds after some portion of
their life has passed, as the result of natural bodily accidents, When this happens to
them and their rational souls become corrupt, they are ost.

A further sign isthe great activity of fools among men. It may be good or
bad. They do not have to have permission, because for them there is no legal
responsibility. The insane, on the other hand, show no (such) activity

“The course of our discussion caused us to insert the preceding paragraph.
God leads toward that which is correct.

Other alleged ways of supernatural perception

{Some people think that there are ways of supernatural perception not
involving remoteness from sensual perception. (Such) are the astrologers who.
believe in astrological indications, consequences ofthe positions of (stars) in the
firmament, influences of (the stars) upon the elements, and results from the
tempering of the natures of (the stars) when they look at each other, A as well as
effects of such tempers upon the ai. Astrologers, (as a matter of fact.) have nothing
to do with the supernatural. Its all guesswork and conjectures based upon (the
assumed existence of) astral influence, and a resulting conditioning ofthe air. (Such
guesswork) is accompanied by an additional measure of sagacity enabling scholars
to determine the distribution (of astral influence) upon particular individuals in the
‘worl, as Ptolemy said. We shall explain the futility of astrology inthe proper place,
if God wills. 22 IF it were established (as a fact), it would, at best, be guessing and
‘conjectaring. It has nothing whatever to do with (the supematural perception) we
have mentioned,

Geomancy
‘Other such people include certain men of the common people who, to
discover the supernatural and know the future, invented a craft they called "sand
writing” (geomancy) “after the material one uses for it. This era consist
forming combinations of dots in four “ranks.” (The resulting combinations) differ in
that the (our) ranks are made up of different or identical (arrangements) of even or.

dá, This makes sixteen combinations. For if (ll four ranks) hold evens or (all)
‘xls, we have two combinations. [fone rank only has an even, we have four
‘combinations. If two ranks have an even, we have six combinations, and if three
Tanks have an even, we have four combinations. This makes altogether sixteen
combinations 22

“The sand divine have given different names tothe diferent combinations
and classified them as lucky or unlucky, a à done with the ar. For (he seen
‘combinations hey have assumed (the existence of sixteen “houses,” They think
thatthe “ous are natural and that they correspond to the twelve signs ofthe
zodiac and the four cardines. They have attributed to each combination a “house,”
Tuck (or unlucky) influences, and significance wth regard to one particular group
{of people) in the world of the elements. (The sand diviners) have thus invented a
«lisis tha runs parallel 1 astology and the system of astrological julgmente.
However, the asrological judgments ar Based upon natural indications, as Poly
assumes. The 2 indications of and writing, onthe other hand, are conventional

Prolemy discussed only natvtes and conjunctions which in his opinion,
«ome within the influence ofthe stars and the pasion of the Spheres upon the
‘word of the cements, Subsequent astrologers however, discussed questions
Kinerrogaione in ta they atempted 10 discover the inemost thoughts 22 by
atrio tho tthe varius homes of Ih fimameot and drawing conclusions
‘concerning them, according 1 the judgments governing ach particular asta house.
‘They ae those mentioned by Prlemy.

Je should be known that the innermost thoughts concem psychic knowledge,
which doesnot Belong o the word ofthe element, They donot come within the
influence ofthe str o the postions ofthe spheres, nor do (he stars and he
position ofthe spheres) give any indications wid regar o them. The branch of
‘uestions(interrogaione) has indeed ben acepted in astrology asa way of
making deduction rom the stars and postions of the spheres. However, ii sed
vere tis no natural for tobe used

‘When he sand divers came, they discontinued se of the stars and the
postions of the spheres, becuse they found i difficult establish the aide of
Fras by mean oF insrmens and o find the nijutd (positions ofthe) stars by
mean of calculations. Therefore, they invented thir combinations of figures. They
sm (hat her wore sien, according 16 che houses ofthe Crmamen and the
‘ardines and they specified thal they were lucky, unlucky, or mixed, Hike the
Planes Tey lime themselves wo the sexe aspect. They made judgments in
$ccondance with the combinations of figures, as done in the interrogation (ranch
of astrology). In both cases, the use made (ofthe dia) is nota natural one, a8 we
Stated before.

Many city dwellers who had no work, in order to make a living, tried
sand divination. They composed works teaching the foundation and principles of
sand divination. This was done by az-Zanati “and others.

Some sand diviners attempt supematural perception, in that they occupy their
senses with study of the combinations ol figures They this reach stat of
preparedness, like those who are by nature fitted for preparedness, as we shall
mention ltr on. These men ae the nobles class of sand divinrs

In genera hey assume that sand writing originated withthe prophets of od
"They frequently ascribe its invention to Daniel or Idris, as is being done with all
the rafts, They (also) frequen clam hat (and writing) is enjoined by the
religious law. Asa proof of his (contention of theirs). they quote the flowing

tradition of Muhammad: "There was a prophet who wrote, and whoever concurs
‘with his writing his i 348 However, this tradition contains no evidence forthe
‘claim that sand writing is enjoined by the religious law, as some people assume. The
meaning of the tradition is: “There was a prophet who wrote,” that is, the revelation
‘came to him while he was writing. lts not absurd 10 assume that such was the
‘custom of some prophets for prophets differ in their ways of perceiving the
revelation. God said: "We distinguished the messengers (by giving the ones pre-
eminence) over the others.” +22 When some of them received the revelation, the
angel spoke frst 10 them, without any request or motive (on ther part), Others had a
human motive, resulting from contact with human affairs in that their people asked
them to explain some difficult problem. some obligation of duty, or the like.
“Therefore, they directed their devotions to the Divine, and in that way God revealed
to them what they wanted to know. (Logical) classification here suggests the
existence of another division, Revelation may come to a person who is not prepared
for tin any way, as in he afore-mentioned instance, or it may come to a person
‘who is prepared for it in some way. In the Israel stories, itis reported that à
‘prophet was prepared for the coming of the revelation by hearing sweet melodious
voices iS This report is not established as correct, but its not improbable. God
singles out His prophets and messengers for whatever (favors) He wishes. This 342
‘was reported to us on the authority ofa great Sui, who attempts 0 attain eemoteness
from sensual perception by listening to music, By this means he becomes
‘completely fre for his (supematural) perceptions, inthe station be is in, which (itis
vue) i inferior to prophecy. "And there is nobody among us who does not have a
known station "252

this is established and if, as we have mentioned before, certain sand
diviners attempt to remove (the veil of sense perception) by occupying their senses
withthe study of combinations of figures, they may attain intuitive supernatural
sevelation (kash) through complet Ireedo from sense perception. They may
‘exchange bodily perceptions for spiritual ones-both of which have been explained
‘earlier. This isa kind of soothsaying, ofthe type of gazing at bones, water, and
mirrors, and it distinguishes (these sand diviners) from those who restrict themselves
to techniques that achieve supematural perception by means of sagacity and
‘conjecturing, but who do not relinquish corporeal perception and continue to wander
in the realm of guesswork. Some prophets achieved preparedness for being
addressed by the angel, in their prophetical sation, by writing, exactly as people
‘who are not prophets may achieve preparedness for spiritual perception and the
relinquishment of human perception by the same means. Inthe case of (sand
diviners), however, what they achieve is spiritual perception only, whereas prophets
achieve an angelic perception by means of divine revelation.

“The prophets have nothing to do with the stations of the sand diviners, whose
perceptions are based on sagacity and conjecturing. They do not make it part of the
religious law for any human being to speak about and discuss the supernatural, The
statement in the tradition, "And whoever concurs with his writing - this is it." 24
means: He is sight, in View of the fact that the writing was supported by the
revelation that came to that particular prophet, whose custom it was to have the

revelation come to him while he was writing. Or, the tradition may be a compliment
“and indicate that the prophet had reached a high competence in the use of sand
‘writing - without (implying) the existence of a connection between (revelation) and

(sand writing) - because in this way the prophet was prepared for revelation, which,
therefore. concurred with (the conclusions reached from sand writing). But were the
prophet to take (those conclusions) from the writing alone, without the concurrence

‘of revelation, they would not be right. This isthe meaning of the tradition. And God

knows better.

“The ration docs not indicate a sand wrt by religious law,
or hat its permissible wo practice sand writing to chain sipematural perception,
38 sand divinr nthe cies do. Some of them maybe inclined otis pion, on
dhe bass that what any) prophet dds accepted law, and tha sand writing,
therefor, is enjoined by te religions aw acoring tothe pnp held by some,
tha the religious ln hs who eam before wo aigus ew for us. Tis docs
apy ints (as). Law only rosas when its enjoined by messengers oo e
Varios salto, This (pail) tation, however, nts no (hing of he son)
Tinie ont thatthe parca conditon was at o one ofthe prop ad
is posible that vas not enjoined as a religious lw. Therefore il would ot be a
religious lw nether one restricted othe people o (ha parla prope), nor
‘ne common 1 his people and 10 thers. (The Caton merely ndice that ia
“ondon ta! may occur inthe instanceof a particular prophel, without being
ner appiabe to mankind. Ths all we waned Wo make clear er: God
fiver the con inspiration
1. in ther sefedscepion, and ins) want discover something
peu, hey tak paper, or sand, or four, and form dos in (ou) ines 382 in
ezone with he name ofthe four ranks This is epated four mes, Thy tes
‘btn sixteen ines They then deduct (same) dos In pals, The remainde, foreach
Tine, whether itis even or 04.52 pur ino the rank o which belongs according
to order, This result in four combination, which they aang to form one
<onánucns Tne, From heey then for four ter comiendo
horizontal confrontation, by considering each ran the comesponding combination
and the evens or ods found int 354 These, then, make eight
ons, paced long one line, From each par of combinations, they then
form one combination (to de paced) undemeath the (igh), y considering the
rem ood found in ent tan of two comal. Th, we have our ters
‘nde (ce eigh From these four combinations, they then form two more
Eambinaios, which are ites laced under (do fou. From these to they
Senin form one more combination and place undemeah the two). They then
‘ombine dis cet combination wih the fs one and tus form one more
bination, which completes the ssten Then they evaluate the whole
"writing" in a curious manner, as to the good luck or misfortune required by the.
à taking them as hey san speculating on hem, anal
them, combining them, making deductions ast the varios Kinds of exten and

“This craft is prevalent in (all) civilized (regions). There exists literature
‘dealing with it. Outstanding ancient and modern personalities were famous for it
But itis obviously based on arbitrary notions and wishful thinking. The truth that
should be present to one's mind is thatthe supernatural cannot be perceived by any
‘raft at all The only people who can acquire knowledge of the supematural are
those distinguished human beings who are fitted by nature to return from the world
‘of sensual perception to the world of the spirit. The astrologers therefore, called all
people (able to perceive supernatural knowledge) "Venusians,” with reference 1
‘Venus, because they assumed that the position of Venus in the nativities of these
peuple indicates their ability to have supernatural perception,

Ie the person who takes up (sand) writing and similar (practice) is one of
those distinguished beings, and if his study of dots, bones, and other things is
intended to occupy his senses in order that his soul may return momentarily to the
‘world of the spiriualia then (sand writing) occupies the same position as casting

pebbles, examining the hearts of animals, and gazing ino transparent mirrors, as we
have mentioned. If this isnot so, and if knowledge of the supernatural is sought

by means of (sand writing), (hen) itis meaningless in theory and practice "God
os whomever He wants to guide." 28

“The sign by which persons who are disposed by nature to supernatural
perceptions can be recognized, is this: When these persons devote themselves 10
acquiring a knowledge of things they suffer a departure from their natural
‘condition, They yawn and stretch, and show symptoms of remoteness from sensual
perception. These (symptoms) vary in intensity according to the different degrees to
‘which they possess this natural disposition. Those in whom this sign is not found
have nothing to do with supernatural perception. They are merely trying to spread
the falsehoods to which they are committe,

(The isab an

“There are (other) groups that also lay down certain rules for the discovery of
the supernatural. Their rules do not belong to the first category, that which has to do
‘withthe spiritual perceptions ofthe soul, and also differ from speculations based
‘upon astral influences, as assumed by Ptolemy. as well as from the guesswork and
‘conjecturing with which the diviners work, They are nothing but mistakes which (the
people who work with them) throw out like snares for weakminded people. shall
mention only as much of (he subject as is mentioned in literature and has aroused
the interest of distinguished men,

‘One such rule is the method called hisab an-nim 282 Its mentioned at the
‘end of the Politics which is ascribed to Aristotl, It serves to predict the victor and
the vanguished when kings go to war with each other. The procedure is to add up the
numerical total of the letters in the name of each King, according tothe system of
calculation in which the letters of the alphabet in the sequence al. are given
the numerical values of units, tens, hundreds, and thousands from one 10. thousand,
‘When that has been done, each total should be divided by nine. The fractional
remainder, in both cases, should be kept in mind, The two fractional remainders
should be compared. If they are different and both are even or odd numbers, the
(king) who has the smaller number will be the vieor. If one of them isan even and
the other an odd number, the (king) who has the larger number will. be the victor. If
the two numbers are equal and both even, the object ofthe inquiry will be the
Victor. And if both numbers are odd, the (king) who made the inquiry will be the
victor. He (Aristotle) reported two verses about this procedure which have wide
‘currency. They are:

1 eink, i the

of even or odd numbers (for both).
the smaller number will gain the upper hand

‘When the numbers differ (as to being even or odd), the

larger number will be the victor

“The object of the inquiry will be victorious, ifthe num

bers are both equal and even.

And if they are both equal and odd, the one who made

the inquiry will be victorious.

In order to find out what the fractional remainder will be after dividing by
nine, a rule has been laid down by (the persons who practice the hisab an-nim),
‘which is well known among them for that purpose. They take the letters that refer to
the number one inthe four ranks, li fr the units, y forthe ens, y forthe hundreds,
and sh For the thousands 3. there is no number higher than one thousand that can
be indicated by letters, because sh i the last leer ofthe alphabetical arrangement

for numerical purposes) - and arrange these four letters in sequence so as to form a
‘word of four consonants: ash, Then, they do the same withthe letters that
‘designate the number two in the (ist three ranks, omiting the thousands because
there are no letters ofthe alphabet lft for them. These thre letters are b for two, &
for twenty and r for two hundred. Arranged in sequence, they form the word br.
‘The same is done with the letters that designate the number three, resulting in the
wo Jl, and so on through all te letters of the alphabet. This results in nine words,
(nine being) the highest unit. The words are: ash, br, its, dm, tenth, ski, zh,
if, and teh, bere arranged according to numerical sequence. Each of them has its
‘own number, one for ygsh, two for bk, three for ls, and so on to nine, which
belongs to ideh If they want to divide a name by nine, they note in which of these
nine words each Tete of the name appears, substituting the number (ofthe word) for
‘each letter (of the name), and adding together all the numbers thus obtained. Ifthe
‘sum is greater than nine, they (deduct nine or a multiple of nine from it and) take the
fractional remainder. Otherwise, they take (the sum) as its. The same thing is then
‘done with the other name, and the two results are compared in the manner indicated
above,

“The secret of this rule is lear. The fractional remainder in a division by nine
is the same in any given multiple of the powers of ten. In a way, (the person
making the calculation) just sums up the (unit) number in any given multiple of the
powers of ten. The numbers in multiples of higher powers often, thus, an like the
(corresponding) units. There is no distinction between two, twenty, two hundred, or
‘wo thousand.*®2 Likewise, three, hiry, three hundred, and thre thousand, al are
three, The numbers are arranged in such a sequence as to indicate nothing but the
(unio number in any given multiple of the powers of ten. The letters that indicate
(he same number in) the different powers of ten, the units, tens, hundreds, and
thousands, are combined each in one word, The number ofthe corresponding word
is valid forall the letiers it contains, whether they are units, tens, hundreds, or
thousands. Thus, the number of the word can be used for ll th letters it contains,
and all of them are added up, as we have said, This procedure has been common
among people fora long time,

Some shaykhs we knew personally were of the opinion that the correct thing
is to use nine other words in place of those (mentioned). They too represent
consecutive (numbers). The procedure of dividing by nine is the same. These words
are: 7b, ysgh,jll, mds, hf, Wha, gs, le, ade ine words in al, in numerical
sequence, They contain three, four, or two letters, respectively. As one can see, they
follow no coherent principle. But our shayähs are transmiting them on the authority
of the leading Maghribi scholar in astrology as well as letter magic, Abu ~’Abbas b.
al-Banna’ 363 They state on his authority that the use of these words for the division
of the kisab an-nim is more correct than that of the words ‘ygsh, (etc). And God
knows better how it may be

All these ways of perceiving the supernatural are based upon no proof, and
are not verifiable. Thorough scholars do not attribute the book that contains the
sab an-nim to Arisole, because it contains opinions that cannot be verified or
proven. This confirms (is spuriousness) The reader should investigate this matter
‘critically, if he is a wellgrounded scholar,

(The Zaiajah) 34
Another technical rule for alleged discovery ofthe supernatural is the
raja which is called "Za raja of the world” 1 is acibued lo Abul’Abbas as-
abri 295 a very prominent Maghribi Sufi. He lived atthe end of the sixth {twelfth

century in Marrakech, during the rule ofthe Almohad vler Yaiqub al-Mansur 365.

“The arial isa remarkable echnical procedure. Many distinguished people
have shown gral intrest in sing it for Supernatural information with the he of
the well non enigmatic operation tat gpe with i For tha (pump), they have
been desirous to solve its ile and uncovers sere. The form ofthe carajo
42 they ws isa large ir that encloses other concent icles forthe spheres,
dhe elements, the created things, the sprialia, a well as other types of beings and
sciences. Each ice is divided imo section, the areas of which represen the signs
Of the zodiac, or the elements or olor things, The lies dividing cach sation rn to
the center. They are called chords. Along each chord there are ses of eter hat
have a conventional (numerical alu). Some are zimam ciphers the same ns those
Ase for numerl by goverment officials and accounts in the eontenporry
Maghrib. Others are the ordinary ghubar ciphers 2 Inside the za'irajah, between
Abe cies, ar found the names ol he sciences and of topics ofthe created
(world) 262 On the back of (the page containing) the circles, there is a table with
many squares, fifty-five horizontally and one hundred and thirty-one vertically 222
Some ofthe squares re filled in, pany with numbers an parly wit eters. Others
arc empty. The significance of these numbers in hee poston snot known, nor are
the ues known that govern the distribution of filled and empty square, The
Wirajah is surrounded by verses in the meter ar-tawil and rhyming on «la. A They
describe the procedure which must be followed to discover the answer lo a
articular inquiry from the caja, However, since Ih verses expres hee
meaning in rcs, they lack clarity. On onesie of the zo ra tone ven fom
3 poem ascribed 0 one ofthe great Westem forecasters of four events, the
Sevilla scholar, Maik b, Wuhayb.22 who lived during the ein of the Lamtunah
¿Almoravids) This is he verse:

A weighty question you have go. Keep, then, to youself

Remarkable doubts which have been raised and which can be straightened
cout with igen.

“Tis i the verse commonly used in atempting to obtain the answer toa
question with the hp ofthis or other 22 rajas To Sin the answer toa question.
the question is written down in unconnected ers andthe ascendant as of hat day
is detrmincd, that sone ofthe sign of the zodiac and the rec (ofthe sign on
the horizon. Then, te za raja i conslted, andthe particular cho ofthe
Zo rajah that borders the sign ofthe soda ofthat particular) ascendant i chosen.
"his followed from where it starts to the center and then on o the eircumferenee
ofthe circle opposite the ascendant. One takes noe of al the letters writen unon
that chord from beginning to end, and of all the numbers writen in between. The
Tater are converted into letters according to ther numerical vales, transposing ll

int tens ad all tens nto hundreds, and vice versa as required bythe rule
governing us of he raja), The eer thas obtained are put alomgsido the
ites of the question, and one also ad al the letters and numbers tha are upon
the chord bordering the sia, tte sign rom that ofthe ascendant. ln this case)
One follows it rom where it tars othe center, but not beyond itt the
‘Grcurference. The numbers ae converted int Teter as before, and added o the
ster ir Then, the afore-mentioned verse by Malik b, Wuhnyb, which she
ais and nor of the procedure. is wren down in unconnected ener. and put
aside. Then the number of the degree of. the ascendant is multiplied by the “base” of
the sign (ofthe zodiac. In the language (used hee) the “base” she sigs distance
from the last rank, in contrast othe (meaning of) “base” inthe language of
astronomers [?], where it is the distance from the first rank 223 The degree is then

multiplid by another number, called the “greatest base” and “principal cycle" The
result ofthese (muliplication) entered in the squares ofthe able, following well
iow ales and familiar procedures and (using cenain) number of “cycles” Some
leer are taken ou, others dropped, and he ret matched with wha is found among
the levers of the verse. Some ae tasferred to teles ofthe question and (the
letters) that are with them, The, these ltrs are divided by certain numbers called

les” and rom each "cl the leer at which the “cele end, removed, The
{operation is repeated with he (mtr) number of "cl" specified for hat
(purpose) The result, ily. sa number of) unconnected eters which ae pat
together Cosecutvely to for the words of vers o the same meter and vine as
the aforementioned verse by Malik. Wuhayb. which serves asthe basis ofthe
operation, We shall mention all hs in the chapter on the sciences, in dci
iow a coral ofthis kind is used.

We have sen many disinguised people jump at (the opportunity for)
supernatural discoveries through (he za iwi) by means of operations of is Kind.
‘Thy think that comepondencs (a form) between gestion and answer shows
conespondence in actually, This is not conecy, because as was mentioned
before 24 perception of the supemalral canot be aaied by means of any
technique whatever. is not imposible that there might be a corespondence in
meaning, and a sisi agreement between question and answer, sich tha the
answer comes out right and in agreement withthe question. It is not impossible
that this could be achieved by just sucha technique of separating he ltrs ofthe
question and ose ofthe chard, enering the numbers tha come ogsher asthe
‘Raut ofthe muliplcaion of fixed numbers in the tbl, taking out lees rom th
table and discarding les. operating repeatedly witha given number of “cyl
And matching the whole thing with the Jets the vere aranged in sequence.
Intelligent persons may have discovered the relationships among these tines and,
as a resul. have obtained information about the unknown through ther, Finding out
jelatonships between things isthe secret (means) whereby the soul brains
Knowledge ofthe unknown from the known. Its a way to obtain such Knowledge.
«special sited 10 people af (mysicl runing, This (ining) gives the inlet
ed power for analogical reasoning and thinking, as has been explained before
several times AS is inthis sense thal za rajas are usally nsribed 10 people o
{mt taining. This particular ail is thas ascribed 1 as Sab [have come
across another one which is acrbed to Sahl b Abdallah 326

Its, indod, «remarkable operation and a wondrous procedure Ast appears
to me, the sere of why the answer comes ou in med form lso be explained as
the esl of matching the letter ofthe zara) withthe letters ofthe ven (by
Maik D. Wuhayb), Tis is why the verified answer haste same meter and tyme
‘This can be deduced from the fact hat we have come actos other similar operations
in which the matching (of ltrs) with the verse was omited. In those caes, the
answer did not come ut in ih form of vers, This wil be shown when the matter
is discussed in is proper place 2

Many people lack he understanding necessary for belie in he genuineness
fe operation and is eectiveness in discovering the objec o inguiy. They deny
its soundness and believe that ii hocus-pocu. The ration, they believe,
insens the eters of a vere ho (himself) composes ash wishes, fo he lts of
question and chor He follows the described technique which has no system or
"or, and then he produces his verse pretending that it was ie etl Of an
‘Operation hat lowed an established procedure

“This reasoning is baseless and wrong. It is he result of such peoples

inability o understand the relations betucen the exisenia and things tat (an be)
known. and the differences Between the various kinds of perception and ntellec
[Anyone who has some perception naturally denies he existence of) anything he is
not capable of perceiving. In order to rei thi (denial ofthe genuineness ol the
‘Operation ofthe aaa), ts sulicient for us (o eer o the fact) Uat the
technique hasbeen observed in operation and that it as been definitly and
intelligently established thatthe operation follows a coherent procedure and sound
noms. No one who has much intelligence and sagcity and has had contact with he
{operation ofthe sara) would object to this statement. Many an operation with
numbers, which ae the clearest things inthe word, fu 4 grs, Bocuse the
(existing) relations ae dificult. establish and intricte, This the case toa much
treater degree here, wher the relations are so imrical and strange.

Let us mention a problem that will to some degre ilustre the point just
state

“Take a number of dithams and place Beside cach diam thre Jal, Then,
take al he fal amd buy a tow wit them. Then, bay fowls with lhe drhams for
the same pice thatthe ist bird cos. How many fowls wll you have bought?

“The answer is ine, As you know, a diam has tent four Pals, ree Pals
ase on-igh of a dirham, ne is eight times one-eighth, Adding up ont-cighh of
‘och dirham boys one fo, This means eight owis forte dirhams), as one is eight
times one-eighth 2 Add another fou, the one that was bought originally for he
!utona as and that determined the rice ofthe fowls bought with the dirhams
“This makes nine clear how the unknown answer was implidin te relations
that existed between the numerical data indicated inthe problem. This and similar
{things area first suspected a Belonging to the realm ofthe supernatural, which
<amnot be known

Ivi thus obvios thi is fom the relations existing among the dita tha one
finds out the unknown from the known. This, however, applic only to events,
ccuming in he word 0) existence or in science. Things ofthe futur belong to
the supemaaral and cannot be known unless the causes for their happening ae
known and ve have tustworthy information sbout i

this is clear follows that all the operations ofthe cara seve merely
to discover the words ofthe answer in the words ofthe question. As we have rn,
itisa question of producing (rom a given arrangement of etes anther
arrangement of leer. The ecrt her es in the existence of à relationship between
the to ferent arrangements of lees) Someone may be aware of, whereas
Someone else may not be war oft, Those who know the existing relationship can
‘easly discover he answer with the help ofthe tated rules

From the (conventional) meanings and the combinations of words, the
Answer may then ano indicate a negative or postive (statement) regarding Ihe
‘Sbjct of the question This, however, son another level. Is not on the same level
{as merely discovering the words of the answer) I implies a conformity o the
words to the outside (world) 22 Such knowledge cannot be acquired through those
Operations remains veiled to human Beings.

God claims al His knowledge for Himsef. "God knows and you donot
know.” 380

Chapter II

BEDOUIN CIVILIZATION, SAVAGE NATIONS
AND TRIBES AND THEIR CONDITIONS (OF LIF
INCLUDING SEVERAL BASIC AND
EXPLANATORY STATEMENTS.

1. Both Bedowins and sedentary people are natural groups.

IT SHOULD BE KNOWN that differences of condon among people are
the result ofthe diferent ways in which hey make her living. Social organization
enables them to cooperie toward that end and to stat withthe simple necessities of
lite, before they get 1 conveniences and luxuries À
Some people adopt agriculture, the cultivation of vegetables and grins, (as

thie way of making a living). Others adopt animal husbandry, the use of sheep,
cate, goats, bees, and sillwoms, for breeding and fr their products. Those who
live by agricuure or animal husbandry cannot avoid the call ofthe desen, ocaso

one offers the wide Ties, acres, pastures fr animals and other hings thatthe
setld areas do not offer 1s therefore necessary for them o restrict themselves 10
the desen. Their social organization and co-operation for the needs of ie and

vlizaion, such as fod, shelter, and warmth, do nt take them beyond the bare
subsistence level, because of their inability (to provide) for anything beyond those
(hings). Subsequent improvement of thir condo and acquision of more
Welt and comfon than they need, cause thm to ret and take it easy. Then, they
co-operate for things beyond the (bre) necesides. They use more food and clothes,
aná take pride in them. They build large houses, and ly out tows and cies for
protection: This ls followed by an increase in comfort and esse, which leas to
Formation of the most developed luxury customs. They take the gentes pride inthe
preparation of fod and a fino cuisine. inthe vse of varied splendid clothes of silk
and Brocade and other (ine materials), inthe construcion of ever higher buildings
and towers, in elaborate furnishings for he buildings and the most intensive
caltvaion of craft in actuality. They build castles and mansions, provide em with
running water build their towers higher and higher, and compete in furnishing
them (most elaborately). Tey differ inthe quality ofthe clothes. the beds the
vesels, and the wensls they employ for ther purposes. Here, now, (we ave)
sedentary people, "Sedentary people" means the inhabitants of cies and counties,
Some of whom adopt the cra a their way of making a ing, while others adopı
ommerce, They cam more and live more comfortably than Bedouins, because they
live ona level beyond the level of (bare) necesi, and their way of making à vin
comesponds to her welt,

Te has thus become clear that Bedouins and sedentary people are natural

groups which exist by necesi, as we have stated.

2 The Arabs É are a natural group in the world,

We have mention inthe previous sesion that the inhabitants of the desen
adopt te natural manner of making vig, nel, april ad animal
husbandry. They restrict themselves to the necessary in food, clothing, and mode of
Aheling nd to the other necessary conditions ad customs, They donot possess
convenences and hues beyond (nese bare necesi) They sc teats of ait
and wool or houses of wood or of elay and stone, which are not furnished
(Gabor). Te purpose so have shad and sce and nothing beyond hat
‘hey also fake shelter in cavers and caves. The food they tae is eier le
prepared o not prepared tll, save tat it may have ben louche by fre.

For tase who make thei ving though the cukivation of grin and through
agriculture, itis beter tobe stationary thn toral around. Sch, therefore, ae the
Ebano smal commutes, village, and mounan regions, These people

nak up the large mas ofthe Berbers and non-Arab,

“Those who make their ving from animals requiring pastura, such as
steep and cae, stall travel around In order o ind paste and water for hele
tints since tis beter fr hm to move around inte land. They ar called
“Sheep” (sai ati, men who Hive on sep and at, They do ot go
deep note dese, because thy would mt find go pasture tht, Such peope
include the Berbrs the Turks and ther relatives, the Turkomans andthe Save for

since
“Those who make tei ving by raising camels move around moe. They
‘wander deeper into the desert, because the hilly 2 pastures with their plants and
{hms do ot fish enough sbastnce For camels. They ts fed onthe eset
Arab and nc Be sty desert water. They must move around the desen regions
Suing the winter. in Might fom the arma cold othe warn des ai In the
desen sands camels can nd places to give bith o tir young uns. OT al animals,
Camels have the hard delivery and te retest ned or warmth in connection
witht 1D (Camel nomads) are therefore forced to make excursons deep (io the
User), Frequently, to, they ar ven from the bls by the mii. and hey
penetrate farther into the desert, because they do not want the militia LL to mete out
Justice to them orto punish tem forth hove ac Asa res thy ar the mot
‘savage human beings that exist. Compared with sedentary people, they are on a
ict with wild untamable (animal) and dumb beast l prey, Sich people are the
‘Arabs Inte Wet the nomadic Berbers and he Zaatah oe their ana, and
inthe Eas the Kurds, the Turkomans, and the Tus, The Arbs, however make
(per excursion ino e desert and are mor red ese he han he her
oups because they ve exclusive on ames white oer groups live on
ad cae velas camels

it as tus become clear tha he Arabs ae natural group which by necesi
exis im oats

God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.” 12

3. Bedouins are prior to sedentary people. The desert is
the basis and reservoir of civilization and cites.

We Save mentioned thatthe Bedouins restric themselves tothe (are)
necessities in their conditions (of life) and are unable to go beyond them, while
sedentary people concern themselves with conveniences and luxuries in hee
conditions and customs. The (are) necessities are no doubt prior to the
conveniences and luxuries. (Bare) necestes in a way; are basic, and luxuries
secondary and an ouigrowth (ofthe necessities), Bedouin, thus, are the bass of,
and prior 0, cis and sedentary people. Man seeks fit the (bate) necessities. Only
after he has obtained the (bare) necessities, does he ge 0 comfort and lui.
‘The toughness of desen life precedes the softness of sedentary life. Therefore,
vsbanization found to be the goal of the Bedouin. He aspires to (ha goal) 1
Through his own efforts, he achieves what he proposes to achieve in this espect
¡When he has obtained enough tobe ready fr the conditions and customs of luxury,
he enters upon a lie of ease and submit himscf to the yoke of he city. This isthe
case with all Bedouin wibes, Sdentary people, on the other hand, have no desire for
desert conditions, unless they are motivated by some urgent necessity Lor they
cannot keep up with her fellow city dweller,

Evidence for the fact that Bedouins ae he basis of, and prior to, sedentary
people is furnished by investigating the inhabitants of any given city. We shall find
{hat most o ús inhabitants originated among Bedouin dwelling inthe country and
villges ofthe vicinity. Such Bedouins became wealthy seled inthe city, and
adopted a life of ease and luxury. suchas exists in the sedentary environment This
proves tht sedentary conditions are secondary to desert conditions and thal they are
the bass of them A This should be understood.

A Bedouins and sedentary people difer also among themselves in their
conditions (fife). Many clan 3 greater than another, many abe greater than
Another, many city larger han another, and many a town more populous (iran)
than another

Lu has thus become clear hat he existence of Bedouins is prior o, and the
basis of the existence of towns and cis, Likewise, the existence of towns and
cies result from luxury customs pertaining o luxury and ease, which are posterior
to the customs tha go with the bare necessities of ie

4. Bedouins are closer to being good than sedentary people.

‘The Aé reason for its that the soul in is first natural state of creation is ready
Lo accept whatever good or evil may arrive and leave an imprint upon it
Muhammad said: "Every infantis born in the natural stat. It is his parents who
make him a Jew or a Christian or a Magian." 12 To the degree the soul is first.
affected by one of the two qualities, it moves away from the other and Finds i
dificult to acquire it. When customs proper to goodness have been first 10 enter the
soul of a good person and his (soul) has thus acquired the habit of (goodness, th
person) moves away from evil and finds it difficult to do anything evil. The same
applies to the evil person when customs (proper to evil) have been first to affect

m.

Sedcaar people une much concered wi all kind of pleasures. They are
accustomed o lay and success in worldly ocupaion and o indulgence In
oil desires, Therefore, ter souls re color wi al Kinds of Bameworthy nnd
ri quais. The more of them hey poses, te more remote do he ways and
mea of goodness become 10 them, Eventually ey lose all sense of estr.
Many of them ae found 1 ne improper langage in er gatherings ss wel a in
the prssnos oftheir Supero and worwenflk Tey ae oot tered by any sense
of eave, because th Dad casa of behaving opely In an Imprope man la
Boh words and dds hasten old of thm. Bedouin may be 2 concerned wih
word fas at coder people mo). lower, such concer woul och oly
the vease fife and no nares o nyt causing, rel fr, des
and pleasures. The customs they follow in their mutual dealings are, therefore,
appropriate. As compared with those of sedentary people, their evil ways and
lameworhy quals are much es numerous. They ae close othe ist natural
state and more remote from the evil habits tal have bee impresed upon the sols
(of sedentary people) through numerous and ugly, blameworthy customs. Thus, they
can more easly be cued than sedentary people: This is obvious. will tr on 8
Become clear hat sedemay ie ons te lst stage filiation and he
point where Bi to deay tao consti the Et tage of vi and of
femoteness fom goodness hs this become clea at Bouin are close o
being good than sedentary people. “God loves those who fear God." 12

This is ot contradicted bythe statement of al-Haia o Salamah a
Akt, which is included among the dons of a-Bukha When aloja
eared thal Salama vas ging to liven he desen. he asked him, "You have
ture ack and come an Arb Salamah tepid, “No, but he Messenger of
God permitted me to go (back) to the desert." 22

A should be known hat tthe beginning of Islam, the inhabitants of Mecca
were enjoined to emigrate, so as to be with the Prophet wherever he might settle, in
dcr o bep hm and oa him in is far and o gard hm, The Arab Bedvins
af the desert werent enjoined o emigrate, because the Meccans were postestd of
A strong group feeling forthe Propet oid and gard him, such a cd wot exit
among te ese Arabs. The emigran, therefore usd o express an aversion fo
“coming Arab ta so Becoming) inhabitants ofthe desert upon whom

migration was not obligatory. According fo the tradition of Sad b. Abi Waggas,
Muhammad si, when (a ws in Mea: O God, ive sucess ote
emigration of my companions and do not cause them 10 turn back. 21 That means,
God should enable them to stay in Medina and not to have to leave it, o that they
would not have to discontinue the emigration they had begun, and return. It isthe
same meaning as is implied in the expression "turning back" in connection with any
enterprise

Its (also) said that the (prohibition against "turning back") was restricted to
the time before the conquest of Mecca, when there was a need for emigration
became of hs cal nner of Malina. Aer he Conquest, ba the Masti hd
become numerous and strong. and God had guaranteed His Prophet inviolability
(Cismah), emigration was no longer necessary. Muhammad said: "There is no
nigration after the conquest." 22 This has been inorpreted as meaning thatthe
Injunction to emigrate was no longer valid for those who became Muslims after the
conquest thas also been interpreted (0 mean) that emigration was no longer
obligatory upon those who had become Muslims and had emigrated before the
(At any rate all agree that emigration was no longer necessary after the
death, because the men around Muhammad had by then dispersed and
spread in all directions. The only thing that remained was the merit of living in
Medina, which constituted emigration.

‘Thus, al-Hajajs statement 10 Salama, who went 10 live inthe desert: "You
have tured back and become an Arab?” isa reproach to Salamah for giving up his
residence in Medina, It contains an allusion to the words of the aforementioned
prayer of the Prophet: "Do not cause them to tum back.” The words, "You have
become an Arab?" are a reproach, as they imply that Salamah had become one of
the Arabs who did not emigrate. In his reply, Salamah denied both insinuations, He
said thatthe Prophet had permitted him to go to the desert This was a special
(permission) in Salamah’s ease, exactly as, for instance, the testimony of
Khuzaymah 23 and Abu Burdah’s 24 Lamb were special to the cases of Khuzaymah
and Abu Burdah, Or, (it may be) alHajjaÿ reproached Salamah only because he was
giving up his residence in Medina, as he was aware that emigration was no longer
‘necessary after the Prophet's death. Salamah reply was that it was more proper and
better to avail himself ofthe Prophet's permission, who had distinguished him by

is special permission only because (he Prophet) had some motive known o.
him(selh when he gave it.

In any event, the story does not imply that censure of desert (life) is meant
by the expression "10 become an Arab. Its known that the legal obligation to
emigrate served the purposes of aiding and guarding the Prophet. I did not have the
purpose of censuring desert (life). Use of the expression "to become an Arab,” to
condemn non-fulfillment ofthe duty (of emigration), is no indication that "becor
an Arab" is something blameworthy. And God knows better.

5. Bedouins are more disposed 1o courage than sedentary people.

“he reason Fr thi is that sedentary peopl have become used to laziness
and eae, Tey are sun in well-being and Jun They have ent defense of
thee propery nd their ives othe poveror and rule who rules the, and so the
mila which has the ask of guding them, They find ul asun of af in he
Walls that saround thm, andthe fortifications thal protect them. No noise dss
them, and no na occupe em Thy ae carte and ing, ad have censo
tocar weapons, Soceesvegetesions have grown op in is way of He, They
fave become like women nd hire, who depend upon the master of he hots.
Eventually his has come fo bea quality of characte thal replaces natural
(disposition

The Bedouis, on the oer hand lve separate from the community. They
are alone inthe country and emote rom miis. They have no wall and gs
‘Therefore, thy provide ther own defense and do ot entras t,o ely upon
caber fori Tey always any weapons. They watch eueflly al sides ofthe rod
They take hued naps only when Icy roger in company or wen hey are In
the saddle. They pay atento every faint barking and age They go one no,
the desert sed by their frie patin tir ns in mueves Forde has
Become a character quality of theirs, and courage her nature They use I whenever
they ar called upon or an alarm ses them. Wien sedentny people mix wih them
inthe dese or associate wih them on journey. they depend on hem. They cannot,
do anything fre themselves without them. Ths isan observed fact. (Thr
dependence extends) even to knowledge of the county. e (igh) directions
watering places, and crossroads, The reson for his the thing we have explained.
[ithe bate ofthe fat that man ia chil ofthe customs and the things he has
become used to. He is not the product of his natural disposition and temperament. 252
The conditions to which he has become accustomed, ul ey have become or him
à quality of character and mates of habit and custom, have replaced his natural
Gisposion, Hon ses this in human ings one wil ind much of. an ill
be fund to be a comet observation,

"God creates whatever He wishes."2

6 The reliance of sedentary people upon laws destroys their fortitude and power of
resistance,

Not everyone is master of his own affairs. Chiefs and leaders who are
masters of the affairs of men ae few in comparison with the res. As a rule, man
must by necessity be dominated by someone els. Ifthe domination is kind and just
and the people under it re not oppressed by it laws and restrictions, they are
guided by the courage or cowardice that they possess in themselves. They are
Satisfied withthe absence of any restraining power. Sel-reliance eventually
becomes a quality natural to them. They would not know anything else. If, however,
the domination with its laws is one of brute force and intimidation, it breaks their
foritude and deprives them oftheir power of resistance as a result ofthe inertness
that develops in the souls of the oppressed, a we shall expli

“Umar forbade Sad (b. Abi Waggas) to exercise such (arbitrary power) when
“hab Hawiyah took the spoils of al-Jalins. The value of the spoils was 75.000
gold pieces. Zuhrah) had followed a-Jalinus onthe day of l-Qadiiyah, killed him,
and taken his spoils. Sad took them away from him and sad, "Why did you not wat
{or my permission to follow him?” He wrote to "Umar and asked Umar for
permission (to confiscate the spoils) But ‘Umar replied, "Would you want to
proceed against a man like Zuhrah, who already has borne so much ofthe brunt (of
tl) and while there still remains so much of the war for you (to Finish)?
Would you want to break his strength and morale?” Thus, Umar confirmed
(Zubr) in possesion of the spits. 28

When laws are (enforced) by means of punishment, they completely destroy
fortitude, because. the use of punishment against someone who cannot defend

self generates in that person a feeling of humiliation that, no doubt, must break
his fortitude

When laws are (intended o serve the purposes of education and instruction
and ate applied from childhood on, they have to some degree the same effect,
because people then grow up in fear and doclity and consequently donot rely on
their own fortitude

For this (reason), greater foritude is found among the savage Arab Bedouins
than among people who are subject to laws. Furthermore, those who rely on laws
and are dominated by them from the very beginning o hei education and

¡strucion inthe erat, sciences, and religious males. ar thereby deprived of
‘much of their own fortitude. They can scarcely defend themselves at al agains
hostile acts This isthe case with students, whose occupation is to study and to
learn from teachers and religious leaders, and who constantly apply themselves to

suction and education in very dignified gatherings. This situation and the fact
that it destroys the power of resistance and fortitude must be understood.

Iris no argument against the (statement just made) thatthe men around
Muhammad observed the religious Laws, and yet did no experience any diminution
oftheir fortitude, but possessed the greatest possible fortitude. When the Muslhms
ot their religion rom the Lawgiver (Muhammad), the restraining influence came
from themseves, as à resul of the encouragement and discouragement he gave

=

them inthe Quran. Has not a result of technical instruction or scientific
education, (Te laws) were the laws and precepts ofthe religion. which they
Receive orally and which thee firmly rooted (ee in) the tah of the articles of
Tai caused them o observe, Their fortitude remained unabated, and it was not
conoded by education or authority. "Umar said, "Those who are not educated
(discipline) by the religious law are not educated (disciplined) by God.” 30 (This
statement expresses) “Umar desire that everyone should have his retaining
uence in himself I also expresses his certainty thal the Lawgiver (Muhanad)
cx best what fs good for mankind
(The influence of) religion, then, dereased among men, and they came to
se restraining laws, The religious law became a branch of Icuming and a caf to be
‘cquied through instruction and education, People turn to sedentary life and
‘sumed the character iit of submisivenes to law. This Ted toa dercase in Ue
font
thas thus become clear thal governmental and educational laws destroy
foriude, because their restraining influence i something that comes from outside
‘The religious laws, onthe other hand, donot destroy fortitude, because their
restraining influence is something inherent. Therefore, governmental and
<ducational laws influence sedentary peopl, in thal they weaken cr souls and
diminish thir stamina, Because they have to sue ther auhoriy) both as children
and as adults. The Bedouins, onthe other hand, are notin the same position,
because they live far away from the laws of government, instruction, and education
Therefore, Abu Muhammad b. Abi Zayd in his book onthe Laws goveming
teachers and students (Aha a-mu’allimin walt alin, said: "The hear
must not strike a boy more than re times in one punishment) as an educational
measure” 32 (Iba Abi Zayd) reported this remark on the authority of Judge
Shurayh 33 Certain seholar() argued in favor of the procedure mentioned, by
referring to the threcfold choking mentioned inthe tradition concerned with the
beginning of revelation* This, however. is a weak argument. (The tradition about
the) choking isnot suitable proof because i as noting to do with ordinary
instruction. God "is wise and knowing.” 5.

7. Only tribes held together by group feeling can live in the desert

1k should be known hat God put good and vil nto the nature of man, Thas,
He said inthe Quéan: "We le him along the to paths” 36 He further sid: “And
inspired (the soul) wit its wickedness as wel as its far of God." 21

Evils the quality that is closest o man when he fails to improve his customs

and (when) religion is not used as the model to improve, him. The great mass of
‘mankind isin that condition, with the exception of those to whom God gives

success. Evil qualities in man are injustice and mutual aggression. He who casts
his eye upon the property of his brother will lay his hand upon ¡o take it, unless
there isa restraining influence to hold him back. The poet thus said:

Injustice is a human characteristic, I you find

‘A moral maná there is some reason why he is not unjust.

Mutual aggression of people in towns and cides is averted bythe authors
and the government, which hol ack the masses under hir contre rom tacks

yesion upon sach thet. They ae ths prevented by he influence af force
and gavernmenal story from mut inj, save sach injustice as comes
fron the ule himself.

‘Aggression against city from outside may be aver by walls in dhe event
of negligence à surpris aac at igh or inabily (othe inhabitants) o
witatand the enemy during day. Or) may be averted withthe cp of a

iti of govermncn stay tops, i (De bias re others) peated

tha ready o fe race

“Tel restraining influence among Bedouin wibes comes from their shops
and leaders. result fom the rest respect and veneration they generally enjoy
among the people. The hamlet of the Bedoains ae defended against outside
‘enemies by a tribal militia composed of noble youths of the tribe

ho are known fr their courage. Their defense and protection are successful
only if they ae a clsely-knit group L2 of common descen This strengthens er
Sarina and makes them feared, since everybodys afectio for his family and his
group is more important (han anything else). Compassion and affection for one's
blood relations and relatives exist in human nature as something God put into the
bears of men. I makes for mutual support and ad, and increases the fear felt by the
enemy.

“This may be exemplified by the story in dhe Quan about Josephs brother.
‘They said o thee father. "If the wol eat him. while we are a group, hen, indeed,
we have lost out.” 42 This means that one cannot imagine any hostile act being
Underaken against anyone who has his group feeling to support him.

“Those who have noone oftheir own lineage (to cae for rarely fel
affection for thee fellows Ir danger i nthe aon the day of bate, such a one
Sinks away’ and seeks to sve himself because be is afraid of being left without
support # and dreads (that prospect). Such people, therefore, cannot live in the
desert because they would fal prey to any nation that might want co sallow them

w.

A this is true with regard tothe place where one lives, which is in constant
need of defense and military protection, its equally true with regard to every other
human activity. such as prophecy. the establishment of royal authority. or
propaganda (lor a cause). Nothing can be achieved in these matters without fighting
for it, since man has the natural urge to offer resistance. And for fighting one cannot
do without group feeling, as we mentioned atthe beginning. This should be taken as
the guiding principle of our later exposition.

God gives success.

8. Group feeling results only from (blood) relation
ship or something corresponding o it.

(Respect for) blood “ties is something natural among men, with the rarest
exceptions. I leas to affection for one's relations and blood relatives, (the Feling
that) no harm ought to befall them nor any destruction come upon them. One feels
shame when one's relatives are treated unjustly or attacked, and one wishes to

tervene between them and whatever perl or destruction threatens them, This is a
natural urge in man, for as long a there have been human beings. I the dirt
relationship between persons who help each other is very close, o hat it leads to
Close contact and unit, the tes ar obvious and clearly require the (existence of a
feeling of solidarity) without any outside (prodding I, however, the relationship is
somewhat distant, tis often forgotten in part. However, some knowledge of it
remains and tis causes a person to help his relatives for the known motive, in order
to escape the shame he would fel in his soul were person to whom he is somehow
related treated unjuslydó

Clients and allies belong inthe same category. The affection everybody has
for his clients and allies results from the feeling of shame that comes toa person
when one of his neighbor, relatives, o a blood relation in any degree (of kinship)
is humilited, The reason fortis tata clint(-master) relationship leads to close
contact exactly, or approximately in the same way, as does common descent. is
that sense that one must understand Muhammad remark, "Learn as much of your
pedigrees as is necessary to establish your ties of blood relationship” 221 means
that pedigreesae useful only in so far as they imply the close contact that is a
consequence of blood ties and that eventually leads 10 mutual help and ection.
Anything beyond that is superfluous A Fora pedigree is something imaginary and
devoid of reality? Its usefulness consists only in the resulting connection and close
Contact. IF the fact of (common descent) is obvious and cea, it evokes in man a
natural affection, as we have sad. I, however, ts existence is known only from
remote history it moves the imagination but faintly. Hs usefulness i gone, and
preoccupation with i becomes gratuitous, a Kind of game, and as such is not
Permissible, In this sense, one must understand the remark, "Genealogy is
something that sof no use to know and tht it does no harm not to know.” SU This
‘means that when common descent x no longer clear and has become a matter of
Scientific knowledge, it can no longer move the imagination and is denied the
allection caused by group Feeling. I has become useless.

And God knows better.

9: Purity of lineage is found only among the savage
‘Arabs of the desert and other such people.

This “Lis on account of the poor life, hard conditions, and bad habitats that
are peculiar o the Arabs. They are the result of necessity that destined (these
conditions) for (the Arabs), in as much as their subsistence depends on camels and
camel breeding and pasturage. The camels are the cause of (the Arabs) savage life
in the desert, since they feed on the shrubs ofthe desert and give bit (10 their
young ones) in the desert sands, as has been mentioned before The desert is a
place of hardship and starvation, but 0 them it has become familiar and
accustomed, Generations of (Arabs) grew up inthe desert, Eventually, they become
confirmed in their character and natural qualities. No member of any other nation
was disposed to share their conditions. No member of any other race felt attracted o
them, But if one of them were 10 find ways and means of fleeing from these
conditions, he would not (do so or) give them up Therefore, their pedigrees can
be trusted not to have been mixed up and corrupted. They have been preserved pure
in unbroken lines. This is the case, for instance, with Mudar tribes such as the
Quraysh, the Kinanah, the Thagif, the Banu Asad, the Hudhayl, and their Khuzaah
neighbors. They lived a hard life in places where there was no agriculture or animal
husbandıy. They lived far from the Fertile fields of Syria and the Irag, far from the
sources of seasonings and grains. How pure have they kept their lineages! These are
‘unmixed in every way, and are known to be unsullied,

Other Arabs lived inthe hills and atthe sources of fertile pastures and
plentiful living. Among these Arabs were the Himyar and the Kahlan, such as the
Lakhm, the Judham, the Ghassan, the Tayy. the Quda‘ah, and the Iyad, Their
Tineages were mixed up, and their groups intermingled. It is known that people
(genealogists) differ with respect to each one of these families. This came about as
the result of intermixture with non-Arab. They did not pay any attention o.
preserving the (purity of) lineage oftheir families and groups. This & was done only
by (rue) Arabs. "Umar said: "Study genealogy, and be not like the Nabatacans of the
Mesopotamian lowlands, When one of them is asked about his origin, he says
"From such and such a village." Furthermore, the Arabs ofthe fertile fields were
affected by the general human trend toward competition For the fat soil and the good
pastures. This resulted in intermingling and much mixture of lineages. Even atthe
beginning of Islam, people occasionally referred to themselves by their places of
residence. They referred 10 the Districts of Qinnastin, of Damascus, or of the
"Awisim (the border region of northern Syria). This custom was then transferred to
Spain, I happened not because the Arabs rejected genealogical considerations, but
because they acquired particular places of residence after the conquest. They
eventually became known by their places of residence. These became a.
distinguishing mark, in addition (0 the pedigree, used by (the Arabs) to identify
themselves in the presence of their amirs. Later on, sedentary (Arabs) mixed with
Persians and other non- Arabs. Purity of lineage was completely lost, and its fruit
the group fecling, was lost and rejected. The tribes, then, disappeared and were
wiped out, and with them, the group feeling was wiped out. But the earlier
Situation) remained unchanged among the Bedouins.

God inherits the earth and whomever is upon it.

10. How lineages become confused.

Ai clear hata person ofa certain desent may become attached to people
af another descent, cher because he fees well-isposed toward them, or because
there exists an (old) alliance or cent master) relationship, or yet because he had to
fe rom his ow people hy reason of some crime he committed, Such person
comes 1 be known at having the same descent as hose o whots he has ached
himsel) and is counted one of them with respect o the things that result from
(common descent, suchas affection, the rights and obligations concerning tlion
nd blood money, and soon. When the things which result rom (common) descent
are there, itis aif (common descend itself were there, because the only meaning of
belonging to one or another group is that one is subject t its avis and conditions, as
ifone had come ino close contact with it In the course of time, he orginal descent
is almost orgonen. Those who knew about it have passed away, and itis no longer
known wo mos people. Family ins inthis manner continally changed from one
tribal group to another and some people developed close contact with others (of
differen descent. This happened both in pre-amic and in Islamic times, and
between both Arabs and non Arabs. Ifone studies the different opinions concerning
the pedigree of the family of al-Mundhir 36 and others, the matter will become
somewhat clearer.

“Th affair ofthe Bajlah and “Arsh , Harthamah is another illustration,
When ‘Umar appointed Arfa their governor, the Baja) asked CUmar to
‘withdraw him, saying that he was a naif SL among them, that is, ove who had come
{o them from outside and tached himself to them, They asked that he appoint Jair
(instead). "Umar asked "Arfajah about this, and he replied: "They ar right, O
Commander of the Faithful Tam from the Azd. | shed blood among my people, and
joined (the Bajilah).” 35 This shows how "Arfajah had come to mix with the Bajilah,
tad become oftheir skin, and was known as one having te same descent as they 10
the exten that he could eventually become a candidate for leadership over them
(and would have) had someone not remembered the genealogical ramifications. Had
they overlooked i and had (st) mare time elapsed, (is foreign origin) would have
teen forgotten, and he would have been considered one of them in every respect.

This should be undersood and pondered as one of Gods ways with His
creatures, Similar things occur frequently in our own times, and have always been
frequent in former times 52

11. Leadership over people who share in a given
group feeling cannot be vested in those not
of the same descent 2

‘This is because leadership exists only through superiority, and superiority
only through group feeling. as we have mentioned before SL Leadership over people,
therefore, must, of necessity, derive from a group feeling that is superior to each
individual group feeling. Each individual group feeling that becomes aware of the
superiority of the group feeling of the leader is ready to obey and follow (that
leaden).

Now, a person who has become attached to people of a common descent
usually does not share the group feeling that derives from their common descent. He

merely attached to them 2 The firmest connection he has with the group is as

and ally. This in no way guarantees him superiority over them. Assuming that

he has developed close contact with them, that he has mixed with them, thatthe fact
that he was originally merely attached to them has been forgotten, and that he has
become one of their skin and is addressed as one having the same descent as they,
how could he, or one of his forebears, have acquired leadership before that process
had taken place, since leadership is transmitted in one particular branch that has
been marked for superiority through group feeling? The fact that he was merely
attached tothe tribe was no doubt known at an earlier stage, and at that time
prevented him (or rather, his forebears) from assuming leadership. Thus, it could not
have been passed on by (a man) who was still merely attached (10 the tbe).
Leadership must of necessity be inherited from the person who is entitled it, in
accordance with the fact, which we have stated, that superiority results from group
feeling.

Many leaders of tribes or groups are eager to acquire certain pedigrees. They
desire them because persons of that particular descent possessed some special viewe,
such as bravery, or nobility, or fame, however this may have come about. They go-
after such a family and involve themselves in claims to belong to a branch of
‘They do not realize that they thus bring suspicion upon themselves with regard to
bir leadership and nobility

Such things are frequently found among people at this time. Thus, the
Zanatah in general claim to be Arabs. The Awlad Rabab, who are known as the
Hijazis and who belong to the Banu ‘Amir, one of the branches of the Zughbah,
claim that they belong to the Banu Sulaym and, in particular, to the Sharid, a branch
of the Bani Sulayin, Their ancestor is said to have joined the Banu "Amir as a
carpenter who made biers. He mixed with them and developed a close contact with
them, Finally, he became their leader. He was called by them al-Hijazi

Similarly, the Banu "Ahd-al-Qawi b. al-'Abbas of the Tiljin claim to be
descendants of al~ Abbas b. ‘Abd-alMuttalib, because they want fo have noble
descent (from the family ofthe Prophet), and hold a mistaken opinion concerning
the name of al Abbas b.'Asiyah, the father of"Abd-alQawi. I is not known that
any ‘Abbasid ever entered the Maghrib. From the beginning ofthe ‘Abbasid dynasty
and thereafter, the Maghrib was under the influence ofthe Idrisids and the
"Ubaydid(-Fatimids),"Alid enemies ofthe ‘Abbasids. No 'Abbasid would have
become atached to a Shi'a,

imialy the Zayyanid, the ‘Abd-al-Wadid rulers (of Tlemcen), claim to be
descendants of al-Qasim b Idi, basing tei lam onthe Ft that her Family is
own to have descended from a-Qasm. In their own Zaniah dialect, bey are
called Ai al-Qasim thats, Banu--Qasim. They claim that the Qasim (after whom
they are named) was alQasim b. Lis, or al-Qasim b. Muhammad b. Iris. f that
that can be said conceming hat Qasim is ha he fed his own realm

And attached himself o (the Zanalah group ofthe "Abd-al-Wad). How, then, could
he have gained complete leadership over them inthe desert? The story is an errr
resulting fom the name of l-Qasim, which is Very frequent among the Liss
(The Zayyanids) therefore, though ha tir Qusim Wat an Kris (But afer al)
they hardly need so spurious a genealogy. They gained royal authority and power
through their group feeling, not through claims to 'Alid, ‘Abbasid, or other descent.

“These things are invented by people o get ino the good graces of rales,
through (sycophantc) behavior and through the opinions they express Their
Aabricaions) eventually become so well known as tobe mefuable. 1 have heard
that Yagharırasin Sb, Zayyan, the founder of the Zayyanid rule, when be was asked
aout (the alleged [rsd Jescent of his family), denied i, He expressed himself in
the Zanatah dialect as follows: "We gained worldly power and royal authority with
our swords, ot through (noble) Family connections. The usefulness of (our royal
autbority for us) Si the next world depends on God.” And he tured away fon
the person who, in hi way. had hoped to get into his good graces

Another example i the claim of the Ban Sad, shaylhs of the Bano Yazid
ofthe Zughbah, 0 be descendants of (he Caliph) Abu Bakr as-Siddig, Then there
isthe claim ofthe Banu Sala, shay ofthe Banu Yadlalin (een) of the

in ha they belong othe Sulaym, as Well sche claim ofthe Dawawidah,

shah ofthe Riyah, that they are descendants of the Barmscides. 6S We also hear
that the Banu Muhanna' amis of the Tayy in the East, claim to be descendants ol
the Barmecides There are many such examples. The ac! tha these groups are the
leaders among thir people speaks against their claims to such pedigrees, as we
have mentioned, Their common descent (with their people) must be pure, and they
must enjoy the strongest possible group feeling (in their own trie, ro have gained
the leadership), Were this taken into consideration, ers inthis matter would be
avoided

‘The connection of the Mahdi ofthe Almohads wit the “Aid Family should
ot be considered a case of this type. The Mahdi dd not belong o the leading
family among his people, the Harghah. He became their leader lier he had become
famous for his knowledge and religion, and by vine ofthe fact hat the Mas
tribe followed his call. Yet, he belonged to a (Harghah) Family of medium rank.

God knows the unseen and the visible,

12. Only those who share in the group feeling (of a
group) can have “house” and nobility in the
basic sense and in reality, while others have it

‘only in a metaphorical and figurative sense

“This is because nobility and prestige ar the seul of (personal) quais. À
“tense” 62 means that a man cours noble and famous men among is forebears.
‘The fact that hei their progeny and descendant gives him rest standing among bis
felows, for hi fellows respect the great standing and nobility that his ancestors
acquired trough her (personal) qual.

Wit regard to their growth and propagation, human beings canbe compared
to minerals Muhammad sid: "Men are minerals, The best ones in pre-Islamic
times are also the est ones in slam if they are understanding 68 "Preige in its
proper meaning refers to (family) descent

We have explained that the advantage of common) descent consists in the
group feeling that derives form à and that lead o affection and mutual help.
‘Wherever the group felingis uly formidable and its soi kept pure the advantage
af a (common) descent is mare evident (than elsewhere), and th (group feeling) it
more effective. I isan ational advantage to ave a number of noble ancestors.
‘Ths, prestige and nobility become ily grounded in those who share in he group
fsclng (of a ibe), baue there exists (them) the result (common) descent
‘The nobly ofa "house" à indirect proportion tothe different degrees of group
Hein, because (nobility isthe seer a group feting)

Isolated inhabitants of cities can have à "house" only ina metaphorical
sense. The assumption that they possess one i a specious claim. Seen in its proper
Tight, prestige means tothe inhabitants of cites that some of them count among their
forefathers men who had good personal) qualities and who mingled with good
people and (hat, in addon, hey) ry to be a decen as posible. This is different
{rom the real meaning of group feling, as group feeling drives from (common)
descent and a number of fortathers. The terms “prestige” and “house” are used
‘metaphorically in this connection, hecaus there exists in tis case a number of
Successive ancestors who consistenily performed good deeds, This not true and
unqualified prestige 22

A “house” possesses an original nobility rough group fecling and
{personal qualities. Later on the people (who have a "house" divest themselves of
thar nobility when group feeling disappears as the result of sedentary lie, as
‘mentioned before, Land they mingle withthe common people. A certain delusion
5 0 their former prestige remains in their souls and leads them 10 consider
themselves members ofthe most noble houses. They ar, however, far from tha
(status), because cher group feeling has completely disappeared. Many habitants
af cites who had ther origins in (noble) Arab or non-Arab “houses” share such
delusions

‘The Israelites are the most firmly misled in this delusion, They originally
had one of the greatest "houses" in the world, frst, because ofthe great number of
prophets and messengers born among thei ancestors, extending from Abraham to

Motes, the founder of ther eligi gro an Es, and neat, because oftheir
froupfeling andthe royal soni, that God had promised nd ranted te by
ments o tha group fg, Then, they were divested ol all a ad hey sufre
Raion a intipnonThoy were doting to live at elles on eth For
thousands of years, they knew only enslavement and unbelief 2 Still, the delusion of
(nobilis) has ne ef them, They can De Found saying: "eis an Auron”; "He i 8
descendant of Joshua" e ise of CA's progeny à "es om the tbe of
Judah This inspite of th fact that ther goleo has disappeared and that or
many long years they have been exposed to humiliation. Many other inhabitants of
cities who hold (noble) pedigrees but no longer share in any group feeling, are
inclined to (une) similar nonsense,

‘Abul- Wald . Rus Atemoes eed inthis respect. He mentioned prestige

the Rhetoric, one of the abridgments of the books of the first science.

“Preise he sie, “blons to people who are ancien str: na town.” He did
not consider ie things we have jst mentioned boul ite 1 knowhow lo
residence ina own can help (anyone to sin pren). ithe docs not Bone 1 à
Grup hat makes a od and cases cher to aby hin. (Averroes) la a vay,
considers preige x depending exchsively onthe number of foeaters.Yot,28
fore mans to sway the options of tone whose opinions coun, ht, the men
in command. i tates no woe of those who have no power. They cannot sway
anyone opinions, ad her own opinions ae nt soup The sedentary inhablans
Of itn fall into hat category. Isra hal Aveces ew up in a geneaion
(gro) and a place where people had no experience of grp feeling and werent
famili wit the condition governing it Therefore, (Aveo) di not pogrss
Beyond hs well-known (fin of) house" and preg as something spending
merely onthe number of one ancestors, addi noel to he sali) Of group
fling snd infenee among men

"God knows everything.” 22

13. "House" and nobility come to clients and
followers onfy through their masters and
not through their own descent.

‘This is because, as we have mentioned before, only those who share in
group feeling have basic and true nobility. When such people take people of another
descent as followers, or when they tke slaves À and cents into rite, and enter
into close contact with them, as we have sad. th cients and followers share in he
troup feling oftheir masters and take ion asi were thei own group Feeling. By
taking their special place within the group feeling, they participate to some extent in
the (common) descent to Which (hat particular group feeling belongs. Muhammad
thus std, "The client of people belongs to them, whether he is ir lient asa slave,
or as follower and aly 2

His own descent and Birth are of no help as regards the group fling of (the
‘maser, since Aha group feeling) has nothing to do with (his own) descent. The
group feeling tha befonged o (his own) family lost, Because is influence
Gsappeard when e entered into close contact with tat other family and lst
Contact with he men whose group feeling he had formerly shared, He us becomes
One ofthe others and takes his place among them. Inthe event number of his
ancestor also shared the group feeling of these people, he comes 10 enjoy among
these ether people) a certain nobility and “house.” in Keeping with bis position as
thor client and follower However. he does nt come t Be a noble as heya, bat

“This isthe case with clients of dynasties and with all servants. They acquire
nobility by being firmly rooted in ther client relationship, and by their service 10
theie particular dynasty, and by having a large number of ancestors who had beer
under the protection of (that dynasty). One knows that the Turkish clients of the
"Abbisids and, before them, the Barmecides, as well asthe Bane Navbakbht, thus
achieved "house" and nobility and created glory and importance for themselves by
being firmly rooted in their relationship 10 the CAbbisid) dynasty. Jafar b. Yahyi b.
Khild had the greatest possible "house" and nobility. This was the result of his
position as a client of ar-Rashid and his family. It was not the result of his own
(noble) descent among the Persians. The same isthe case with clients and servants
under any dynasty. They have “house” and prestige by being firmly rooted in their
client relationship with a particular dynasty and by being its faithful followers. Their
original descent disappears (and means nothing). 4 itis not that of (the dynasty). It
remains under cover and is not considered in connection with their importance and
glory. The thing that is considered is their position as clients and followers, because

accords with the secret of group feeling which (alone) produces “house” and
nobility.

“The nobility of (a clint is, in a way, derived from the nobility of his
‘masters, and his "house" is derived from what (his masters) have built. His own
descent and birth do not help him. His glory is built upon his relationship as clie to
a particular dynasty, and upon his lose contact with i as a follower and product of

education. His own original descent may have implied close contact with some
group feeling and dynasty. If that (close contact) is gone and the person in question
has become a client and follower of another (dynasty), his original (escent) is no

longer of any use to him, because its group feeling has disappeared. The new
(relationship) becomes useful to him, because (its group fecling) exists

“This applies to the Barmecides. I has been reported that they belonged to a
Persian “house,” the members of which had been guardians of the fre temples of
(the Persians). When they became clients of the ‘Abbasids, their orignal (descent)
‘was not considered. Their nobility resulted from their position as clients and
followers of the (Abbasid) dynasty.

verything cs is unsupported and unre delusions prompted 0 by
undisciplined sou. (The facts o) existence confirm our remarks, "Most noble
nong you in God's (eyes) is he who fears God most." Al

14. Prestige lasts at best four generations in one
lineage 82

It should be known thatthe world of the elements and all it contains comes
into being and decays. This applies to both its essences and its conditions. Minerals,
plants, all the animals including man, and the other created things come into

nd decay. as one can see with one's own eyes. The same applies to the conditions
that affect created things, and especially the conditions that affect man. Sciences
grow up and then are wiped out. The same applies to crafis, and 10 similar things,

Prestige is an accident that affects human beings. It comes into being and

decays inevitably. No human being exists who possesses an unbroken pedigree of
nobility from Adam down to himself. The only exception was made For the Prophet,
as a special act of divine grace to him, and as a measure designed to safeguard his
true character.

Nobility originates in the state of being outside, as has been said £2 That is,
being ouside of & laderhip and nobily and beng ina vile, humble sation,
devoid of prestige, This means that ll nobility and prestige is precede by the non
existence of nobility and prestige asi the case with every created thing
Inreache its end in single family within four sccesiv generations This

ix as follows The builder of the glory (othe family) knows what cont im to do
the work, and be keep the quals that created his glory and made ils, Te son
ho comes aftr him had personal contact wi his father and thes arc those

ings rom him. However, he is inferior in his respecto (his fathe in as much as
à person who learns things tough study i inferior oa person who knows them
from practical application. The thd generation must be content with imitation and.
in particular, with reliance upon tradition. This member is inferior to him of the
second generation, in as much as a person who reis (indy) upon radon is

ferorto person who exercises independent judgmen 8S

“Te fourth generation, then i inferior o the preceding ons in every

respect. This member has los equals tht preserved the edifice of thei glory.
He (actualy) despsestthose quals) He imagines that be eifice was not bl
through aplication and fort He thinks that it was something du hs people fom
the very beginning by vie of the mere fact f thei (noble) descen, and not
somesing that resalte rom group elf) and individual) qualities. For he sees
the great respect in which he shed by the people, bt he dos not know how that
respec oripated and whi he reason fort was. He imagines tht e due lo his,
descent and nothing es, He Keeps away from those in whose group feeling he
Share, thinking that he ds beter than hey He rst that (bey Wil bey him
beca) he was brought pt take ther obedience for granted, and he docs not
now he qualities that made obedience necessary. Such quals are humility (in
dal) wth (such men) and respect for their fing. Therefore, he consders them
despicable. and hey. in um, revolt against him ad despise him. They Laser
{politica leadership from him and his direct lineage to some ater reltd branch
(ot his tribe), in obedience to thei group feeling as we have stated. They do so)
After they have convinced themselves tha the quals ofthe (new leader) are

satisfactory to them. His family then grows, whereas the family of the original
(leader) decays and the edifice of his “house” collapses.

This isthe case with rulers who have royal authority. It also is the case
all the “houses” of tribes, of amirs, and of everybody else who shares in a group
feeling, and then also with the “houses” among the urban population. When one
“house” goes down, another one rises in (another group of) the same descent. "If He
wants them to disappear, He causes them to do so, and brings forth a new creation.
This is not difficult for God.” 36

‘The rule of four (generations) with respect to prestige usually holds true. I

way happen that a “house” is wiped out, disappears, and collapses in fewer than
four (generations), or it may continue unto the fifth and sixth (generations), though

a state of decline and decay. The four generations can be explained as the
builder, the one who has personal contact withthe builder, the one who relies on
tradition, and the destroyer. There could not be fewer.

“The fact that prestige lasts four generations is considered (in statements
discussed) under the subject of praise and glorification. Muhammad said: "The
noble son of the noble (father) ofthe noble (grandfather) ofthe noble (great-
grandfather): Joseph, the son of Jacob, the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham.” 52
This indicates that Joseph) had reached the limit in glory.

In the Torah, there i he following passage: "God, your Lord, is powerful 35
and jealous, visiting the sins ofthe fathers upon the children unto the third and the
fourth (generations). This shows that four generations in one lineage are the limit
in extent of ancestral prestige.

“The Kitab al-Aghani 2 reports, inthe story of "Uwayf al-Qawali, that
Khosraw asked an-Nu man whether there was among the Arabs a trib that was
nobler than other tribes. And when the answer was yes, he asked: "In what respect
(does such greater nobility show itself)?" An-Numan replied: "In cases of men)
with three successive ancestors who were leaders. and where the fourth generation,
then, was perfect. The ‘house’ thus belongs 1 his tribe.” 3? He looked for such
people and found thatthe only ones that fulfilled the condition were the family of
Hudhayfah b. Badr al-Fazari, the house of Qays: the family of Hajb b. Zurarah, the
house of Tamim: the family of Dhul-Jaddayn, the house of Shayban; and the family
of al-Ash’ath b. Qays, ofthe Kindah.21 He assembled those clans and the families
attached to them, and appointed impartial judges. Hudhayfah b. Badr stood up; then
al-Asbath b. Qays, because of his relationship to an-Nu'man: then Bistam b. Qays.
of the Shayban; then Najib b. Zurarah; and then Qays b. Asim. They made long
speeches. Khosraw (finally) said: "Each one of them is a chieftain who occupies his
proper place.”

‘Those "houses" were the ones that enjoyed the greatest reputation among the
‘Arabs after the Hashimites. To them belonged also the house ofthe Banu ad-
Dayyan2 of the Banul-Harith b. Ka'b, the house of the Yemen.

A this shows that prestige lasts at best four generations. And God knows
better,

15. Savage nations are better able to achieve
superiority than others.

Ic should be known that since, as We have stated in the Third Preftory
Discusion 2 desert life no doubt isthe reason for braver, savage groups are
traver than ber. They are therefore, bee able o achieve superiority and to Lake
fay the things that ar inthe hands of eter nation. The station of on andthe
same group changes, in this respect, with the change of time, Whenever people
stile in the fertile plains and amass À luxuries and become accustomed toa life of
Abundance and luxury, her bravery decreases tothe depree that their wildness and
desert habits decrease

This is exemplified by dumb animals, such as gazelles, wild buffaloes
(cows) and donkeys tha are domesticated, When they cease o be wild a the result
of contact with human beings, and when they havea life of abundance hir vigor
tnd violence undergo change: This affects even their movements and the beauty of
their cost The same applis 0 savage human beings who become sociable and
tend.

“The reason i that fan customs determine human nature and characte.
Sci same ans ung eue ud cora; The toes fly rooted
in Besen habas andthe wiklera group isthe closer does it come o achieviag
enperieray over other, i both uri ar obs) opproniomtly al in
umber, strength, and group (fing).

In this connection, one may compare the Maar with the imyar and the
Kahlan before chem, who preceded them in royal authority and inthe life of luxury.
and also wit the Rabah who settled inthe fertile feld ofthe rg, The Mudar
‘tine their desert habits, andthe the embarked upon a ie of abundance and
feat luxury before they did, Desert life prepared te Mudar most effectively for
Kevin superiority. They tok away and appropriated what the the groups had
in ther hands

‘The same was the case also with the Banu Tayy. he Banu ‘Amir Ss
and the Banu Sulaym b. Mansur % later on. They remained longer in the desert than
the other Mudar and Yemen tribes, and did nt have any oftheir wealth. The
desert habits this preserved the power of their roup feeling nd the habits of
luxury di not wear it ou. They thus eventually became the most powerful (group)
among (he Arabs). Thus, wherever an Arab be ead a ie of luxury and
abundance, while another docs notte on holding fast 0 descr ie the longer will
te superior o and more powerful han the other, both parties ae (otberwise equal
in strength and number

This is how God proceeds with His er

16. The goal 10 which group feeling leads is royal authority.

‘This Lis because, as we have mentioned before.# group feeling gives.
protection and makes possible mutual defense, the pressing of claims. and every
other kind of social activity. We have also mentioned before A that according to.
their nature, human beings need someone to act as a restraining influence and
‘mediator in every social organization, in order to keep the members from (fighting)
with each other. That person must, by necessity, have superiority over the others in
the matter of group feeling. IF no, his power to (exercise a restraining influence)
could not materialize. Such superiority is royal authority (mult). Its more than
leadership. Leadership means being a chieftain, and the leader is obeyed, but he has.
no power o force others to accept his rulings. Royal authority means superiority and
the power to rule by force.

Wien a person sharing in the group feeling LL has reached the rank of
chieftain and commands obedience, and when he then finds the way open toward
superiority and (the use of force, he follows that way, because its something
desirable, He cannot completely achieve his (goal) except with the help of the group
feeling, which causes (he others) to obey him. Thus, royal superiority isa goal to
which group feeling leads, as one can see.

Even if an individual tribe has different “houses” and many diverse group
feelings stil, there must exist a group feeling tha is suonger han all the other
group feclings combined, that is superior to them all and makes them subservient,
and in which all the diverse group feelings coalesce, as it were, to become one
greater group feeling. Otherwise, splits would occur and lead to dissension and
strife. "If God did not keep human beings apart, the earth would perish 102

Once group feeling has established superiority over the people who share in
that particular group feeling), it wil, by its very nature, seek superiority over people
of other group feclings unrelated to the fist If the one (group feeling) isthe equal
of the other or is able to stave off (is challenge), the (competing people) are even
with and equal to each other. (In this case) each group feeling maintains its sway
over its own domain and people, as is the case with jibes and nations all over the
earth. However, ifthe one group fecling overpowers the other and makes it
subservient o itself, Ihe two group feelings enter ino close contact, and the
(defeated) group feeling gives added power to the (victorious) group feeling. which,
as a result, ses its goal of superiority and domination higher than before. In his
‘way, i goes on until the power of that particular group feeling equals the power of
the ruling dynasty. Then, when the ruling dynasty grows senile and no defender
arises from among its friends who share in its group feeling the (new group feeling)
takes over and deprives the ruling dynasty of ts power, and, thus, obtains complete
royal authority.

‘The power of (a given group feeling) may (also) reach its peak when the
ruling dynasty has not yet reached senility. (This stage) may coincide with the stage
al which (the ruling dynasty) needs to have recourse 10 the people who represent the
various group feelings (in order to master the situation) In such a case, the ruling
dynasty incorporates (the people who enjoy the powerful group feeling) among its
clients whom it uses forthe execution of ts various projects, Tis, then, means (the

formation of) anther royal authority. inferior o that ofthe controling royal
authority. This was the case with the Turks under the ‘Abbasids 22 with the
Sinhajah and the Zanata in thet relacion wo the Kutamah, and with the Hamdanids
in their relation to the (Fatimid "Alis andthe “Abbisids

Its thus evident that royal authority isthe goal of group fing. When
{group fcling) attains that goal the ibe (roresenin tha particular group feeling)
tains royal authority. ether by seizing actual control or by giving assistance (10
the ruling dynasy) I depends onthe circumstances prevailing at given time
(ich of the two alematives applies. Ifthe group feeling encounters obstacles on
its way t the goal, as we shall explain, it stops where itis, until God decides what
is going 0 happen i

17. Obstacles on the way toward royal authority
are luxury and the submergence of the tribe in a
lie of prosperity.

‘The reason for this is that, when a trie has achieved a certain measure of
superiority with the help ofits group feeling, it gains control over a corresponding
amount of wealth and comes to share prosperity and abundance with those who have
been in possession ofthese things (or a long time), It shares in them 0 the degree
ofits power and usefulness to the ruling dynasty. IF the ruling dynasty is so strong
that no one would think of depriving it ofits power or sharing (its power) with it,
the tribe in question submits to its rule and is satisfied with whatever share in the
dynastÿs wealth and tax revenue i is permitted to enjoy. Hopes would not go so
high as o (dink of) the royal prerogatives or ways to obtain the (royal authority
Members of the tribe) are merely concerned with prosperity, gain, and a life of
abundance. (They are satisfied) to lead an easy, restful life inthe shadow of the
ruling dynasty, and to adopt royal habits in building and dress, a matter they stress
th they take more and more pride, the more luxuries and plenty they
as well as all the other things that go with luxury and plenty
Asa result, the toughness of desert life is lost. Group feeling and courage
weaken, Members ofthe tribe revel in the well-being that God has given them.
‘Their children and offspring grow up too proud to look after themselves or to attend
10 their own needs, They have disdain also forall the other things that are necessary
in connection with group feeling, This finally becomes a character trait and natural
characteristic of theirs, Their group feeling and courage decrease in the next
generations. Eventually, group feeling is altogether destroyed. They thus invite
(aheir) own destruction, The greater their luxury and the easier the life they enjoy,
the closer they are to extinction, not to mention (their lost chance of obtaining) royal
authority. The things that go with luxury and submergence in a life of ease break U
vigor ofthe group feeling, which alone produces superiority. When group feeling is
desroyed, the tribe is no longer able to defend or protect isc let alone press any
ns. Iwill be swallowed up by other nations.
has thus become clear that luxury isan obstacle on the way toward royal

authority. "God gives His kingdom (royal authority) to"whomever He wants to give
iu OL

18. Meckness and docili to outsiders that may come
10 be found in a tribe are obstacles on the way
toward royal authority

“The 105 rason for his is that meckness and dociiy break the vigor and
strength of group feeling. The (very fac) that people are meck and docile shows that
(thei group feeling) is lost. They do not become fond of meckness until hey re I,
256 too weak to defend themselves. Those who are too weak o defend themselves
axe all the more weak when it comes to withstanding their enemies and pressing
their claims.

“The Israelites re a good example. Moses urged them togo and become rulers
of Syria. He informed them that God had made this thei destiny. But the Israelites
‘were 100 weak for that, They sai: “There are giants in that country, and we shall
‘ot enter it util the giants have departed" LS That is, until God has drives them
ut by manifesting His power, without the application of our group feeling, and that

be one of your miracles, O Moses. And when Moses urged them on, they
persiste and became rebellious, and sad: "Go you yourself and your Lord, and
fig."

“The reason for (hir attitude) was tha they had become used to being 100
‘weak 1 offer opposition and to press claims LE (Thais the meaning) required by
the vers, and it must be interpreted in that manner. (This situation) was the result of
the quality of daily and the longing to be subservint 1 the Egyptins, which the
Israelites had acquired through many long yeas and whieh led eventually to the
complete los of their group feeling. In addition, they did not eall believe what
Moses told them, namely, that Syria would be theirs and thatthe Amalekites who
‘were in Jericho would fall prey 10 them, by virue of the divine decree that God had
‘ade in favor ofthe Israelites. They were unable to do (what they were asked to do)
and felt 100 weak to doit. They realized tht they were too weak to press any
claims, because they had acquired the quality of mockness. They suspected the story
their prophet told them and the command he gave them. For that, God punished
{hem by obliging them to remain in the desert. They stayed in the desert between
Syria and Egypt for forty years, They had no contact with civilization nor did they
settle in any city as is told in the Quan il This was because of he harshness
the Amalckites in Syria and the Copts in Egypt had practiced against them. Thus,
they thought themselves 100 weak Yo oppose them. From the context and meaning
ofthe vers, ii evident that (the vers) intends to refer to the implication of such a
Sojourn in the desert, namely he disappearance of the generation whose character
had been formed and whose group feeling had been destroyed by the humiliation,
oppression, and force from which it had Gust escaped, and the eventual appearance
in the desert of another powerful generation that knew neither laws nor oppression
and did not have the stiga of meekness. Thus, a new group feeling could grow up
Gin the new generation), and that (new group feeling) enable them to press heir
claims and to achieve superior. This makes it evident that foi years i the
Shortest period in which one generation can disappear and a new generation can
arise. Praised be the Wise, the Knowing One.

‘This shows most clearly what group feling means. Group feeling produces

the ability to defend oneself o offer opposition o protect oneself, and to press
‘one's claims. Whoever loses (his group feeling) is too weak to do any of these
ings.

“The subject of imposts and taxes belongs inthis discussion of the th
force meckness upon a tribe

A ribe paying imposts did not do that until it became resigned to meck
submission with respect 10 (paying them). Imports and taxes are à sign of
‘oppression and meckness which proud souls do not tolerate, unless they consider
{he payment of imposts and taxes) easier than being killed and destroyed. In such a
case, the group feeling (o a tribe) is 100 weak for its own defense and protection.
People whose group feeling cannot defend them against oppression certainly cannot
offer any opposition or press any claims. They have submitted to humble
(meekness) and, as we have mentioned before, meekness is an obstacle.

(An illustration of this fact) is Muhammad's statement in the Sahih, LLL on
the subject of plowing. When he saw plowshare in one ofthe houses of the Ansar
Gn Medina), be sai: “Such a thing never entered anyone's howe save accompanied
by humbleness.” This is sound prof for (he contention) that payment of imposts
makes humbleness necessary. In addition, the humblenes thai he resul of paying
impots is accompanied by character qualities of cunning and deceit, because force
rules (under such circumstances) According othe Sahihll the Messenger of God
ted to deery the payment of impots. When he was asked abou ithe sad: "A man
ho has to pay imposts aks and Ties, He promises, and breaks his promise.” When
One ses a tribe humiliated by the payment of imposts, one camas Rope that i will,
ever achieve royal auto.

‘This makes clear that ti eroncous 0 assume thatthe Zanatah inthe
Maghrib were sheep-breedng Bedouins who paid imposs o he various rler of
thei time. As one can see, his is a serious emor, Had such been the ease, the
Zanatah would never have achieved royal authority and established a dynasty.

In this connection, one may compare the words of Shahrbaraz the ruler of
Derbend.AL ‘Abd-ar-Rahman b. Rabi'ah came upon him, and Shahrbaraz asked him
for his protection withthe (promise) hat he would belong 1 hin. On that occasion,
(Shahrbaraz) sad: “Today, am one of you. My hand isin your hands Lam your
Sincere end. You ar welcome. God bles us and you. The pol tax we shall pay
ou will consist in our helping you and doing what you will, But do not humiliate us
by imposing the) pol tx, Otherwise.) you would weaken us 1 the point of
(becoming the prey of) your enemies.” This story sufficiently (supports) our
preceding remarks.

ws that

Ibn Khaldun - Al Muqaddimah

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Ibn Khaldun - Al Muqaddimah

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