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Improving Classroom
Learning with ICT
Improving Classroom Learning with ICTexamines the ways in which
ICT can be used in the classroom to enhance teaching and learning
in different settings and across different subjects.
Weaving together evidence of teachers’ and learners’ experiences
of ICT, the authors:
• explain why the process of integrating ICT is not straightforward;
• discuss whether hardware and infrastructure alone are sufﬁcient
to ensure full integration and exploitation of ICT investment;
• emphasise the pivotal role that teachers play in supporting
learning with ICT across the curriculum;
• argue that teachers need a greater understanding of how to put
ICT to use in teaching and learning;
• highlight that out-of-school use of ICT has an impact on in-school
learning;
• discuss what kinds of professional development are most effec-
tive in supporting teachers to use technologies creatively and
productively.
Case studies are used to illustrate key issues and to elaborate a range
of theoretical ideas that can be used in the classroom.
This book will be of interest to all those concerned with maximising
the beneﬁts of ICT in the classroom.
Rosamund Sutherland is Professor of Education at the University
of Bristol, UK.
Susan Robertson is Professor of Sociology of Education at the
University of Bristol, UK.
Peter Johnis Vice-Chancellor of Thames Valley University, UK.

Improving Learning TLRP
Series Editor: Andrew Pollard, Director of the ESRC Teaching
and Learning Programme
Improving Learning How to Learn: Classrooms, schools
and networks
Mary James, Robert McCormick, Paul Black, Patrick Carmichael,
Mary-Jane Drummond, Alison Fox, John MacBeath, Bethan Marshall,
David Pedder, Richard Procter, Sue Swafﬁeld, Joanna Swann and
Dylan William
Improving Literacy by Teaching Morphemes
Terezinha Nunes and Peter Bryant
Improving Schools, Developing Inclusion
Mel Ainscow, Tony Booth and Alan Dyson
Improving Subject Teaching: Lessons from research in
science education
Robin Millar, John Leach, Jonathan Osborne and Mary Radcliffe
Improving Learning at Work
Karen Evans, Phil Hodkinson, Helen Rainbird and Lorna Unwin
Improving Learning through Consulting Pupils
Jean Rudduck and Donald McIntyre
Improving Learning Cultures in Further Education:
Understanding how students learn
David James and Gert Biesta

Improving Classroom
Learning with ICT
Rosamund Sutherland,
Susan Robertson and
Peter John
with Nick Breeze, Roger Dale,
Keri Facer, Marina Gall, Elisabeth
Lazarus, Sasha Matthewman,
John Morgan, Federica Olivero,
Dan Sutch, Celia Tidmarsh
and Pat Triggs

First published 2009
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2009 Rosamund Sutherland, Susan Robertson and
Peter John for selection and editorial material;
individual chapters, the contributors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from
the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Improving classroom learning with ICT /
Rosamund Sutherland . . . [et al.].
p. cm. – (Improving learning TLRP)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Computer-assisted instruction. 2. Educational technology.
3. Information technology. 4. Education–Effect of
technological innovations on I. Sutherland, Rosamund, 1947–
LB1028.5.I434 2009
371.33’4–dc22 2008025406
ISBN10: 0–415–46173–1 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0–415–46174–X (pbk)
ISBN10: 0–203–88534–1 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978–0–415–46173–3 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–415–46174–0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–88534–5 (ebk)
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
ISBN 0-203-88534-1 Master e-book ISBN

Contents
List of illustrations x
Acknowledgements xii
Contributors xiii
Authors’ preface xiv
PART 1
What are the issues? 1
1 A holistic approach to understanding
teaching and learning with ICT 3
What is the issue? 3
Why does this matter? 4
Achieving change 6
Developing professionals 6
Video as a tool for investigating teaching and learning 7
Vignette 1: A teacher reﬂects on the use of video 8
Using theory and research to inform practice 9
Building knowledge about ICT 11
Case study 1:Learning about functions and graphs 12
Case study 2: Using e-mail to develop understanding
of how a sense of audience shapes writing 15
A teacher’s perspective on researching ICT and learning 17
Summary and conclusions 22
PART 2
What does the research tell us? 27
2 Intergrating ICT in teaching and learning 29
Exploiting available technology 30

Incidental, idiosyncratic and intentional learning 32
Case study 1:Learning language in the primary
school 34
Case study 2: Geometry and proof in the secondary
school 39
Understanding and exploiting the potential of ICTs 44
Developing common understandings and knowledge 46
Which tools should be privileged? 46
Summary and conclusions 47
3 Learning and technology 49
Introduction – the ﬁnger-tip effect 49
Case study: The use of VirtualFishtank in a primary
science lesson 50
Interpreting what happened in the classroom – a complex
mix of people, culture and technology 56
The instrumentation framework 59
How can instrumentation explain what happened in
the VirtualFishtank lesson? 62
The artefact – VirtualFishtank 63
Instruments constructed by students 64
Some other examples of instrumentation 65
Summary and conclusions 67
4 The enabled practitioner 70
Introduction 71
Vignette 1: Ian Thompson 71
The concept of community 73
Layers of community 75
Micro-communities and the investigation of practice 78
An illustration of community learning 81
Vignette 2: Rachel Yates – ‘Thinking it through’ 81
Towards the ‘enabled practitioner’ 83
Summary and conclusions 86
5 Creative designs for learning 88
Liberating constraints 88
Case study 1: Writing in a foreign language 89
vi Contents

Composing in music 95
Case study 2: Dance eJay in the primary school 95
Case study 3: Music for ﬁlm in the secondary school 99
Case study 4: Enhancing geographical enquiry 105
Freedoms and constraints 109
Summary and conclusions 113
6 Discerning literacy 115
What does it mean to be literate? 115
Research context 119
Multimodal practice: gains and losses 120
Writing with language/working with images 125
Case study 1: Writing Alice126
Case study 2: PowerPoint poetry 128
Multimodality, the web and literary value 132
Students as discerners of literacy 135
Summary and conclusions 136
7 ‘Aliens in the classroom 2’: when technology
meets classroom life 138
Vignette: Alien 2 139
Introduction 141
Opening the technology ‘black box’ 142
Toward a local ecology of knowledge production with
ICTs 145
New economies of knowledge production 147
Classrooms as particular kinds of digitally mediated
social formations 153
‘Assemblages’: a metaphor for seeing classrooms as
dynamic social formations 154
Summary and conclusions 155
8 Connecting cultures: home and school
uses of ICT 158
Using computers and the Internet in the home 159
Constructing the computer and Internet in the home 159
Contours of participation in digital cultures outside school 162
Family practices 162
Vignette 1: Alan the family information gatherer 163
Contents vii

Vignette 2:A teacher in the corner of the home 164
Vignette 3: Being a rock musician 165
Comparing patterns of computer and Internet use at
home and school 166
When games go to school 167
Colliding or concurring cultures 174
Summary and conclusions 176
PART 3
What are the overall implications? 179
9 Breaking into the curriculum: the impact of
information technology on schooling 181
ICT and society 181
ICT and school geography 187
Future subjects/geographies 189
Summary and conclusions 192
10 Designs and theories for learning 195
Introduction 195
Learning, tools and culture 197
Case study 1: Learning data handling in the primary
school 198
Improving learning with ICT – developing a toolkit 201
Ways into knowledge worlds – the role of language 203
The classroom as a knowledge-building community 204
Summary and conclusions 206
11 From ‘should be’ and ‘can be’ to ‘will be’:
reﬂections and new directions on improving
learning with ICT 208
‘Breaking open’ to ‘break into’ ICT discourses to insert
curriculum and pedagogical substance and meaning 210
Designing the conditions for learning with technology 213
Concluding remarks 215
Methodological appendix 216
Objective and aims 216
Organisation and partnership 216
viii Contents

Subject design teams and initiatives 217
Research themes 219
Research methods 219
Analytical techniques 226
Bibliography 229
Index 238
Contents ix

Illustrations
Figures
1.1 Learning about functions and graphs 13
1.2 E-mailing a Viking 16
2.1 Teacher-made ‘activity’ for reading and recognising the
phoneme /e/ 35
2.2 Overview of data collected by Joe 36
2.3 Excerpt from ﬁnal PowerPoint proof for one group
of students 43
3.1 Whole class around the interactive whiteboard 51
3.2 Pupils using VirtualFishtank in groups at the
computer 51
3.3 Student designing a ﬁsh using the interactive
whiteboard 52
3.4 The instrumentation process 59
3.5 Instrumental orchestration 61
3.6 Interface of VirtualFishtank.com 63
3.7 The instrumentation processes in the VirtualFishtank
case study 66
5.1 The ‘Forms’ toolbar in Word 90
5.2 Section of an early design of a Year 10 writing frame
showing a drop-down menu 91
5.3 Longer writing model adapted using student feedback 93
5.4 Opening of ‘Dream Mix’: demonstration track provided
with the software 97
6.1 Multimodal presentation by students aged 12–13 years 121
6.2 Extract from a multimodal response to Alice in
Wonderland 123
6.3 Magazine layout of ‘ﬁrst draft’ writing 124

6.4 This sequence represents three animations within one
slide 128
7.1 Excerpt from Google search 150
8.1 Young people’s experience of computer activity at
home and school (2003) 160
Tables
A.1 Number of researchers, teacher educators, research
students and teachers in each subject design team 218
A.2 Overview of data collected within the project 221
A.3 Sample proﬁle for 2001 and 2003 surveys (%) 222
Illustrations xi

Acknowledgements
The InterActive Education project (2000–4) was made possible by a
grant from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC). It was
one of the Teaching and Learning Research Programme projects and
we are indebted to the ESRC and the TLRP for their support. Mary
O’Connell was the administrator for the project and has continued to
support the writing of this book. We are deeply grateful to Mary for
her loyalty, creativity and absolute commitment to the project and know
that the book would not have been ﬁnished without her contribution.
The InterActive project was a partnership between teachers and
researchers, and we would like to thank the following people for the
major contribution they made to the project: David Badlan, Dave Baker,
Linda Baggott La Velle, Rebecca Ball, Dick Bateman, Bryan Berry, Rob
Beswetherwick, Raj Bhakerd, Andrew Bigg, Chas Blacker, Adrian Blight,
Kate Bouverie-Brine, Jan Bovill, Stephanie Bower, Helena Brazier, Linda
Bridgeman, Chris Carter, Charmaine Clarke, Andrew Cleaver, Ruth Cole,
Sarah Curran, Chris Davies, Ian Davies, Liz Dunbar, Rachel Edwards,
Thamir Elzubaidi, Alan George, Stephen Godwin, Louise Hamilton, Phil
Hamilton, Gary Handley, Andrew Harman, Catherine Harvey, Jo
Heppinstall, Natalie Heysham, Ben Houghton, Judi Johnston Hubbold,
Nick Jones, Rod Jones, Marie Joubert, Pam Kelly, John Lang, Liz Lang,
Nicky McAllister, Sam Mills, Simon Mills, Heidi Moulder, Suzanne Nash,
Ros O’Connor, Pat Peel, Sven Rees, Catherine Roberston, Andrew Rome,
Muriel Saffon, Emma Scott-Cook, Joe Sharp, Ian Shedden, Tim Shortis,
Richard Shotton, Baldev Singh, Paul Stephens-Wood, Daniel Such, Jude
Swailes, Paul Taylor, Maria Thompson, Ian Thomson, Toby Tyas, Nigel
Varley, Geof Warnock, Marnie Weeden, Aled Williams, Paul Wilson,
Jocelyn Wishart, Rachel Yates, Rachel Zewde.
Finally our greatest debt is to the students and young people who
participated in “learning with ICT” and were key to the success of the
project.

Contributors
Nick Breeze, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol.
Roger Dale, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol.
Keri Facer, Education & Social Research Institute, Manchester
Metropolitan University.
Marina Gall, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol.
Peter John, Thames Valley University, London.
Elisabeth Lazarus, Graduate School of Education, University of
Bristol.
Sasha Matthewman , Graduate School of Education, University of
Bristol.
John Morgan, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol.
Federica Olivero, Graduate School of Education, University of
Bristol.
Susan Robertson, Graduate School of Education, University of
Bristol.
Dan Sutch, Futurelab.
Rosamund Sutherland , Graduate School of Education, University
of Bristol.
Celia Tidmarsh, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol.
Pat Triggs, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol.

Authors’ preface
This publication is a whole book written by several authors who all
worked together on the InterActive Education project. As a team we
came to the project with different ideas about teaching and learning
with information and communication technology (ICT), ideas that to
a certain extent converged throughout the project. The process of
writing the book has been a collaborative one, with members of the
team taking responsibility for writing different chapters. We have also
given voice to the teacher researchers within the project through a
series of vignettes and case studies that are threaded throughout the
book. We value its multi-voiced nature and have not attempted to
suppress differences in order to reach a synthesis. In this sense we
see the book as a polyphony, where conﬂicting views and characters
are left to develop unevenly into a crescendo. We hope that you will
engage with and enjoy the whole book, while resonating with the
parts that are particularly relevant for your own work.

What are the issues?
Within the ﬁrst part we set the scene for the whole book, identifying
the challenges, issues and questions which it addresses. We start by
presenting statistics on the penetration of new technologies into
schools and discuss why overcoming the technical obstacles is
necessary but not sufﬁcient. We introduce the InterActive Education
project which took up the challenge of expanding teachers’ practice
and empowering them in their uses of ICT for teaching and learning.
We explain why we believe that to change practice and achieve a
long-term shift in conceptions of how ICT can enhance teaching and
learning, the traditional relationship between teachers and researchers
has to be changed. We present an overview of the theoretical ideas
that underpin the book as a whole and begin the process of illustrating
these ideas with case studies of teachers learning to use ICT.
Part 1

Chapter 1*
* This chapter has been authored by Pat Triggs and Rosamund Sutherland.
A holistic approach to
understanding teaching
and learning with ICT
Computer-based technologies can be powerful pedagogical tools
– not just rich sources of information, but extensions of human
capabilities and contexts for social interactions.
(Bransford et al.2000, p. 218)
What is the issue?
The keynote quotation for this chapter presents a vision for the use
of ICTs in teaching and learning that we share. It is ten years since
Bransford and his colleagues articulated this idea of digital tech-
nologies as ‘powerful pedagogical tools’. How near are we today to
releasing the potential of new technologies to enhance teaching and
learning in different settings and across different subjects?
Statistics show that between 2000 and 2006 large and ongoing
government investment in technology resulted in a steady improve-
ment in computer: student ratios in primary and secondary schools
in the UK. In 2006, on average, there was one computer for every
six students; in secondary schools there was one computer for 3.6
students.
1
Laptops became more available along with an increase in
wireless connectivity.
2
Interactive whiteboards became a feature of
many classrooms, especially in secondary schools. The central commit-
ment to technology has been and remains a feature of educational
policy documents. However, throughout this period the consistent
message is that new digital technologies were and are being incor-
porated only inconsistently by practitioners in UK schools.
3
Surveys do show a sharp increase in the use of ICT resources in
lessons since 2005, but this is mainly accounted for by the rapid
spread and adoption of interactive whiteboards. Teachers quickly saw
the possibilities of whiteboards for whole-class teaching; their use of

presentation software and word processing, of downloaded and online
resources in lesson planning and delivery increased. Aside from
whole-class activity, uses of ICT remain in general limited to word
processing and Internet search.
4
These tools appear deceptively
transparent, while other technologies are perceived as more complex
and challenging to use. However, assumptions that these more familiar
uses of technology are unproblematic in relation to learning require
examination.
Measures of the ‘e-maturity’
5
of schools show wide variations in
the extent to which use of technology is embedded in teaching and
learning. School inspectors report that on average only two in six
secondary school subject departments make effective use of ICT; the
remaining four use ICT little if at all. Few practitioners in any phase
of education fully exploit the possibilities for learning and teaching
that new technologies offer. Using technology for analysing informa-
tion and problem solving is limited, especially in the secondary phase.
Few teachers incorporate new technologies to support students to
work together collaboratively or cooperatively; there is little evidence
of ICTs used to support creativity.
6
The challenge, then, is to make the best use of new technologies
for the beneﬁt of learners, to enable practitioners to incorporate ICT
securely and effectively in their practice and to develop their pedagogic
repertoire.
Why does this matter?
Policy documents refer to evidence that incorporating ICT to support
learning has a positive impact on learning outcomes. ‘Statistical links
between the use of technology and learning outcomes have been
identiﬁed in an increasing body of evidence . . . The impact is greatest
where ICT is an integral and embedded part of the day-to-day learning
experience’.
7
If this is so then, at the most basic level of social justice,
we owe it to our students to engage with this issue.
Research evidence also suggests that young people exhibit a higher
level of engagement and more positive attitudes to learning where
technology is incorporated. A large majority of primary and secondary
teachers surveyed in 2006 agreed or strongly agreed that ICT could
have a positive impact on the motivation of all student groups listed.
Three-quarters or more of primary teachers in the survey agreed or
strongly agreed that ICT also can have a positive impact on attain-
ment. Secondary teachers were less sure about the impact of ICT on
4 What are the issues?

attainment, but even so, two-thirds of them thought the impact could
be positive.
8
In theory, at least, the climate among teachers appears
to be favourable to incorporating ICT in teaching and learning.
The notional twenty-ﬁrst-century learner and worker, in ‘the know-
ledge economy’, is at the centre of much current educational discus-
sion. The competencies, skills and attitudes required by this person
are inextricably involved with new (and yet to be developed) tech-
nologies. But the issue goes beyond technology to the need for changes
in current educational practices. Rather than using technology to
keep learners in a passive role (as some technologies make possible),
where learners are on the receiving end of resources and requirements
for activity determined by teachers, schools or other agencies, the idea
is to utilise the potential of technologies for more learner-centred
approaches, to give learners more autonomy and choice about how to
engage with what is offered. Although recent surveys show that around
60 per cent of teachers say they need training in the use of ICT in their
teaching,
9
the kinds of pedagogical change that new technologies
make possible frequently challenge current practice; so this is dan-
gerous country, an uncomfortable place to travel for many schools
and teachers. Our research experienced this at ﬁrst hand and this
book does not play down the tensions and dilemmas that are a part of
the change process.
There is, then, a general feeling that pedagogical change is needed,
and that, to an extent, technology will drive. This is also bound up
in a concern that young people’s informal out-of-school experiences
with and of technology are so at odds with their in-school experi-
ences that they may lose enthusiasm for formal education. The con-
cept of ‘personalised learning’
10
has appeared, associated with new
approaches to learner support and management and to closer links
between formal and informal learning which are in the process of
being articulated and exempliﬁed.
While a main driver for these desired changes may be to encourage
the range of competencies increasingly demanded by employers
and the economy more generally or to ‘beneﬁt learners entering a
rapidly changing knowledge economy’,
11
many in education will asso-
ciate them also with the creation of a more just, humane, inclusive
society, where the development and transformation of teaching and
learning serves social and emotional as well as economic ends.
The InterActive Education research project took up the challenge
of expanding teachers’ practice and empowering them in their uses
of technology for teaching and learning. The Methodological Appendix
Holistic approach with ICT 5

sets out the details of how the research was carried out. The know-
ledge and understandings teachers and researchers acquired during
this process are set out and developed in subsequent chapters of this
book. This chapter provides an introduction: it sets out some of the
central ideas that informed the work teachers and researchers did
together and illustrates some of the processes by which knowledge
was collectively constructed.
Achieving change
We know that to enhance learning using ICT, having the equipment
and meeting the technical challenges is necessary but not sufﬁcient.
Truckloads of hardware (however shiny) arriving in school will not
necessarily change much for the better. Teachers are key and effective;
professional development is the crucial element.
Experience has taught us that teachers remain central to students’
learning with ICT but, to fully exploit the potential of new technologies
in transforming learning, there is much for them to learn. Incorpo-
rating ICT frequently challenges well-established ways of teaching
and learning. This sometimes involves painful rethinking. Things do
not always work as planned and hoped. Ambiguities and paradoxes
emerge as new roles and new rules emerge. Technology alters the
social relationships in the classroom between students and between
the teacher and the students in ways that are challenging. The tension
between freedom/autonomy and constraints in managing learning
is a constant issue and is an important thread developed in other
chapters. We have found that learning is enhanced when teachers
analyse and understand the potentialities of different ICT tools as
they relate to the practices and purposes of their subject teaching,
and when these tools are deployed appropriately for their students.
The teacher’s role, at best, involves a complex shifting of perspectives
from the ‘more-knowledgeable-other’ to the ‘co-constructor of know-
ledge’ to the ‘vicarious participant’. Effective teachers orchestrate the
use of ICT, the interactions around it, and their own interventions.
Developing professionals
If the aim is to have a lasting impact on the current situation quick-
ﬁx approaches are a waste of time and money. We believe that to
change practice and achieve a long-term shift in conceptions of how
6 What are the issues?

ICT can enhance teaching and learning, the traditional relationship
between teachers and researchers has to be changed. Both groups
should bring their distinctive and complementary perspectives to
the project, and should see themselves as co-constructors in the
knowledge-building process. This book is based on research partner-
ships between university researchers, teacher educators and teachers.
This group of people collaborated in designing research-informed
learning initiatives and then analysed the outcomes.
A model of professional development where researchers are seen
as knowledge generators and teachers as knowledge translators or
users is too limited to achieve what is needed. The process of creating
researcher-practitioner communities as places where co-learning takes
place is complex, but the outcomes can be substantial. The majority
of teacher researchers in the InterActive project used ICT successfully
to enhance student learning. They attributed this success to the
support they received from the project team and to feeling they had
permission to take risks and experiment with embedding ICT into
their classroom practices. In many cases this was in the context of
institutional constraints and conditions.
Putting a ‘thought experiment’ into practice is not always a
comfortable process. The relationships established within a community
of practice are crucial. And, of course, being a member of a commu-
nity researching practice is only one of teachers’ many concerns and
priorities. In our experience, professional events such as inspections
by Ofsted,
12
high stakes assessment periods, school reorganisation,
staff changes and crises, as well as personal events such as getting
married, having twins, accidents and illness, all had an impact. One
effect is that teachers engage with their professional development in
different ways and at different levels.
Video as a tool for investigating teaching
and learning
Digital video can be crucial to teachers’ development. As a means of
capturing teachers in action and students’ responses, video, for us,
proved to be vital in understanding and evaluating practice.
Teachers and students quickly became used to the presence of
cameras in class. Teachers adapted more slowly to the experience
of seeing themselves in action, but in many cases the outcomes were
very positive, as this vignette shows.
Holistic approach with ICT 7

8 What are the issues?
VIGNETTE 1
A teacher reﬂects on the use of video
Ian Thompson was acting head of English in a secondary school
when he joined the InterActive project. Ian’s design initiative
involved 13–14-year-old students producing a magazine-style
newsletter for their parents about the school. The initiative was
developed jointly with ICT staff at his school. All the classes took
place in the computer room where students worked individually
with a PC each. Students had different roles on the magazine and
there was some interaction and collaboration. There were also
teacher-led class sessions reviewing progress and highlighting
different aspects of ICT and English. However, the majority of the
work was individual and the conﬁguration of the space was very
different from that of the English classroom. Although he could
circulate and interact more with individuals because the others
were all working on their PCs, Ian felt that he was less in touch
with the thinking of the whole class. The video evidence gave
him an additional perspective.
IanIt was a bit unnerving at ﬁrst having two cameras in the
room. Of course you got the usual reaction – some of the
kids made faces and played up to the camera; some of them
begged to be ﬁlmed. But we told them no-one was going
to appear on TV. After a while it was like everyone says –
we just forgot it and got on. Ours was a long initiative and
we had hours of tape to look at. It sounds strange but it
was one of the most amazing professional experiences ever.
I’ve been formally observed many times – sometimes it was
uncomfortable – things like Ofsted – but no matter what
anyone said to me I wouldn’t believe a word of it. Watching
yourself is a completely different experience. It’s the best
form of reﬂection I’ve found. It allows you to step back from
your practice and ask yourself: what is going on here? What
are the thought processes here – mine and the kids’? Why
am I saying that? Why did I think that objective was so
important? We’ve taken extracts from the tapes and shown
them to other members of the department. If I want to
make a point about teaching and learning it’s easier to pick

myself to pieces – it’s a good tool for a head of department.
It’s particularly valuable because it allows you to see the
outcomes of your interventions in a way that doesn’t focus
on written outcomes. To see process when you are in the
thick of it is difficult. On video you can see yourself
interacting one-to-one or with a group, more importantly
you can see students working when you are not there. I’ve
got insights into the way they think, what they are doing
with what I said at the beginning of the lesson. To be able
to see something of their thought processes is very unusual.
Most of us when we look at ICT we go for what’s safe.
We go to what we know. Whereas this sometimes is not
particularly safe – I like that. Have a go and get it wrong.
The video was the important thing – it’s allowed me to sit
and watch and be comfortable with it . . . It’s an important
process. I can now reﬁne my teaching . . . sit back and reﬂect
properly. I never had the chance and video made it happen.
Ian was one of the teacher researchers who became deeply
engaged with the project. He was also one of the ﬁrst to use a
video recording of himself to promote discussion in his department.
His story continues in Chapter 4. For other teacher researchers
micro-analysis of video data enabled the development of ideas
about the kinds of learning that were happening, and speculation
about the range of factors that were having an impact on this.
Chapter 2 provides detailed examples of this.
The use of video to focus issues and offer ‘realistic portraits of
practice’ can be a powerful way of moving thinking on.
13
Holistic approach with ICT 9
Using theory and research to inform
practice
The research that informs this book drew on socio-cultural theories
of learning (Vygotsky 1978, Wertsch 1985, Wertsch 1991). For us,
learning events in school have to be understood as embedded in
institutions and linked to the historical and political dynamics of the
classroom. Similarly, learning in the home both shapes and is shaped
by the history and structures of family formation and family life.

A key aspect of socio-cultural theory is the claim that all human action
is mediated by ‘technical’ and ‘cognitive’ tools. We interpret the idea
of ‘tool’ to incorporate a wide range of technologies and artefacts
such as pen, paper, book and computer, as well as semiotic systems
and institutional structures. Within this broad conception of tools the
master tool is language. We understand the computer as a techno-
logical tool where the culture and context of use shapes the potential
and possibilities of the tool.
A fundamental assumption in a socio-cultural understanding of
human learning is precisely this: learning is always learning to
do something with cultural tools (be they intellectual and/
or theoretical). This has the important implication that when
understanding learning we have to consider the unit that we are
studying is people in action using tools of some kind.
(Saljo 1999, p. 147)
From this basic assumption of ‘tools’ or a ‘tool kit’ as central to learning
we use Wertsch’s idea of ‘person-acting-with-mediational-means’, and
Salomon’s (1993) distinctions between the ‘effects-with and the
effects-of technology’, to consider classroom activities and interactions.
We also draw on ideas of intelligence as distributed (Salomon 1993,
Pea 1993) and learning as situated and socially constructed (Vygotsky
1978). Our interest is in learning communities and group practices,
and in the ways these are dynamic and changing. The way in which
individuals and groups draw on ‘available resources’ to create new
resources (New London Group 1996) led us to expand ideas around
the ‘potential’ of a tool (Gibson 1979, Norman 1983 and 1993) to
consider the differences between the planned and actual use of the
tool and to point to the crucial role of the teacher in considering and
planning for the use of tools. The concept of ‘appropriation’ (Wertsch
1991) is important to the analysis of the variety of ways in which
ICT tools are incorporated in different subject domains and the
concept of ‘instrumentation’ (Verillon and Rabardel 1995) explains
why different people appropriate the same tool in different ways.
To think about the processes and progress of change in the pro-
duction, reception and use of ICT in teaching and learning, a holistic
perspective is important. The national, local and institutional context
within which teachers teach and students learn is salient. A whole
range of school-related factors – teachers’ experiences of ICT outside
school, how schools are managed, the ways different school subjects
10 What are the issues?

mediate how ICTs are used, how learning with ICT might be theorised
in different subject domains – inter-relate and have an impact on
what happens in classrooms. What students bring into school from
their out-of-school experiences of ICT and how this relates to their
in-school learning provides another essential dimension.
Building knowledge about ICT
An important concept in this respect is the idea of communities of
learners (Wenger 1998, Lave and Wenger 1991). Co-researchers and
knowledge builders need to develop mutual understanding, conﬁdence
and trust. In our communities, group members explored beliefs about
their subject and the ways in which it is best taught and learned.
Key points about ICT and the subject were discussed and clariﬁed.
In general teachers make little use of research to think about or inform
their practice. We set out to share research-based ideas about teaching
and learning, and about embedding ICT in teaching and learning
and to consider them in relation to teachers’ practices and their
institutional settings.
For example, in the English Subject Design Team (SDT)
14
an activity
exploring poems using PowerPoint sparked a discussion in which the
issue of the ‘English bit’ and the ‘ICT bit’ emerged strongly. (The team
made a note to look at the work of Gunther Kress and of the New
London Group in subsequent meetings.
15
) Also articulated were the
tensions between current deﬁnitions of the school English curriculum
and its approach to assessment (as in the Literacy Hour, the National
Curriculum and GCSE courses
16
) and the kinds of activities learners
engaged in and the work they produced in response to the incorpora-
tion of ICT in learning.
Questions like: ‘Is English becoming a new subject, with new genres
and new texts?’ ‘How do we understand and respond to terms like
visual literacy, multimodality, multimedia?’ became central to the
English SDT as the project progressed. (This is considered more fully
in Chapter 6.)
Most teachers liked engaging with research-based ideas and
ﬁndings.
Dan Working closely with my university partner and the whole
team was without doubt the biggest inﬂuence on my learning.
I was introduced to new subject knowledge and new theories
of teaching and learning.
Holistic approach with ICT 11

MariaSometimes research was introduced but not in a pushy way.
It was more thoughtful. The university people would try to
explain why things had been done a particular way by using
their own knowledge of the area and sometimes they would
quote key sources and back them up with references. Then
it would move to us choosing one for discussion at our next
meeting.
They also for the most part enjoyed the idea that they were involved
in a research activity. Data collected in the classroom was considered
ﬁrst by teacher-researcher partnerships. Key points and issues that
emerged from this collaborative analysis became the focus for the
whole group. Extracts of data were presented and discussed. The
larger group became for us the forum in which understandings
developed and knowledge was co-constructed. In this context teachers
achieved insights into their own practice and to ICT in teaching and
learning generally.
HeidiIt’s just another tool – and it’s what you can do with it that
counts, not the tool itself.
SimonResearching work with ICT in my class reminded me that
learning doesn’t happen in straight lines but is a social and
shared experience which at times can appear chaotic.
Two examples, from secondary mathematics and primary English,
show how teacher researchers can work on data to extend the analysis
and generalise from the speciﬁc. Both examples are shown in the
‘comic strip’ format we developed to share ideas with other interested
teachers.
12 What are the issues?
CASE STUDY 1
Learning about functions and graphs
Rachel Zewde worked with her Year 9 mathematics group (13–14-
year-olds) to investigate the properties of linear functions.
17
She
chose to use graphic calculators because they could be easily
brought into the classroom, which meant that she didn’t have
to go into the alien surroundings of the computer suite. Many

Holistic approach with ICT 13
secondary teachers dislike taking students to a computer room
and this was particularly marked for the mathematics teachers we
worked with.
The class worked on functions for four lessons. Rachel’s research
partner from the university, Steve Godwin, used two cameras to
collect video recordings of Rachel with the whole class and also
of two boys (John and Mike) working together. Rachel and Steve
looked closely at the video from the third lesson, and from their
analysis selected one extract for discussion with the maths team
(see Figure 1.1 below).
The team members were interested in how the two boys
approached the task. John starts by ignoring the set task and trying
out the function he suggested earlier. He shows the results to
Mike and only then applies himself to the set task, quickly loading
the examples Rachel has provided. He identiﬁes a trend: ‘The
gradient gets steeper’. The video shows the way the boys use
their calculators: sometimes they work separately, sometimes we
Figure 1.1Learning about functions and graphs
continued

14 What are the issues?
see both hands on one calculator in close collaboration. The ﬁnal
section of the video shows the two boys transforming what they
have learned from using the calculator. John shows Mike how
they can use the trace facility of the calculator to identify the
coordinates of two points along the line and thus reconstruct it
on paper.
Analysis of the video suggests that both students, as well as
following their own thinking, were learning the mathematical
knowledge that was the intended focus of Rachel’s lessons.
Comparing assessments before and after the lessons, John’s score
went up by 57 per cent and Mike’s by 71 per cent.
Discussion of the video extract produced ideas about how the
potential of graphic calculators was helping John and Mike’s
learning.
• Investigating and trying out things – John was able to try out
his suggestions for a non-parallel function, see what happened,
show his friend and then apply himself to the set task. With
pen and paper John would not have been able to pursue his
idea AND follow Rachel’s plan for the lesson.
• Constructing and viewing a large number of graphs quickly
to develop an insight into the properties of related graphs
(graph families). John constructed a series of graphs suggested
by his teacher and was able to see how the gradient became
steeper. The time taken to produce graphs with pen and paper
places a limit on ‘seeing’ relationships and properties.
• Experimenting within liberating constraints
18
– Rachel was able
to set up carefully chosen tasks to scaffold the learning.
• Supporting pen and paper forms of representation.
The idea of ‘liberating constraints’ became a useful one for the
project. It is illustrated and discussed further in Chapter 4.

Holistic approach with ICT 15
CASE STUDY 2
Using e-mail to develop understanding of
how a sense of audience shapes writing
Emma Scott-Cook’s class of eight-year-olds used e-mail as a source
of information for their history work on Vikings. An associated aim
of the design was to increase understanding of the role of audience
and purpose in shaping writing. A university-based researcher
took on the identities of Thor and Freya, Viking settlers in England
in 880. In the history activity, information gained from ‘e-mailing
a Viking’ was combined in group presentations. E-mails (with
permission) were also shared with the whole class; in these plenary
sessions the focus might be on the historical content or on the
style of the children’s writing and the effect this might have on
a reader.
It was the writing development aspect that was foregrounded
when the English team looked at the data. In this case the data
was in the form of copies of the e-mails written over several
weeks, and evidence from six children who were recorded as they
read through the whole e-mail exchange with an interviewer
and recalled whatever aspects of the reading and writing were
prompted by this activity.
Presented below is the group’s commentary on the e-mail
exchange between one of the students, Annette, and the Viking
Freya.
The group commented on the way in which all the children
had entered the ‘ﬁction’. The interview data showed that although
they ‘knew’ that they could not really be ‘e-mailing a Viking’ they
were very happy to sustain the idea that they were. This ‘willing
suspension of disbelief’ appeared to create a strong sense of
authenticity which enabled useful work around ‘audience’. Looking
at the data and the analysis of Annette’s writing the team thought
that Annette had learned a lot about writing from the activity.
The ‘authenticity’ of the communication seems to have sharpened
her sense of audience as a controlling factor. The ongoing feedback
provided by e-mail was encouraging. Being given access to a
computer and time to write, the supportive frame of the e-mail
and little expectation about length were also identified as
continued

16 What are the issues?
contributory factors in Annette’s writing development. The team
also thought that the more ‘public’ discussion of the exchanges
in plenary sessions had been useful in enabling a speciﬁc focus
on language and ‘audience’. Gaining the e-mail recipient’s
permission for the messages to be shared was seen as important
Figure 1.2E-mailing a Viking

We end this chapter with a teacher’s story. It illustrates how
working as part of a research community of practice had both a
personal and professional impact, and how the various strands evident
in this book interweave in one teacher’s experience.
A teacher’s perspective on researching ICT
and learning
Holistic approach with ICT 17
as a clear acknowledgement of the interpersonal nature of the
format.
The group discussed e-mail as a genre and the many conven-
tions assumed to be associated with it. The feeling was that this
was a valuable form for the discussion of the range of ‘appropriate’
styles and the negotiation of a relationship between writer and
reader. The group also considered the effects of the research
method by which a sample of students had been encouraged
to reread, reﬂect on and reconstruct the process of composing
their e-mails. Team members felt this was a strategy that might
be incorporated in the teaching and learning as it was valuable
for writers to be given an opportunity to reﬂect on, review and
be articulate about a writing sequence captured in this way.
CASE STUDY 3
A personal account by Simon Mills
The school where I work is on an estate in South Bristol. Built in
the post-war housing boom of the 1950s it now suffers from many
areas of deprivation. We have over 450 students aged from 3–11
but the school population is constantly in ﬂux. On average 30
per cent of a year group can change during a Key Stage. A very
high proportion of our students enter school with signiﬁcant
learning delays, emotional and social difﬁculties and very low self-
esteem. The development of speaking and listening remains a high
priority. In a typical Key Stage 2 classroom attainment ranges from
children ‘working towards level 1’ to those achieving well above
the nationally expected average for their age.

18 What are the issues?
I have worked at the school for 16 years, which has been
rewarding, exhausting and high stress in turn and simultaneously.
In 2002, my head teacher asked me, as ICT co-ordinator, to
evaluate how the use of the interactive whiteboard in my classroom
was inﬂuencing student learning. I heard about the InterActive
project, made contact and was invited to join the mathematics
team. Looking back over the past six years I can see how much
my involvement has meant to me personally and professionally.
Most importantly, I think, it meant that I came again to see
teaching as a research-informed practice, something I had lost
sight of since my undergraduate days.
During one of our team meetings we were discussing how and
perhaps why some children found the interpretation of graphs
and charts to be problematic. One of us suggested that one of
the barriers to developing understanding of graphs and charts
was that young children could not distinguish between the
roles that various charts fulﬁlled. As the discussion unfolded I began
to think that perhaps the reason for this was not embedded
in children’s understanding but in the way the teaching of
mathematics in this area was limited by the paper-based activities
we use to develop it, and perhaps by the way in which charts
and graphs were perceived as mathematical tools by their users.
I decided that this was an area I would like to explore and
develop further. Data handling and graphical interpretation were
areas of the curriculum which my colleagues in school were
concerned about. It was becoming a common vehicle for engaging
children with ‘using and applying work’ within science. The
National Curriculum docu-mentation links data handling, with the
mathematics and science curriculum, and with areas as diverse as
geography (exploring land use, climate and change over time)
and design and technology (surveying and supporting the
identiﬁcation of needs). There is also the everyday use of charts
and graphs in non-ﬁction texts, newspapers and on TV.
I was also aware that the data-handling units, within the
Qualiﬁcations and Curriculum Authority (QCA) scheme of work
we were using, were frequently taught in isolation from the rest
of the curriculum. As a curriculum leader I wanted to be able to
offer an alternative, more integrated approach.

Holistic approach with ICT 19
I could see the limitations of paper-based work. It is very difﬁcult
to teach young children to draw, for example, pie charts. They
may be limited in the accurate use of instruments, and also in
their conceptual understanding of how to divide a circle using
trigonometry or proportion. The time it takes to generate charts
and graphs on paper has been pointed out by Ainley, Nardi and
Pratt (2000) as a reason why children rarely engage with charts
and graphs beyond their drawing and simple interpretation,
and why charts were rarely used for problem solving or the
identiﬁcation of trends and patterns within the primary school.
ICT offers a solution to these limitations. I decided that for my
design initiative I would work with my class of eight-year-olds to
look at charts and graphs not as things we draw, but as meaning-
making objects. The focus would not be on drawing charts, but
on collecting data and using ICT to help us generate graphical
representations. We could then concentrate on reading the charts
and understanding what they were able to tell us.
In class the sessions began within a structure very much like a
literacy hour. The children were given a number of chart types,
and asked to discuss these, framed by the following questions:
• what was the chart about?
• who might have made the chart and why?
• who might ﬁnd it useful?
• how useful was the chart?
• what features of the charts enabled you to make these
decisions?
They also sorted the charts into the ones they thought were more
and less useful; in doing this they had to discuss and present reasons
for their decisions. In the sessions which followed, we used a range
of interactive approaches including Smart Board Notebooks and
PowerPoint presentations to discuss ideas and support the con-
tinued exploration of charts as meaning-making structures, and to
identify and establish the features of ‘good’ charts that enable us
to interpret what they represent. It was apparent from these
sessions that the children had fewer problems in understanding
how to extract the stories that common chart types told than we
had conjectured during our discussions in the mathematics team.

20 What are the issues?
Moving from the classroom to the ICT suite, children were intro-
duced to the software environment Microsoft Excel, as a tool to
support the evaluation of a real-life problem. The problem was
‘borrowed’ from the work of Janet Ainley (2000) but I had no
problems presenting it to the children as an authentic one. I really,
really like Smarties, but I had noticed that there never seemed to be
the same number of my favourite orange ﬂavour in every tube. And
it had also struck me that there were more of some colours than
others in the tubes I bought. I asked the children to investigate
whether my impressions were correct. Each child was given a tube
of the sweets, and asked to count them, and input the frequency of
each colour to the spreadsheet. I emphasised the need for titles and
labels which would help the readers of our data.
What was interesting from the start was the existence of two
distinct ways of organising the Smarties for counting. Some
children sorted colours into groups while others sorted and
arranged their beans into columns, making a pictogram-type
presentation before inputting their data to the spreadsheet. This
observation became a key feature and teaching point since it
represented to me and the children a powerful way of linking the
frequency table to the bar chart representation they eventually
made.
Having completed the frequency table, one of the children
began playing within the spreadsheet environment with the chart
wizards. (We had used wizards in other Microsoft packages.) He
quickly and independently began generating pie charts and bar
charts from the data he and his partner had collected. Later when
the researchers interviewed children on their out-of-school uses
of ICT we learned that some of them had used spreadsheets at
home, and this experience must also have impacted on what the
children produced in the classroom.
For the following lesson I decided to have this student model his
learning for the class, and to use his actions to help teach what I
wanted the other children to learn about presenting data in chart
form. With the student modelling and me talking, the students
were shown how to create charts using the wizard. He also
modelled how to change the colours of bars or segments, giving
clear reasons why he was doing so: he wanted to match the chart
colours to the sweets as this would make it easier for people to

Holistic approach with ICT 21
understand. We discussed how to add axis labels and titles to the
chart and began to draw on previous work to think about how we
could use these to further help users to understand the charts.
Aside from learning about presentation, we also concluded from
our work that my impressions about the frequency of different
coloured Smarties were right. I asked the group in the ﬁnal session
to suggest ways that I might be able to investigate how many tubes
I would have to buy, in order to get a fair share. One of the girls
suggested that we could combine the class data sets in a pie chart;
we could watch the segments in the chart until they were about the
same size, and then we could count the number of tubes we had
used, and this would tell us.
This whole sequence of lessons took eight hours. The children
followed these up by desk-top publishing their results, and together
we e-mailed our ﬁndings to Nestlé and asked for some explana-
tions. To judge from their reply (an acknowledgement and a fact
sheet) they didn’t seem to understand we were a group of eight-
year-old investigators.
The conversations with my university research partners, the
video data and discussion in the maths team all made me more
aware of what was happening in my classroom and in the ICT
suite. I noticed myself being a ‘scaffold’ and a facilitator: picking
up on what the children had done, encouraging them to be explicit
and share their thinking, helping groups identify next steps,
focusing them on the ideas and skills they were developing and
constantly referring them to the questions they were investigating.
I was interested in the number of bits of unplanned and
opportunistic teaching and learning that had happened because
of the technology: the missed opportunities I might have
developed. It was clear to me that I needed and wanted to think
more about the relationship between my pedagogy, the ICT and
the children’s learning, in mathematics and all the rest.
Recent years have provided many exciting and fascinating
opportunities for me. In order to engage further with the data I
had collected I applied for and was awarded a DfES Best Practice
Research scholarship.
19
I then began a part-time MSc degree in
Education Technology and Society at the University of Bristol’s
Graduate School of Education. I am gripped by the things my
students can teach me about what it means to learn. For my

22 What are the issues?
Master’s dissertation, I am using video data collected in my
classroom as a ‘way of seeing’ and understanding what learning
looks like, and exploring how the range of classroom tools helps
me achieve my planned outcomes. I have been involved in other
university-based researcher-practitioner partnerships around new
technologies. I have had opportunities to share my emerging
classroom-based ﬁndings and practices with other practitioners,
researchers and a wider educational audience. This has been
through workshops, conference presentations, teachers’ TV and
publications. I feel I have also been a contributory voice in
local, national and international debates on policy, practice and
curriculum development, involving the role ICTs might perform
as tools to support teaching and learning. This year my school
has acknowledged this by providing the opportunity for me to
take on a non-classroom-based role to review our use of ICT and
develop it as a learning tool across the curriculum.
In school currently we have examples of children blogging in
Year 6, multimedia authoring in Year 2, staff multimedia authoring
to tell holiday stories from the point of view of our travelling teddy
bear, geotagging, stories developed within digital writing frames
and a host of other things, some of which have been sought out
for use by the Local Authority as examples of good practice for
the development of writing. I was recently asked to lead two
sessions for ICT subject leaders on the roles and potential uses of
blogs in the primary school. Web 2.0 is a really exciting place to
be.
20
I have started thinking out loud on my own blog (http://two
whizzy.blogspot.com). Reflections on the new framework for
primary literacy and numeracy are helping me analyse and come to
grips at long last with what multimodality seems to mean, and
supporting my thinking around the use of video. Having avoided
semiotics for so long, it has now become an inevitability, not just
because of my dissertation, but in terms of its practical application
to the emerging literacy curriculum in school. Interactive white-
boards, the new numeracy framework and our ongoing work on
data handling within social contexts, have all encouraged me to
push hard for our literacy and numeracy subject leaders to begin
broadening their views of what ‘literacy’ might mean and look like

Simon’s story shows the development of an enabled and proactive
practitioner; he exempliﬁes the kind of Masters level teacher the
profession is looking towards. Ideas around how we achieve this are
explored more fully in Chapter 4. Simon’s experience also provides
a practical illustration of how classroom experiences must be seen as
embedded in the wider context of home and school. Simon worked
effectively within existing local and national constraints on curriculum
and pedagogy. He was also already very aware of much of the social
background of the children in his class. However, as a result of reﬂect-
ing on data collected in his classroom and with the support of his
co-researchers he began to ﬁnd out much more about the experiences
of ICTs as tools that the children were bringing to school, and to
think about how these might relate to their in-school learning. We
consider the out-of-school dimension more broadly in Chapter 8.
Summary and conclusions
This chapter has identiﬁed the challenges, issues and questions which
this book addresses. These are located ﬁrmly in the current context
and stage of development in embedding new technologies in the
processes of learning and teaching for the beneﬁt of students in school.
Arguments about why it is important to address the issues and
questions associated with the challenge of incorporating ICTs in
learning have been set out.
The chapter explains brieﬂy some of the central ideas that inform
the book: the theories we draw on and the principles that underpin
the processes of the work teachers and researchers did together. The
three case studies illustrate some of the processes by which teachers
and university researchers worked together to build knowledge. They
show how teachers’ ‘designs’ are informed in an ongoing and iterative
way by theory, research-based evidence, teacher’s craft knowledge
and the expertise of the whole community. Reciprocity characterised
the processes by which knowledge was constructed.
Holistic approach with ICT 23
from the perspective of some of our students. I am conﬁdent that
none of this would have happened without the experiences and the
impetus to think about my practice and the children’s learning that
my involvement with the InterActive project gave me.

Each of the following chapters in the book develops and adds to
these ideas, drawing on research experience to engage in depth with
the issues and questions surrounding improving learning with ICT
which we have outlined and begun to raise here. Chapters 2, 3, 5
and 7 provide more detailed examples of this process in action.
Chapter 7, for example, uses the instinctively negative response of a
teacher to moving from his own classroom to the computer area (the
same instinct that in part prompted Rachel, in this chapter, to use
graphic calculators) as a starting point for discussing ideas about the
ways in which ICTs constitute a challenge to assumptions about how
people learn and how teachers should teach. Chapters 6 and 7 look
also at the epistemological challenges the InterActive project has
highlighted in relation to ‘subjects’, the tensions around subject
deﬁnitions and subject cultures that technology produces, and the
associated challenge to articulate these changing understandings in
deﬁning a school curriculum and approaches to assessment. Chapters
10 and 11 are concerned with the way in which our own thinking
has moved on as we deal with a very fast-moving technological
environment.
The vignettes and case studies in this chapter give a voice to some
of the teachers who have been active collaborators in the quest to
ﬁnd ways to make the most effective use of the potential of new tech-
nologies for learning and teaching. We hear these voices consistently
throughout the book. Not all those who were part of the community
moved as far as Simon or Ian. For others, their steps on the road
towards the ‘enabled practitioner’ described in Chapter 4 were smaller,
more hesitant, less secure. But it is important also to hear their voices
and their experiences if we are to understand how to face the
professional development challenge.
The book constitutes our response to the issues we identiﬁed and
the questions we posed at the start of this chapter. It also, we hope,
demonstrates our commitment to the most effective incorporation of
new technologies in learning and teaching for the beneﬁt of all
those involved. We believe this is an issue that matters. We also know
that improving learning with ICTs is a complex, many-layered and
subtle process; this book aims to contribute to the development of
better understanding of how this can be achieved, and to bring some
important issues into sharper focus.
24 What are the issues?

Notes
1 Prior, G. and Hall, L. (2004), DfES (2007).
2 Kitchen, Finch and Sinclair (2007).
3 See Goldstein (1997), DfEE (1997), Becta (2007).
4 Kitchen, Finch and Sinclair (2007).
5 This is a concept developed by Butt and Cebulla (2006) to indicate
the extent to which the use of ICT is integral to teaching and planning
in a school, and the extent of students’ access to ICT in and out of the
classroom.
6 Kitchen, Finch and Sinclair (2007).
7 Becta (2007).
8 Kitchen, Finch and Sinclair (2007).
9 Ashby (2007).
10 This concept ﬁrst appeared under this name in a pamphlet ‘A National
Conversation about Personalised Learning’ DfES (2004). It is supported
in the report of the DfES ‘Teaching and Learning in 2020’ Review
Group. For more detail see the government websites www.standards.dfes.
gov.uk/personalisedlearning and www.teachernet.gov.uk/management/
newrelationships/personalisedlearning.
11 Becta (2007).
12 The Ofﬁce for Standards in Education, a governmental agency charged
with inspecting and assessing standards of student attainment, teaching
quality, effectiveness and value for money of schools in England.
13 The InterActive project has incorporated video data in materials developed
to disseminate project outcomes. These include video papers and CPD
resources on the project website: www.interactiveeducation.ac.uk. See
also Olivero et al.(2004).
14 For an explanation of the role and operation of Subject Design Teams
(SDT) in the InterActive Education project see the Methodological
Appendix (p. 217).
15 See New London Group (1996). Gunther Kress is a member of the New
London Group. He has written widely on multimodality, representation
and new media in relation to education and learning.
16 Since 1986 the national curriculum in the UK has provided a structured
and assessed education through Key Stages for students aged 5–14. At
the time of the InterActive project students took standardised assessment
tests at the end of each Key Stage, at ages 7, 11 and 14. Post-14 students
generally followed two-year courses, including those for the GCSE (General
Certiﬁcate of Secondary Education) which are available in all subjects.
The National Curriculum and GCSE are administered by the govern-
ment’s Qualiﬁcations and Curriculum Authority (QCA). From September
1998 all primary schools in England have been expected to teach the
literacy hour as laid down in the National Literacy Strategy. The structure
Holistic approach with ICT 25

and content of the daily hour-long lesson is prescribed. From 2000 this
initiative to raise literacy standards was extended to English lessons in
secondary schools for students in Key Stage 3 (see www.standards.dfes.
gov.uk).
17 For a fuller discussion of Rachel’s work see Godwin and Sutherland (2004).
18 For further discussion of the concept of liberating constraints see
Chapter 5.
19 Best Practice Research Scholarships were awarded to teachers by the
government Department for Education and Skills (DfES) on a competitive
basis. Several teachers working in the InterActive project gained scholar-
ships which enabled them to pursue their research in more depth.
University researchers acted as mentors. These scholarships have now
been discontinued.
20 Web 2.0 is a phrase coined in 2003 and since popularised. It refers to a
perceived second generation of web-based communities and hosted
services – such as social-networking sites, blogs and wikis – which
facilitate collaboration and sharing between users.
26 What are the issues?

What does the research
tell us?
In this part we enter into the detail of the InterActive Education
project. We introduce a range of theoretical ideas that can be used
to help understand the challenges involved in introducing ICT into
the classroom. We present arguments and case studies to illustrate
the results from the project, which include:
• the teacher remains key to the successful use of ICT for learning;
• learning is distributed between the technology, the learner and
the social and cultural context;
• effective teaching and learning with ICT involves building bridges
between ‘incidental’ and ‘intended’ learning;
• there is nothing inherent in technology that guarantees the
intended learning;
• there is a two-way exchange of knowledge between home and
school use of ICT that impacts on learning in school;
• professional development needs to enable teachers to take risks
with ICT and learning;
• teachers can work within the constraints of available technology
to enhance learning;
• language remains the keystone of literate practices.
Part 2

Integrating ICT in teaching
and learning
Research in the area of ICT and classroom learning is now virtually
unanimous in claiming that while new technologies can be used to
enhance learning, they are not sufﬁcient in themselves to produce
effective learning. This chapter builds on this proposition and shows
that the teacher is key to ‘improving learning with ICT’. The chapter
further highlights the processes by which a teacher can act as a lever
to reorientate learning so that there is a convergence towards the
development of common knowledge. Much of the chapter’s argument
is based on the idea of the classroom as a collective experience where
learning is not seen as an isolated endeavour but one which is both
mutual and collaborative.
One clear observation to be taken from the chapter is that classroom
learning with ICT requires teachers to exploit the sense of familiarity
with new technologies that is now widespread among young people.
However, this also means that teachers themselves need time to gain
an intimate knowledge of the technology and that this can sometimes
be best achieved through ‘playfulness’ and experimentation. The
chapter has three aims at its core:
• to discuss the ways in which ICT can be integrated into classroom
practices to enhance learning;
• to highlight the ways in which students bring out-of-school
experiences of using ICT into the classroom;
• to emphasise that effective teaching and learning with ICT
involves building bridges between ‘idiosyncratic’ and ‘intended’
learning.
Chapter 2*
* This chapter was authored by Rosamund Sutherland and Dan Sutch.

Exploiting available technology
We know that merely introducing ICT into schools will not in itself
lead to enhanced learning nor will devolving the responsibility for
teaching to the technology. But we also know that it is possible to
ﬁnd ways of incorporating ICT into classroom practices to improve
learning. However, beginning the process of integrating ICT into
teaching and learning is not straightforward and involves being able
to imagine the potential of particular technologies for learning within
the contexts in which it will take place. It also involves taking the
risk of experimenting with ICT in the classroom. This process has
to be concerned with the here and now of available technologies,
as opposed to looking to the future for the next big technological
development that will somehow solve the problem of integrating ICT
into teaching and learning. Those of us who have been around since
the early days of the introduction of computers into schools have
observed how each new technological development, from Logo to
multimedia, to the Internet, to mobile technology to Web 2.0, has
been heralded as being the ﬁnal breakthrough that will make the
difference to education. We have also observed that riding the wave
of each new technological breakthrough never begins to address the
issues that face education. Rather, we believe that we need to focus
on understanding the inter-related factors that come together when
technology is being used to enhance learning.
Within the InterActive project we developed a way of working
that enabled teachers to work together with teacher educators and
researchers in order to start the process of using ICT in the classroom.
Each teacher developed a subject design initiative (SDI) and this
process involved:
•deciding on a focused area of the curriculumthat students normally
ﬁnd difﬁcult to learn and choosing ICTs that could potentially
enhance learning in this area;
•out-of-the-classroom design as a thought experiment.This involves
thinking about the area to be taught, considering relevant
research, developing activities and experimenting with the chosen
ICTs, while at the same time imagining how students would
engage with these activities from the point of view of the intended
learning. It also involves taking into account the background
knowledge and experience of the students;
30 What does the research tell us?

•into-the-classroom contingent teachingwhich draws on all the
prepared activities while at the same time opportunistically using
what the students bring to the lesson to extend their learning;
•out-of-the-classroom reflectionon and analysis of the design
initiative using video data collected from the classroom experi-
mentation.
In this approach learning initiatives usually started out as simple
ideas which exploited the use of available technology in schools. Over
time and with iteration they were transformed into powerful new
uses of ICT for learning. As discussed in Chapter 1 the InterActive
Education project was organised around subject design teams (SDTs)
in English, mathematics, science, modern foreign languages, music,
history and geography. Within each team a partnership of teachers,
teacher educators and researchers supported teachers to take the risk
of experimenting with ICT in the classroom.
Throughout the book we have incorporated case studies that
highlight the ways in which ICT can be used to enhance learning. We
start this chapter with an example from the work of one of the teachers,
Dan Sutch, from the English design team. Dan’s starting point was a
desire to help his 10–11-year-old students learn about spelling in the
English language. He worked with students, using WordRoot,
1
a
multimedia sound and word package to analyse the structure and
etymology of ‘hard words’, and through this work students’ spelling
improved.
Throughout the book we present the work of other teachers
from the InterActive project. In Chapter 5 we discuss how Elisabeth
Lazarus and Ruth Cole used ICT with 13–14-year-olds to support
their writing in German. They designed a drop-down menu template
in Word that enabled students to write more in the foreign language
and take more risks with grammar. Students’ writing on paper was
also enhanced after this initiative.
In Chapter 1 Simon Mills describes how he incorporated the use
of spreadsheets and an interactive whiteboard to teach 8–9-year-old
students statistical ideas. This initiative centred on a whole-class
investigation of the distribution of the colours of Smarties in a tube.
Later in this chapter we discuss how Marnie Weeden used dynamic
geometry software with 13–14-year-old students to learn about
geometrical proof. Students worked in groups and presented their
work to the class for feedback on the validity of the proofs they had
produced.
Integrating ICT 31

In Chapter 5 we discuss how primary and secondary students used
software to learn about composing in music.
2
Also in Chapter 5 we
present the evolution of an SDI for geography in which the teacher
used ICT to support geographical inquiry.
Incidental, idiosyncratic and intentional
learning
Analysis of the video data from the InterActive project showed
that students often work with ICT for extended periods of time,
investigating their own questions and experimenting with ideas in an
interactive and iterative way. This relates to the power and potential
of ICT for learning, and through this process students inevitably learn
and construct new knowledge. However, there is a tension inherent
in this potential of ICT. Extended individual engagement often leads
to the construction of idiosyncratic or incidental learning which is
at odds or is only part of the intended learning. For example, as we
discuss in Chapter 3, when primary students were using simulation
software to learn about the ecology of the sea they treated the
simulation as a game and became engaged in winning. The language
they used as they interacted with the software was about winning:
‘Don’t die . . . we gotta beat people . . . we need to beat 5 minutes’. In
this situation the students were not entering the world of science,
as the designers of the simulation had intended: ‘The Fishtank draws
on research from the new ﬁeld of “artiﬁcial life”, which focuses on
computer modeling of animal behavior. The VirtualFishtank adopts
a constructionist approach, enabling visitors to design (and not merely
observe) the behaviors of ﬁsh.’
3
It was not until the teacher began
to analyse video data from classroom interactions that she became
aware that students were interacting with the software as a computer
game, and that unknowingly she had supported this practice through
her own use of language.
Learning is an inevitable part of living. We learn from interacting
with the people and things which surround us, through language and
play. We call this sort of learning ‘incidental’ because it is not normally
planned as learning, and can take place in settings which have not
been speciﬁcally designed for learning. For example, we can learn
how to sing, how to play chess and how to throw a ball through
interacting with family and friends.
By contrast schools have been developed as institutions to foster
particular kinds of learning, and whatever the country or culture there
32 What does the research tell us?

is always some kind of ‘intended’ learning associated with schooling
which relates to a curriculum. Such a curriculum is not ﬁxed and
changes over time and between cultures. In fact, as we discuss in
Chapter 9, ICTs are challenging what should or could be in the
curriculum, challenging knowledge domains, such as mathematics,
science and geography. And, as we discuss in Chapter 6, ICT is also
challenging what is important in the school subject of English.
It is important to emphasise that in school there is not a simple
relationship between what students learn and what a teacher intends
them to learn: in other words there can be no simple transmission
from the teacher to students. Students will always learn much that
is incidental to what is intended. All that teachers can achieve is a
sort of convergence towards a ‘common knowledge’. Introducing ICTs
into the classroom does not necessarily help this process of conver-
gence and in fact can actually work against it. This is because students
can work with ICTs to develop idiosyncratic knowledge that is actually
at odds with what the teacher wants to teach, as illustrated by the
VirtualFishtank case study discussed more fully in Chapter 3. Students
also bring to the classroom a history of learning which can also
be ‘different’ from that which the teacher wants them to learn, as
illustrated by the vignette on geometry and proof discussed later in
this chapter. Students can also construct knowledge that is ‘correct’
for a particular situation, but is not generalisable to a wide range of
situations, as illustrated by the vignette on learning language,
discussed in the next section of this chapter. This is not a new phe-
nomenon, but can be exacerbated by the introduction of ICTs into
schools, and also by the more informal use of ICTs out of school, as
discussed more fully in Chapter 8.
Throughout the InterActive project we struggled with the ideas
of ‘incidental’ and ‘intended’ learning. Whereas the mathematics
and science subject teams were comfortable with discussing these
concepts, members of the music and English teams were less so,
sometimes seeming to adopt a position in which they wanted to value
all learning which takes place within music or English classrooms.
However, as we worked together throughout the project it became
clear that within each subject area teachers have strong views about
what they consider to be appropriate learning. This is evident in
Chapter 6 in which Sasha Matthewman argues for the importance of
retaining a focus on spoken and written language within the English
curriculum. This argument for maintaining an emphasis on language
in school occurs at a time when students are likely (if given the
Integrating ICT 33

freedom) to privilege other modes, such as the visual, when construct-
ing texts in the English classroom. We are not suggesting that all
teachers agree on what is to be valued within a particular subject
area, but that they have views about what they want students to
learn: views that are, of course, inﬂuenced by the curriculum. The
‘intended learning’ is what the teacher wants students to learn, which
is not the same as what they actually learn.
We now present two case studies taken from the work of the
English and mathematics SDTs in order to illustrate the creative
tensions inherent in integrating ICT into classroom practices, and
the crucial role of the teacher in focusing students’ attention on the
‘intended’ learning.
34 What does the research tell us?
CASE STUDY 1
Learning language in the primary school
Introduction
This case study is taken from the work of Dan Sutch who was a
member of the English design team. It is used to illustrate three
important aspects of learning with ICT. The ﬁrst is that students
inevitably bring to the classroom experiences of using ICT out of
school and that it is important for the teacher to value this learning.
The second is that when students are constructing knowledge for
themselves it is likely to work for a particular situation but is not
always generalisable to a wider range of situations. The third is
that an effective way of confronting students with their ongoing
knowledge construction is through whole-class discussion.
Dan worked over a period of two years to develop an inquiry-
based approach to learning spelling which incorporated the use
of the software WordRoot and PowerPoint. Students aged 10–11
years worked on a series of investigations of the English language
that centred around the idea of providing them with a ‘speller’s
toolkit’. In general lessons consisted of a mixture of whole-class,
group and independent work supported by extensive homework
investigations. The vignette we present here relates to two lessons
in which students were investigating how to select the appropriate
grapheme to represent an irregular phoneme.
4
For example, recog-
nising when the phoneme /e/ should be spelt ‘e’, ‘ei’, ie’, ‘ey’, etc.

Into the classroom – Investigating spelling
rules for the sound /e/
At the beginning of the lesson students were asked to consider
whether there are any spelling rules to help them build the sound
/e/. For example, if they were writing the word ‘bossy’, and they
had no visual memory of the word, how would they choose to
spell it? The teacher prepared a presentation in PowerPoint so
that all students could read and recognise the phoneme /e/ as an
introduction to their investigation. The slides were hyperlinked so
that the student would only move to the next screen when they
had selected the letter strand that represented the phoneme /e/.
This design took advantage of the potential of hyperlinks in order
to make the teaching point visually ‘jump out’ at the learner. The
on-screen action was activated by the learner and the ﬁnal screen
(screen 4) would present words with particular letter strands (in
this case the phoneme /e/) highlighted in an exaggerated manner.
Using synthetic phonics the students presented the possibility
that the word could be spelt: bossee, bossy, bossey, bossie, bossea,
Integrating ICT 35
continued
Figure 2.1Teacher-made ‘activity’ for reading and recognising the phoneme
/e/

Other documents randomly have
different content

κατάλληλος διά την φάλαγγα, ήτις έχει ανάγκην βάσεως
επιπέδου και χωρίων ομαλών, και λόφοι υπήρχον συνέχεις,
αλλήλους διαδεχόμενοι, εις τους γυμνήτας και ψιλούς
στρατιώτας παρέχοντες καταφύγια και περιδρομάς. Διά
μέσου δε ποταμοί ρέοντες, ο Αίσων και ο Λεύκος, ουχί λίαν
βαθείς τότε, διότι ήτον περί τα τέλη του θέρους, εφαίνοντο
ως δυνάμενοι δυσχέρειάν τινα να επιφέρωσιν εις τους
Ρωμαίους.
ΙΖ. Ο Αιμίλιος, ενωθείς μετά του Νασικά, κατέβαινε
παρατεταγμένος κατά του εχθρού. Ως δ' είδε την παράταξιν
αυτών και το πλήθος, θαυμάσας ανέστειλε την πορείαν του,
και εσκέπτετο καθ' εαυτόν. Οι δε νέοι αξιωματικοί,
προθυμίαν έχοντες να πολεμήσωσι, προυχώρουν εμπρός
αυτού, και τον παρεκάλουν να μη χρονοτριβή, και υπέρ
πάντας ο Νασικάς, θάρρος λαβών εκ της κατά τον Όλυμπον
επιτυχίας. Ο Αιμίλιος όμως μειδιάσας, «Αν είχον, είπε, την
ηλικίαν σου. Αλλ' αι πολλαί μου νίκαι, διδάσκουσί μοι των
νικωμένων τα σφάλματα, μ' εμποδίζουσι μετά μακράν οδόν
να συγκροτήσω μάχην προς φάλαγγα παρατεταγμένην ήδη
και ετοίμην.» Μετά ταύτα, τα μεν πρώτα τάγματα, όσα ήσαν
υπ' όψιν του εχθρού, διέταξε να συνέλθωσιν εις σπείρας, και
να φανώσιν ως εις μάχην παραταττόμενα, τους δε κατά την
ουράν να μείνωσιν επιτοπίως, να περιστοιχισθώσιν υπό
χάρακος, και να στρατοπεδεύσωσιν. Ούτως οι προσεχέστεροι
εις τους τελευταίους εξετέλουν αφανώς τους εξελιγμούς
των, και, χωρίς οι εχθροί να το εννοήσωσιν, ελύθη η
παράταξις, και εισήλθον πάντες αθορύβως εις τον χάρακα.
Αφ' ού δ' έγινε νυξ, και μετά το δείπνον ετράπησαν εις
ύπνον και ανάπαυσιν, αιφνιδίως η σελήνη, ήτις ήτο πλήρης
και υψηλά εις τον ουρανόν, έγινε μελανή, εξέλιπε το φως
της, και αφ' ού διάφορα μετέβαλε χρώματα, έπαυσε του να
φαίνηται. Και οι μεν Ρωμαίοι, ως συνηθίζουσιν, ανεκάλουν
το φως αυτής διά πατάγων χαλκού, και πολλά ύψουν πυρά
και δαυλούς και δάδας προς τον ουρανόν· οι δε Μακεδόνες
ουδέν όμοιον έπραττον, αλλά φρίκη και θάμβος εκυρίευσε το
στρατόπεδον, και λόγος διά πολλών κρυφίως διεδίδετο, ότι
το φαινόμενον σημαίνει του βασιλέως έκλειψιν (328). Ο δ'
Αιμίλιος, όχι ότι δεν ήκουσεν ουδ' εγνώριζε τας εκλειπτικάς
ανωμαλίας, αίτινες την σελήνην περιφερομένην εμβάλλουσι
κατά τεταγμένας περιόδους εις της γης την σκιάν και την
αποκρύπτουσι, μέχρις ού παρελθούσα το εσκοτισμένον
μέρος, πάλιν αναλάμψη απέναντι του ηλίου· αλλ' επειδή

πολλά απέδιδεν εις τους θεούς, και ήτον φιλοθύτης και
φίλος των μαντείων, ότε είδε κατά πρώτον την σελήνην
καθαιρομένην, έθυσεν εις αυτήν ένδεκα μόσχους. Αμα δ'
εξημέρωσεν, εθυσίασε βους εις τον Ηρακλήν, αλλά τα ιερά
δεν ήσαν καλά μέχρι του εικοστού· εις δε το εικοστόν
πρώτον εφάνησαν τα σημεία, και προεμήνυσαν εις αυτούς
νίκην, αν έμενον αμυνόμενοι. Υποσχεθείς επομένως εκατόν
βους και ιερόν αγώνα εις τον Θεόν, διέταξε τους αρχηγούς
να παρατάξωσι τον στρατόν εις μάχην. Αυτός δε, περιμένων
να στραφή και κλίνη το φως, όπως μη την αυγήν λάμπη ο
ήλιος κατά πρόσωπον αυτών εν ώ επολέμουν, παρήρχετο
τον χρόνον εις την σκηνήν του ανεωγμένην προς την
πεδιάδα και προς το εχθρικόν στρατόπεδον.
ΙΗ. Περί δε δείλην τινές λέγουσιν ότι διά τεχνάσματος αυτού
του Αιμιλίου προήλθεν η πρώτη προσβολή εκ μέρους των
εχθρών, και ότι οι Ρωμαίοι, απολύσαντες αχαλίνωτον ίππον,
τον εδίωξαν προς αυτούς, και ούτος διωκόμενος έγινε πρώτη
αρχή της μάχης. Κατ' άλλους δε, υποζύγια ρωμαϊκά,
φέροντα χόρτον προσεβλήθησαν υπό Θρακών, ών αρχηγός
ήτον ο Αλέξανδρος· κατ' αυτών δ' ότι σφοδρώς επέπεσαν
επτακόσιοι Λίγυοι, και ως αμφοτέρωθεν ήλθεν περισσοτέρων
βοήθεια, ούτω συνήφθη η μάχη. Και ο μεν Αιμίλιος, ως
έμπειρος κυβερνήτης, εκ του πολλού σάλου και της
κινήσεως προβλέπων το μέγεθος του αγώνος, εξήλθε της
σκηνής, και περιερχόμενος των οπλιτών τα τάγματα, τα
ενεθάρρυνεν. Ο δε Νασικάς, ιππεύσας προς τους
ακροβολιζομένους, βλέπει σχεδόν όλους τους εχθρούς
ελθόντας εις χείρας. Πρώτοι δ' εβάδιζον οι Θράκες, ών, ως
λέγει, η θέα προ πάντων τον εξέπληξεν, άνδρες υψηλοί τα
σώματα, λευκόν έχοντες και λάμποντα ασπίδων οπλισμόν
και περικνημίδων, μέλανας δ' υπ' αυτόν ενδεδυμένοι
χιτώνας, και ορθάς ρομφαίας βαρυσιδήρους εκ των δεξιών
ώμων επισείοντες. Πλησίον δε των Θρακών ετάττοντο οι
μισθοφόροι, ών το ένδυμα ήτον παντοδαπόν, και μεθ' ών
ήσαν Παίονες μεμιγμένοι. Μέτ' αυτούς δ' είπετο τάγμα
τρίτον, οι επίλεκτοι, το κατά την ανδρείαν και την ηλικίαν
καθαρώτερον των Μακεδόνων, αστράπτοντες μ' επίχρυσα
όπλα και νεουργείς φοινικίδας. Εν ώ δ' ούτοι παρετάττοντο,
αναφαινόμεναι εκ των χαρακωμάτων αι φάλαγγες των
χαλκασπίδων, επλήρωσαν ακτίνων σιδήρου και λάμψεως
χαλκού το πεδίον, και κραυγής και θορύβου το όρος ως
παρεκίνουν αλλήλας. Τόσον δε θρασέως και μετά τάχους

προυχώρουν, ώστε οι πρώτοι νεκροί έπεσαν δύο μόνον
σταδίους μακράν του χαρακώματος των Ρωμαίων.
ΙΘ. Εν ώ δ' εγίνετο η έφοδος, επρόφθασεν ο Αιμίλιος, και
εύρε τους εκ των ταγμάτων Μακεδόνας ότι ήγγιζον τας
σαρίσας (329) αυτών εις τας ασπίδας των Ρωμαίων, οίτινες
δεν τους έφθανον διά των μαχαιρών των. Αφ' ού δε είδε και
τους άλλους Μακεδόνας ότι εξεκρέμασαν τας πέλτας των
(330) εκ των ώμων, και εις έν πρόσταγμα κλίναντες τας
σαρίσσας, αντέστησαν εις τους ασπιδοφόρους, και την
δύναμιν είδε του συνασπισμού και την τραχύτητα της
αντιστάσεως, εκυριεύθη υπ' εκπλήξεως και φόβου, διότι ποτέ
δεν είχεν ιδή θέαμα φοβερώτερον, και πολλάκις έκτοτε
ενθυμείτο την εντύπωσιν εκείνην και την όψιν. Τότε δε,
δεικνύων εαυτόν προς τους μαχομένους ιλαρόν και φαιδρόν,
διήρχετο εμπρός των έφιππος, χωρίς περικεφαλαίας και
θώρακος. Ο δε των Μακεδόνων βασιλεύς, ως λέγει ο
Πολύβιος, όταν ήρχισεν η μάχη, δειλιάσας, έφυγεν έφιππος
εις την πόλιν (331), προσποιηθείς ότι θέλει να θύση εις τον
Ηρακλέα, όστις όμως δεν δέχεται δειλά παρά δειλών, ουδ'
εκτελεί ευχάς αθεμίτους. Διότι δεν είναι θεμιτόν ούτε ο μη
ρίπτων να ευθυβολή, ούτε ο μη υπομένων να υπερισχύη,
ούτε ο μηδέν πράττων να ευπραγή, ούτε ο κακός να
ευδαιμονή. Αλλά του Παύλου Αιμιλίου εδέχθη τας ευχάς ο
Θεός, διότι ούτος εζήτει του πολέμου το κράτος και την
νίκην το δόρυ κρατών, και πολεμών επεκαλείτο σύμμαχον
τον Θεόν. Εν τούτοις Ποσειδώνιός τις, όστις λέγει ότι έζη επ'
εκείνων των καιρών και των πράξεων, και έγραψεν ιστορίαν
περί Περσέως εις πολλά βιβλία (332), λέγει ότι απήλθεν
αυτός ουχί υπό δειλίας, ουδέ πρόφασιν θυσίας προτείνας,
αλλά διότι την προτεραίαν της μάχης έτυχεν ίππος να
λακτίση αυτόν εις το σκέλος· κατά δε την μάχην, ει και
ενοχλούμενος, και κωλυόμενος υπό των φίλων, διέταξεν
όμως να τω φέρωσι φορτηγόν ίππον, και αναβάς αυτόν,
συνετάχθη αθωράκιστος εις την φάλαγγα. Έπιπτον δε
πανταχόθεν βέλη παντοία, και δόρυ έπεσεν ολοσίδηρον εις
αυτόν, χωρίς διά της αιχμής να τον εγγίση, αλλά πλάγιον
επέρασε περί την αριστεράν του πλευράν. Διά της ορμής του
δε διέσχισε τον χιτώνα του, και τυφλόν θλάσμα εκοκκίνισε
το σώμα του, διατηρήσαν επί πολύν χρόνον τον τύπον.
Ταύτα απολογείται ο Ποσειδώνιος υπέρ του Περσέως.

Κ. Αλλ' επειδή οι Ρωμαίοι, οίτινες αντετάχθησαν εις την
φάλαγγα, δεν εδύναντο να βιάσωσιν αυτήν, ο Σάλιος,
αρχηγός των Πελιγνών (333) αρπάσας την σημαίαν των υφ'
εαυτόν, την έρριψεν εις τους εχθρούς. Τότε δ' οι Πελιγνοί,
(διότι παρά τοις Ιταλοίς δεν είναι θεμιτόν ουδ' όσιον να
εγκαταλείψωσι την σημαίαν), συνέδραμον προς εκείνον τον
τόπον, και έργα φοβερά και φόνοι συνέβησαν εκατέρωθεν
όταν συνεκρούσθησαν. Διότι οι μεν επροσπάθουν να κόψωσι
διά των μαχαιρών τας σαρίσσας, και ν' αποκρούσωσιν αυτάς
διά των ασπίδων, και συλλαμβάνοντες αυτάς διά των χειρών
να τας μακρύνωσιν· οι δε Μακεδόνες, δι' αμφοτέρων των
χειρών ισχυρώς κρατούντες τας λόγχας, και διατρυπώντες
τους κατ' αυτών επιπίπτοντας, χωρίς ούτε ασπίς ούτε θώραξ
ν' αντιστή εις της σαρίσσης την βίαν, ανέτρεπον κατά
κεφαλήν τους Πελιγνούς και Μαρρρουκινούς, οίτινες χωρίς
ουδέν να λογίζωνται, και μετά θυμού θηριώδους, ερρίπτοντο
εις τας πληγάς και εις βέβαιον θάνατον. Ως δ' εφονεύθησαν
ούτως οι πρόμαχοι, ωπισθοδρόμησαν οι οπίσω τεταγμένοι·
δεν ήτον δε τούτο φυγή, αλλ' υποχώρησις προς το όρος το
καλούμενον Ολόκρον, ώστε, ως λέγει ο Ποσσειδώνιος, ο
Αιμίλιος διέρρηξε τον χιτώνα του, ιδών ότι ούτοι μεν
ενέδιδον, οι δ' άλλοι Ρωμαίοι απέφευγον την φάλαγγα, ήτις
ουδαμόθεν εδύνατο να προσβληθή και πανταχόθεν
παρίστατο ακαταμάχητος, το πύκνωμα των σαρισσών έχουσα
ως χαράκωμα. Αλλ' επειδή τα χωρία ήσαν ανώμαλα και η
παράταξις διά το μήκος της δεν εφύλαττε συνεχή τον
συνασπισμόν, είδεν ο Αιμίλιος ότι η φάλαγξ των Μακεδόνων
παρίστα διαστήματα και διασπάσματα, ως είναι επόμενον εις
μεγάλους στρατούς και εις τας ποικίλας των μαχομένων
ορμάς, και ότι εις άλλα μεν μέρη προυχώρει εμπρός
θλιβομένη, εις άλλα δ' υπεχώρει. Τότε, ταχέως περιελθών
τον στρατόν, και διαιρέσας αυτόν εις σπείρας, διέταξε να
παρεμπίπτωσιν εις τα διαλείμματα και τα κενά της τάξεως
των εχθρών, και να συμπλέκωνται ουχί πάντες προς πάντας
μίαν συγκροτούντες μάχην, αλλά πολλάς κατά μέρος και
μεμιγμένας. Ταύτα ωδήγησεν ο Αιμίλιος τους αξιωματικούς,
οι δ' αξιωματικοί πάλιν τους στρατιώτας· και ως πρώτον
εισεχώρησαν και διέδυσαν εντός των οπλιτών, επί των μεν
εκ πλαγίου και εις τα γυμνά επιπίπτοντες, τους δε
περικυκλούντες και όπισθεν λαμβάνοντες, διερράγη η
φάλαγξ, και απωλέσθη αυτής ευθύς η δύναμις και η κοινή
ενέργεια. Εις δε τας καθ' ένα και κατ' ολίγους συγκρούσεις,
οι Μακεδόνες διά μικρών εγχειριδίων κτυπώντες τας στερεάς

και μέχρι των ποδών καλυπτούσας ασπίδας, διά των
ελαφρών δε και μικρών πελταρίων αυτών κακώς αντέχοντες
προς τας μαχαίρας εκείνων, αίτινες, βαρείαι καταφερόμεναι,
διέσχιζον παν όπλον μέχρι του σώματος, ετράπησαν εις
φυγήν.
ΚΑ. Εις τούτο το μέρος μέγας ην ο αγών. Εκεί και Μάρκιος ο
υιός του Κάτωνος, γαμβρός του Αιμιλίου, μεγάλην
αναπτύξας ανδρείαν, απώλεσε το ξίφος του. Ως δε νεανίας
άριστα εκπαιδευθείς, και εις τον μέγαν πατέρα του μεγάλης
αρετής αποδείξεις οφείλων, φρονών ότι ο θάνατος ήτον
προτιμότερος παρά ζων αυτός ν' αφήση λάφυρον εαυτού εις
τους εχθρούς, έτρεχε διά της μάχης, και αν έβλεπε που
φίλον τινά ή οικείον, τω έλεγε το συμβάν εις αυτόν, και τον
παρεκάλει να τον βοηθήση. Πολλοί δε και ανδρείοι ούτω
συνελθόντες, και μεθ' ορμής υπό την οδηγίαν αυτού τους
λοιπούς διασχίσαντες, ώρμησαν εις τους εναντίους. Διά
μεγάλου δ' αγώνος και φόνου πολλού και τραυμάτων
εκδιώξαντες αυτούς εκ της θέσεώς των, και τόπον έρημον
και γυμνόν καταλαβόντες, ετράπησαν εις του ξίφους την
αναζήτησιν. Ως δε μόλις εν μέσω πολλών όπλων και
πτωμάτων νεκρών ανευρέθη κεκρυμμένον, περιχαρείς
γενόμενοι και παιανίσαντες, έτι λαμπρότερον εφορμώσι κατά
των εισέτι ανθισταμένων εχθρών. Και τέλος oι τρισχίλιοι
επίλεκτοι, εις τας τάξεις των μένοντες και μαχόμενοι,
κατεκόπησαν πάντες· οι δ' άλλοι έφευγον, και πολύς ην ο
φόνος αυτών, ώστε η μεν πεδιάς και η υπώρεια
κατεπληρώθησαν νεκρών^ του δε Λεύκου ποταμού το ρεύμα
διέβησαν οι Ρωμαίοι την μετά την μάχην ημέραν μεμιγμένον
έτι μεθ' αίματος· διότι λέγεται ότι απέθανον υπέρ τας
εικοσιπέντε χιλιάδας. Εκ δε των Ρωμαίων έπεσαν, ως μεν ο
Ποσειδώνιος λέγει, εκατόν, ως δ' ο Νασικάς, ογδοήκοντα.
KB. Και κρίσιν μεν έλαβε ταχυτάτην ο μέγιστος ούτος αγών
διότι αρχήσαντες την εννάτην (334) ώραν να πολεμώσιν,
ενίκησαν προ της δεκάτης. Το δ' επίλοιποι της ημέρας
μετεχειρίσθησαν εις την δίωξιν, και διώξαντες τους φυγάδας
μέχρι σταδίων εκατόν είκοσι, μόλις αφ' ού εντελώς
ενύχτωσεν εστράφησαν οπίσω. Και τους μεν άλλους οι
θεράποντες μετά λαμπάδων προϋπαντώντες, μετά χαράς και
βοής τους έφερον εις τας σκηνάς, καταφώτους και
κεκοσμημένας διά στεφάνων κισσού και δάφνης. Τον
στρατηγόν δε τον ίδιον μέγα πένθος κατείχε· διότι εκ των

δύο υιών του οίτινες συνεξεστράτευον μετ' αυτού, ο
νεώτερος ουδαμού εφαίνετο, εκείνος όν ηγάπα
περισσότερον, και όν έβλεπεν εκ φύσεως μάλλον των
αδελφών του κλίνοντα προς την αρετήν. Επειδή δ' ήτον
γενναίος την ψυχήν και φιλότιμος, και αντίπαις εις την
ηλικίαν (335) εφρόνει ότι εχάθη εντελώς, εξ απειρίας
αναμιχθείς κατά την μάχην μετά των εχθρών. Αλλ' άμα το
στράτευμα όλον ήκουσε περί της ανησυχίας αυτού και της
θλίψεως, αφήνοντες το δείπνον, ανεπήδων και έτρεχον μετά
λαμπάδων, πολλοί μεν εις την σκηνήν του Αιμιλίου, πολλοί
δ' εμπρός του χαρακώματος, ζητούντες αυτόν μεταξύ των
πρώτων νεκρών. Κατήφεια δε κατείχε το στρατόπεδον, και
κραυγή ηκούετο εις παν το πεδίον, ως εκάλουν τον
Σκηπίωνα· διότι όλοι τον εθαύμαζον ευθύς εξ αρχής,
βλέποντες το ήθος του, ως ουδενός άλλου των συγγενών
του, πάσας έχον τας αρετάς του στρατηγού και του
πολιτικού ανδρός· Εξώρας δε, αφ' ού πάντες σχεδόν είχον
απελπισθή περί αυτού, επανήλθεν εκ της διώξεως, μετά δύο
ή τριών φίλων του, πλήρης αίματος και φόνου των
πολεμίων, ως σκύλαξ γενναίος υφ' ηδονής της νίκης
ακρατήτως παρασυρθείς. Ούτος είναι ο Σκηπίων, όστις μετά
ταύτα κατέσκαψε την Καρχηδόνα και Νομαντίαν, και πολύ
επρώτευσε των Ρωμαίων, και μεγάλην έλαβε δύναμιν. Εις
τον Αιμίλιον λοιπόν, αναβαλούσα η τύχη δι' άλλον καιρόν
τον φθόνον αυτής διά το τότε κατόρθωμα, απέδωκε τότε
εντελή της νίκης την ηδονήν.
ΚΓ. Ο δε Περσεύς φυγών, ανεχώρησεν εκ Πύδνας εις
Πέλλαν μετά των ιππέων, οίτινες σχεδόν πάντες εσώθησαν
από της μάχης. Επειδή δε, προφθάνοντες οι πεζοί τους
ιππείς, και λοιδορούντες αυτούς ως ανάνδρους και
προδότας, τους έρριπτον κάτω των ίππων των και τους
εκτύπων, φοβηθείς τον θόρυβον, έστρεψε τον ίππον του
εκτός της οδού, και διά να μη διακριθή, αποδυθείς την
πορφύραν του, την έθεσεν εμπρός του, και το διάδημά του
εκράτει εις τας χείρας του. Συνδιαλεγόμενος δε μετά των
φίλων του εν ώ εβάδιζε, κατέβη και έσυρε τον ίππον του·
αλλ' εξ αυτών, άλλος μεν προσποιούμενος ότι δένει το
υπόδημά του λυθέν, άλλος ότι ποτίζει τον ίππον του, άλλος
ότι θέλει να πίη, έμενον κατ' ολίγον οπίσω και
απεδίδρασκον, μη φοβούμενοι τοσούτον τους εχθρούς, όσον
εκείνου την αγριότητα· Διότι υπό των κακών τεταραγμένος,
εζήτει ν' αποκυλίση αφ' εαυτού εις πάντα άλλον την αιτίαν

της ήττης. Την δε νύκτα, όταν εισήλθεν εις την Πέλλαν, ο
Εύκτος και ο Εύδαιος, οι νομισματοφύλακες αυτού, ελθόντες
εις προϋπάντησίν του, τον ήλεγχον διά τα γενόμενα, και μετ'
ακαίρου παρρησίας τω ωμίλουν και τον εσυμβούλευον.
Εκείνος δ' οργισθείς, τους εκτύπησεν ο ίδιος διά του ξιφιδίου
του και τους εφόνευσε. Τότε ουδείς πλέον έμεινε πλησίον
του, παρεκτός Ευάνδρου του Κρητός και Αρχιδάμου του
Αιτωλού, και του Βοιωτού Νέωνος. Εκ δε των στρατιωτών
τον ηκολούθησαν οι Κρήτες, ουχί εξ αγάπης, αλλά διά τα
χρήματα προσκολλώμενοι εις αυτόν, ως εις το κηρίον αι
μέλισσαι. Διότι έφερε πάμπολλα μεθ' εαυτού, και αφήκεν εξ
αυτών ν' αρπάσωσιν οι Κρήτες εκπώματα και κρατήρας, και
τ' άλλα αργυρά και χρυσά σκεύη, ως τριάκοντα ταλάντων
αξίας. Φθάσας δ' εις Αμφίπολιν πρώτον, έπειτα δ' εκείθεν εις
Γαληψόν, και αφ' ού ολίγον επραΰνθη ο φόβος του,
επανήλθε πάλιν εις το έμφυτον και πρεσβύτατον των
νοσημάτων αυτού, την μικρολογίαν, και ωδύρετο προς τους
φίλους του ότι, εξ αγνοίας εσκόρπησεν εις τους Κρήτας τινά
εκ των χρυσωμάτων του Μεγάλου Αλεξάνδρου, και
παρεκάλει τους έχοντας αυτά, μεθ' ικεσιών και δακρύων, να
τ' ανταλλάξωσι προς νόμισμα. Και όσοι μεν καλώς τον
εγνώριζον, ενόησαν ότι εκρήτιζε προς Κρήτας (336). Εκείνοι
δε πεισθέντες, και δόντες τα χρυσώματα, εστερήθησαν της
τιμής των, διότι δεν τοις έδωκε το αργύριον, αλλά τριάκοντα
τάλαντα κερδήσας από των φίλων του, άτινα έμελλον μετ'
ολίγον να λάβωσι οι εχθροί, έπλευσε μετ' αυτών εις την
Σαμοθράκην, και κατέφυγεν ως ικέτης εις τους Διοσκούρους
(337)
ΚΑ. Και πάντοτε μεν λέγονται φίλοι των βασιλέων οι
Μακεδόνες. Τότε δε, ως αν είχε θραυσθή ο στύλος, έπεσαν
πάντες ομού, και παραδοθέντες εις τον Αιμίλιον, εντός δύο
ημερών τον κατέστησαν κύριον όλης της Μακεδονίας. Και
τούτο φαίνεται δικαιολογούν τους λέγοντας ότι πόσαι αι
πράξεις εκείναι εγένοντο δι' ευνοίας της τύχης. Προσέτι δε
και η κατά την θυσίαν σύμπτωσις ήτον εκ Θεού και αυτή·
διότι εν ώ ο Αιμίλιος εθυσίαζεν εν Αμφιπόλει, και το θύμα
είχε σφαγή, κεραυνός ενσκήψας εις τον βωμόν, έβαλε πυρ,
και ηγίασε την ιερουργίαν. Αλλ' έτι μάλλον αποδεικνύουσι
την εύνοιαν των θεών και της τύχης τ' αφορώντα την
φήμην^ διότι τετάρτη ήτον ημέρα αφ' ότου ενικήθη ο
Περσεύς περί την Πύδναν, όταν ο δήμος εν Ρώμη εκάθητο
εις ιππικών αγώνων θεωρίαν. Αίφνης διεδόθη λόγος εις το

πρώτον του θεάτρου μέρος, ότι ο Αιμίλιος εις μεγάλην μάχην
νικήσας τον Περσέα κατέστρεψε πάσαν την Μακεδονίαν.
Ταχέως δε διεσπάρη η φήμη εις όλον το πλήθος, και χαρά
εξέλαμψε μετά κρότου και βοής, δι' όλης της ημέρας εκείνης
κατασχούσα την πόλιν. Έπειτα όμως, επειδή ο λόγος δεν
εδύνατο ν' αναχθή εις αρχήν βεβαίαν, αλλ' εις όλους εν
γένει εφαίνετο πλανώμενος, τότε μεν διεσκεδάσθη και
εξέλιπεν η φήμη. Ολίγας δ' ημέρας μετά ταύτα, μαθόντες
σαφώς, εθαύμαζον πώς η αγγελία προέδραμε, και πώς το
ψεύδος περιείχε την αλήθειαν.
ΚΕ. Λέγεται δ' ότι και της επί του Σάγρα ποταμού μάχης των
Ιταλιωτών (338) έγινεν αυθημερόν λόγος εν Πελοποννήσω,
και εις τας Πλαταιάς της εν Μυκάλη κατά των Μήδων (339).
Την δε νίκην ήν ενίκησαν οι Ρωμαίοι κατά των Ταρκυνίων,
επιστρατευσάντων μετά Λατίνων, εφάνησαν ολίγον μετά
ταύτα δύο καλοί και μεγάλοι άνδρες, ελθόντες οι ίδιοι από
του στρατοπέδου να την αναγγείλωσι, και εξελείφθη ότι
ήσαν οι Διόσκουροι ούτοι. Ο δε πρώτος όστις τους
απήντησεν εις την αγοράν εμπρός της κρήνης να δροσίζωσι
τους ίππους των, καταβρόχους από πολλού ιδρώτος,
εθαύμαζε τον περί της νίκης λόγον αυτών. Εκείνοι δε λέγεται
ότι έψαυσαν το γένειον αυτού διά των χειρών των ελαφρώς
μειδιώντες, και αι τρίχες του ευθύς, μέλαιναι ούσαι,
μετεβλήθησαν εις πυρράς. Τούτο δ' έδωκε πίστιν εις λόγον
αυτών, εις δε τον άνδρα την επίκλησιν Αινόβαρβος, όπερ
εστί χαλκοπώγων. Όλα δε ταύτα κατέστησαν αξιόπιστα το
εφ' ημών γενόμενον. Όταν ο Αντώνιος απεστάτησε του
Δομετιανού, και πολύς πόλεμος εκ Γερμανίας περιεμένετο,
και η Ρώμη ήτον εν ταραχή, αιφνιδίως και αυτομάτως ο
δήμος αφ' εαυτού φήμην διέδωκε νίκης, και την Ρώμην
επέδραμε λόγος ότι εφονεύθη ο Αντώνιος, ότι ηττήθη το υπ'
αυτόν στράτευμα, και ότι ουδέν μέρος αυτού έμεινε. Τόσον
δ' εντελώς και γενικώς επιστεύθη η φήμη αύτη, ώστε και
θυσίας προσέφερον πολλοί των εν ταις αρχαίς. Ότε δ'
εζήτησαν τις ήτον όστις πρώτος το είπε, και ουδείς
ευρίσκετο, και ο λόγος, απ' άλλου εις άλλον κυνηγούμενος
έφευγε, και τέλος βυθισθείς, ως εις πέλαγος αχανές εις τον
άπειρον όχλον, εφάνη ότι ουδεμίαν είχε βεβαίαν αρχήν,
αυτή μεν η φήμη διελύθη εκ της πόλεως ταχέως. Επορεύετο
δ' ο Δομετιανός, μετά της δυνάμεως εις τον πόλεμον, και
καθ' οδόν τον απήντησεν αγγελία και γράμματα λέγοντα εις
αυτόν την νίκην. Ήτον δ' η ιδία ημέρα του κατορθώματος

και της φήμης, εν ώ οι τόποι απείχον υπέρ τας είκοσι
χιλιάδας σταδίων (340). Ταύτα ουδείς των εφ' ημών αγνοεί.
ΚΣΤ. Ο δε Γναίος Οκτάβιος, ο ναύαρχος του Αιμιλίου,
προσορμισθείς εις την Σαμοθράκην, ασυλίαν μεν έδωκεν εις
τον Περσέα ένεκα των Θεών (341), τον εκώλυε δε να
εκπλεύση και να φύγη. Κατώρθωσεν όμως ο Περσεύς
κρυφίως αυτού να πείση Ορυάνδην τινά, Κρήτα, λέμβον
έχοντα, να παραλάβη αυτόν μετά των χρημάτων του.
Εκείνος όμως, κρητισμόν μεταχειρισθείς, τα μεν χρήματα
έλαβε το εσπέρας, μηνύσας δ' εκείνον να έλθη την νύχτα εις
τον λιμένα πλησίον του Δημητρείου (342) μετά των τέκνων
και των αναγκαίων υπηρετών του, ευθύς αφ' εσπέρας
απέπλευσεν. Ο δε Περσεύς οικτρά μεν έπασχε, και διά
στενού παραθύρου παρά το τείχος κατέβη διά σχοινίου
αυτός και τα παιδία και η γυνή του, μη έχοντες έως τότε
πείραν πόνων και πλάνης. Οικτρότατον δε στεναγμόν
αφήκεν όταν εν ώ επλανάτο παρά τον αιγιαλόν, ιδών τις τω
έδειξε τον Οροάνδην όστις έτρεχεν εις το πέλαγος ήδη· διότι
υπέλαμπεν η ημέρα, ώστε πάσαν απολέσας ελπίδα,
επέστρεφε φεύγων προς το τείχος· και ενοήθη μεν,
επρόλαβεν όμως τους Ρωμαίους μετά της γυναικός του. Τα
δε παιδία του λαβών, τα ενεχείρισεν ο ίδιος εις τον Ίωνα,
όστις ήτον ποτέ ερωμένος του Περσέως, τότε δε προδότης
γενόμενος, έγινεν αιτία ν' αναγκασθή ο άνθρωπος, ως
θηρίον όταν συλλαμβάνωνται τα παιδία του, να παραδώση
το σώμα του εις τας χείρας εκείνων αίτινες είχον αυτά εις
την εξουσίαν των. Είχε δε περισσοτέραν εμπιστοσύνην εις
τον Νασικάν, και εκείνον εκάλει· επειδή δ' εκείνος δεν ήτον
παρών, κλαύσας την τύχην του, και την ανάγκην ιδών,
παρεδόθη εις την διάκρισιν του Γναίου, τότε μάλιστα
φανερώς αποδείξας ότι υπήρχε ότι εν αυτώ κακόν
αγενέστερον της φιλαργυρίας, η φιλοψυχία, δι' ής εστερήθη
του μόνου ό η τύχη δεν αφαιρεί από των δυστυχησάντων,
την συμπάθειαν. Διότι παρεκάλεσε να τον φέρωσι προς τον
Αιμίλιον, όστις αναστάς τον προϋπάντησε μετά των φίλων
του δακρύων, ως άνδρα μέγαν, πεσόντα πτώσιν υπό των
Θεών επιβληθείσαν και δυστυχή. Εκείνος δε, αίσχιστον
θέαμα! πεσών κατά γης, και τα γόνατα αυτού εναγκαλισθείς,
εξέπεμψε φωνάς αγενείς, και δεήσεις άς δεν υπέμεινεν ουδ'
ήκουσεν ο Αιμίλιος, αλλά προσβλέψας αυτόν μετά προσώπου
αλγούντος και λελυπημένου· «Τι, ω ταλαίπωρε, τω είπε
ταύτα πράττων, αφαιρείς από της τύχης το μέγιστον των

ρ ,φρς ηςχης μγ
προς σε εγκλημάτων της, και φαίνεσαι ότι πάσχεις ουχί παρ'
αξίαν, και ότι ανάξιος είσαι ουχί ταύτης, αλλά της αρχαίας
σου τύχης; Διατί δε ταπεινοίς και την νίκην μου, και το
κατώρθωμά μου κάμνεις μικρόν, δεικνύων σεαυτόν ούτε
γενναίον ούτε άξιον των Ρωμαίων ανταγωνιστήν;» Των
δυστυχούντων η αρετή απαιτεί σεβασμού φόρον και παρά
των πολεμίων. Η δειλεία δε, και όταν ευημερή, θεωρείται
ατιμοτάτη παρά τοις Ρωμαίοις.
ΚΖ. Ουχ ήττον όμως αναστήσας και εκ της δεξιάς λαμβάνων
αυτόν, τον παρέδωκεν εις τον Τουβέρωνα. Έπειτα δε τους
υιούς και τους γαμβρούς του και των άλλων αξιωματικών
τους νεωτάτους καλέσας εντός της σκηνής, πολύν καιρόν
έμεινεν εν σιωπή και σκέψει καθήμενος, ώστε όλοι
εθαύμαζον. Αρξάμενος δε περί της τύχης να ομιλή και περί
των ανθρωπίνων πραγμάτων· «Άραγε, είπεν, άξιον είναι να
κομπάζη ο άνθρωπος και να μεγαλοφρονή διά τας επιτυχίας
του, όταν κατέστρεψεν έθνος ή πόλιν ή βασιλείαν; ή μάλλον
την μεταβολήν ταύτην να διανοήται της τύχης, ήτις
παράδειγμα προτάτουσα εις τους πολεμούντας, διδάσκει
αυτούς ότι ουδέν είναι μόνιμον και βέβαιον; Τις καιρός
δύναται θάρρος να εμπνεύση εις τους ανθρώπους, όταν η
επί των άλλων νίκη, αυτή προ πάντων τοις δίδει αφορμήν να
φοβώνται την τύχην, και εις τον χαίροντα επιφέρει αθυμίαν
τοσαύτην ο αναλογισμός της ειμαρμένης ήτις περιστρέφεται
και άλλοτε άλλους ευνοεί. Ή, όταν υπό τους πόδας ημών
επατήσαμεν εντός ουδέ μιας ώρας πεσούσαν του
Αλεξάνδρου την διαδοχήν, όστις εις υπερτάτην υψώθη
δύναμιν και μέγιστον είχε κράτος, και όταν τους μέχρις
εσχάτων διά τοσούτων μυριάδων πεζών και χιλιάδων ιππέων
δοριφορουμένους βασιλείς βλέπωμεν εξ εχθρικών χειρών
εφήμερον τροφήν και ποτόν λαμβάνοντας, νομίζετε ότι τα
καθ' ημάς έχουσι διαρκή τινα βεβαιότητα περιεχομένου του
χρόνου; Καταστείλατε σεις οι νέοι την ματαίαν υπεροψίαν
και το γαυρίαμα της νίκης, και ταπεινοί κλίνατε την
κεφαλήν, εις το μέλλον αποβλέποντες πάντοτε μετά
προσδοκίας του τέλους, ότε ο Θεός θέλει ρίψει εφ' ημών την
νέμεσιν της παρούσης ευημερίας.» Toιαύτα πολλά λέγουσιν
ότι είπεν ο Αιμίλιος, και απέπεμψε τους νέους, καλώς, ως διά
χαλινού, διά του αναχαιτίζοντος λόγου κολάσας το καύχημα
αυτών και την ύβριν.

ΚΗ. Μετά δε τούτο έτρεψε τον μεν στρατόν εις ανάπαυσιν,
αυτός δ' απήλθε ν' επισκεφθή την Ελλάδα, διατριβήν
ποιούμενος ένδοξον ενταυτώ και φιλάνθρωπον. Διότι
παριερχόμενος ανεκούφιζε τους δήμους, και συνίστα τα
πολιτεύματα, και δωρεάς έδιδε, είς τινας μεν σίτον εκ του
βασιλικού, εις άλλους δε έλαιον· εξ' ού λέγεται ότι τοσούτον
ευρέθη εν ταις αποθήκαις, ώστε εξέλιπον οι λαμβάνοντες
αυτά και χρείαν αυτού έχοντες, πριν ή καταναλωθή το
πλήθος των ευρεθέντων. Εις τους Δελφούς δ' ιδών στήλην
τετράγωνον μεγάλην εκ λίθων λευκών συναρμοσμένην, εις
ήν έμελλε να στηθή του Περσέως ο χρυσούς ανδριάς,
προσέταξε να θέσωσι τον εδικόν του, διότι δέον είναι οι
νικώμενοι να υποχωρώσιν εις τους νικώντας. Εις δε την
Ολυμπίαν λέγεται ότι ανέκραξε το πολυθρύλλητον εκείνο,
ότι του Ομήρου τον Δία ο Φειδίας απέπλασε (343). Όταν δ'
εκ Ρώμης έφθασαν οι δέκα πρέσβεις, τότε απέδωκεν εις τους
Μακεδόνας την χώραν και τας πόλεις αυτών να τας
κατοικώσιν ελευθέρας και αυτονόμους, φόρον δε να δίδωσιν
εις τους Ρωμαίους εκατόν τάλαντα, ών υπερδιπλάσια (344)
έδιδον άλλοτε εις τους βασιλείς των. Τελών δε θεωρίας
παντοίων αγώνων και θυσίας εις τους θεούς, προσέφερεν
εστιάσεις και δείπνα, αφθόνως μεν τα βασιλικά χρήματα εις
ταύτα δαπανών, ως δε προς την τάξιν αυτών, και την
διακόσμησιν, και τας θέσεις εις άς έκαστος κατεκλίνετο, και
τας δεξιώσεις προς τους προσκεκλημένους, και την τιμήν και
την φιλοφροσύνην ήτις έπρεπε κατ' αξίαν εις έκαστον,
ούτως ακριβή την περί ταύτα γνώσιν αποδεικνύων, και
τοσαύτην καταβάλλων φροντίδα, ώστε εθαύμαζον οι
Έλληνες ότι ουδέ τας διασκεδάσεις άφηνεν άνευ σπουδής,
και άνθρωπος πράγματα κατορθών τοσούτον μεγάλα, ότι και
εις τα μικρά επέδιδε την πρέπουσαν επιμέλειαν. Εκείνος δ'
έχαιρε προ πάντων ότι εν μέσω των πολλών εκείνων και
λαμπρών παρασκευών, αυτός ήτον η γλυκυτάτη απόλαυσις
και θέα εις πάντας. Εις δε τους θαυμάζοντας διά την
τοσαύτην του επιμέλειαν έλεγεν ότι της αυτής ψυχής έργον
ήτον και παράταξιν να διευθύνη καλώς και συμπόσιον, ώστε
η μεν να φανή φοβερωτάτη εις τους εχθρούς, το δε
ευχαριστότατον εις τους συνεστιωμένους. Προ πάντων δ'
επήνουν οι άνθρωποι αυτού την ελευθεριότητα και την
μεγαλοψυχίαν, διότι ουδ' ηθέλησε καν να ιδή το πολύ
ηθροισμένον βασιλικόν αργύριον και χρυσίον, αλλά
παρέδωκεν αυτά εις τους ταμίας διά το δημόσιον. Μόνα δε
τα βιβλία του βασιλέως επέτρεψε να λάβωσιν οι υιοί του,

οίτινες ηγάπων τα γράμματα· και διανέμων αριστεία της
μάχης, έδωκεν εις τον γαμβρόν του Αίλιον Τουβέρωνα
φιάλην βάρος έχουσαν πέντε λύτρων. Ούτος είναι ο
Τουβέρων, περί ού είπωμεν ότι κατώκει μετά δεκαπέντε
άλλων συγγενών του, και ότι όλοι ομού ετρέφοντο εξ
ευτελούς τινός κτηματιδίου. Και λέγουσιν ότι ούτος είναι ο
πρώτος εις τον οίκον των Αιλίων εισελθών άργυρος, υπό της
αρετής και της τιμής εισαγόμενος· καθ' όλον δε τον λοιπόν
καιρόν ότι ούτε ούτοι, ούτε αι γυναίκες των είχον ανάγκην
χρυσού και αργύρου.
ΚΘ. Αφ' ού δ' ωργάνισε τα πάντα καλώς, αποχαιρετίσας τους
Έλληνας, και παρακαλέσας τους Μακεδόνας να ενθυμώνται
την ελευθερίαν ήν τοις έδωκαν οι Ρωμαίοι, και να
διατηρώσιν αυτήν δι' ευνομίας και ομονοίας, απήλθεν εις την
Ήπειρον, έχων ψήφισμα της συγκλήτου να ωφελήση εκ
λεηλασίας των εκεί πόλεων τους στρατιώτας όσοι
επολέμησαν μετ' αυτού κατά του Περσέως. Θέλων δε να
επιπέση καθ' όλων συγχρόνως, και εν ώ ουδείς τον
περιέμενεν, εμήνυσε και ήλθον προς αυτόν δέκα οι πρώτοι
εξ εκάστης πόλεως, και διέταξεν αυτούς όσος άργυρος και
χρυσός υπήρχεν εις τας οικίας και τα ιερά, να τον φέρωσιν
εις αυτόν εν ημέρα ρητή. Μεθ' εκάστων δ' εξ αυτών
έστειλεν, ως δι' αυτό τούτο δήθεν, και φρουράν στρατιωτών,
και ταξίαρχον προσποιούμενον ότι ζητεί και παραλαμβάνει το
χρυσίον. Όταν δ' έφθασεν η ημέρα, εις ένα και τον αυτόν
καιρόν ορμήσαντες όλοι ομού, ετράπησαν εις επιδρομήν και
διαρπαγήν των πόλεων· ώστε εντός μιάς ώρας
εξηνδραποδίσθησαν εκατόν πεντήκοντα χιλιάδες ανθρώπων,
επορθήθησαν δε πόλεις εβδομήκοντα· από τόσης δε φθοράς
και τοσούτου ολέθρου έκαστος στρατιώτης δεν έλαβε
περισσοτέρας των ένδεκα δραχμών. Έφριξαν δ' όλοι οι
άνθρωποι διά το τέλος του πολέμου, καθ' ό κατεκερματίσθη
ολόκληρον έθνος, όπως προμηθευθή εις έκαστον τόσον
μικρόν μέρισμα και κέρδος.
Λ. Πράξας δε τούτο ο Αιμίλιος, όλως παρά την φύσιν αυτού,
ήτις ήτον χρηστή και επιεικής, κατέβη εις Ωρικόν (345) και
εκείθεν διαβάς εις την Ιταλίαν μετά των δυνάμεων,
ανέπλευσε τον Θύβριν (346) ποταμόν επί της βασιλικής
εκκαιδεκήρους (347), κατακεκοσμημένης δι' όπλων
αιχμαλώτων, διά φοινικίδων και πορφυρών, ώστε οι Ρωμαίοι,
παρακολουθούντες την ναόν ήτις προς τον κτύπον των

ρ ςη ήςρς
κωπίων βραδέως επροχώρει, την προέπεμπον ών
πανηγυρίζοντες έξωθεν θριαμβευτικήν τινα θέαν πομπής. Οι
δε στρατιώται, εποφθαλμιάσαντες τα βασιλικά χρήματα,
επειδή δεν έτυχον τόσων όσα ηξίουν, ωργίζοντο μεν
κρυφίως διά τούτο, και ηγανάκτουν κατά του Αιμιλίου·
φανερώς δε τον κατηγόρουν ότι ήτον προς αυτούς αρχών
βαρύς και δεσποτικός, και δεν ανταπεκρίθησαν πολύ
προθύμως εις την επιθυμίαν ήν είχε να τελέση θρίαμβον.
Εννοήσας δε τούτο ο Σέρβιος Γάλβας, όστις ήτον του
Αιμιλίου εχθρός, και είς των υπ' αυτόν χιλιάρχων, ετόλμησεν
αναφανδόν να ειπή ότι δεν πρέπει να τω δοθή ο θρίαμβος.
Πολλάς δε διασπείρας εις το πλήθος των στρατιωτών
διαβολάς κατά του στρατηγού, και την κατ' αυτού οργήν έτι
μάλλον διερεθίσας, εζήτει παρά των δημάρχων και άλλην
ημέραν, διότι δεν τω ήρκει εκείνη προς την κατηγορίαν, αν
και είχε τέσσαρας έτι ώρας επιλοίπους. Οι δε δήμαρχοι τω
είπον να ειπή ό,τι θέλει· και τότε αρχίσας λόγον μακρόν και
ύβρεων πλήρη παντοδαπών, κατηνάλωσε της ημέρας τον
χρόνον. Ως δ' έγινε σκότος, οι μεν δήμαρχοι έλυσαν την
εκκλησίαν, οι δε στρατιώται θρασύτεροι γενόμενοι,
συνέδραμον προς τον Γάλβαν, και συνασπισθέντες, περί την
αυγήν κατέλαβον το Καπιτώλιον διότι οι δήμαρχοι εκεί
έμελλον να συναθροίσωσι την εκκλησίαν.
ΛΑ. Άμα δ' εξημέρωσε, προέβησαν εις την ψηφοφορίαν, και
η πρώτη φυλή εψήφισε κατά του θριάμβου. Ως δ' ενόησε το
πράγμα ο άλλος δήμος και η σύγκλητος, το μεν πλήθος,
λυπούμενον ότι υβρίζετο ο Αιμίλιος, φωνάς εξέπεμπεν
απράκτους· οι δ' επισημότατοι των βουλευτών, βοώντες ότι
το γινόμενον ήτον δεινόν, παρεκίνουν αλλήλους να
επιληφθώσι της αναιδείας και της θρασύτητος των
στρατιωτών, ήτις έμελλεν εις παν άνομον και βίαιον έργον
να εκτραχηλισθή, αν ουδέν τους εκώλυε ν' αφαιρέσωσιν από
του Αιμιλίου Παύλου τας επινικίους τιμάς. Διασχίσαντες
επομένως τον όχλον και αναβάντες αθρόοι, είπον εις τους
δημάρχους ν' αναβάλωσι την ψηφοφορίαν μέχρις ού
εκθέσωσιν όσα θέλουσιν εις το πλήθος. Ως δ' έπαυσαν
πάντες, και έγινε σιωπή, ανελθών ανήρ υπατικός, όστις διά
προκλήσεων είχε φονεύσει εικοσιτρείς εχθρούς, ο Μάρκος
Σερβίλιος, είπεν ότι, «πόσον μέγας στρατηγός ήτον ο
Αιμίλιος Παύλος, ήδη προ πάντων το εννοεί, βλέπων ότι
στράτευμα έχων τόσης γέμον κακίας και απειθείας, τόσω
καλάς και μεγάλας πράξεις κατώρθωσε δι' αυτού· θαυμάζει

δε τον δήμον, αν χαίρων διά τους κατά των Ιλλυριών και
Λιγύων θριάμβους, στερή εαυτόν εκ φθόνου της
ευχαριστήσεως του να ιδή ζώντα τον βασιλέα των
Μακεδόνων, και του Αλεξάνδρου και του Φιλίππου την δόξαν
αιχμάλωτον φερομένην υπό των ρωμαϊκών όπλων. Διότι,
είπε, πώς δεν είναι δεινόν, ότι πριν, όταν διεδόθη φήμη
αβέβαιος εις την πόλιν περί της νίκης, σεις εθύσατε εις τους
θεούς, ευχόμενοι τον λόγον τούτον ταχέως να ιδήτε
πραγματοποιούμενον· όταν δ' ήλθεν ο στρατηγός μετά της
αληθούς νίκης, αφαιρείτε ήδη από μεν των θεών την τιμήν,
αφ' υμών δ' αυτών την χαράν, ως φοβούμενοι να ιδήτε το
μέγεθος των κατορθωμάτων σας, ή φειδόμενοι εχθρού
βασιλέως; Τότε καν καλλήτερον θα ήτον αν απεκρούετε τον
θρίαμβον εξ οίκτου προς εκείνον, ουχί εκ φθόνου προς τον
στρατηγόν. Αλλ' εις τοσαύτην, είπεν, εξουσίαν προάγεται δι'
ημών, ώστε περί στρατηγίας και θριάμβου τολμά να ομιλή
άνθρωπος άτρωτος, και το σώμα έχων στίλβον εκ λειότητος
και σκιατραφίας, προς ημάς οίτινες διά τοσούτων τραυμάτων
επαιδεύθημεν να κρίνωμεν τας αρετάς και τας κακίας των
στρατηγών.» Και ταύτα λέγων, ανέωξε τον χιτώνα του, και
έδειξεν εις το στήθος του πληγών πλήθος απίστευτον.
Έπειτα δε στραφείς, ανεκάλυψε μέρη τινά του σώματος,
άτινα η ευπρέπεια δεν επιτρέπει να δείκνυνται γυμνά εις τον
όχλον. Και προς τον Γάλβαν στραφείς, «Συ μεν, είπε, γελάς
διά ταύτα· εγώ δε σεμνύνομαι απέναντι των πολιτών· διότι
υπέρ αυτών ημέραν και νύκτα έφιππος τρέχων, έλαβον
ταύτα. Αλλ' ελθέ και κάλεσον αυτούς εις την ψηφοφορίαν·
εγώ δε καταβάς, θέλω τους παρακολουθήσει πάντας, και
θέλω γνωρίσει τους κακούς και τους αχαρίστους, τους
θέλοντας να δημαγωγώνται και ουχί να στρατηγώνται εις
τους πολέμους.»
ΛΒ. Ούτω λέγουσιν ότι υπό, των λόγων τούτων ανεχαιτίσθη
και μετεπείσθη το στρατιωτικόν, ώστε πάσαι αι φυλαί
επεκύρωσαν τον θρίαμβον υπέρ του Αιμιλίου. Λέγεται δ' ότι
ούτως ετελέσθη αυτός. Ο μεν δήμος, εις τα ιππικά θέατρα,
τα καλούμενα Κίρκους, και εις την αγοράν στήσαντες
ικριώματα, και τ' άλλα μέρη καταλαβόντες της πόλεως, όσα
κατάλληλα εις θέσιν της πομπής, εκάθηντο να ιδώσιν αυτήν
εστολισμένοι, και καθαρά ενδύματα φέροντες. Πας δε ναός
ανεώχθη, και ην πλήρης στεφάνων και θυμιαμάτων.
Υπηρέται δε, πολλοί και ραβδούχοι, εμποδίζοντες τους
ατάκτως συρρέοντας και τρέχοντας εις το μέσον, ετήρουν

ανοικτάς και καθαράς τας οδούς. Διηρέθη δ' η πομπή εις
ημέρας τρεις, και εξ αυτών η μεν πρώτη παρέστησε την
θέαν, μόλις εξαρκέσασα εις αυτήν, των αιχμαλώτων
ανδριάντων και εικόνων, και κολοσσών, κομιζομένων επί
ζευγών διακοσίων πεντήκοντα. Την δ' επαύριον διέβησαν εν
πομπή τα κάλλιστα και πολυτελέστατα των Μακεδονικών
όπλων εντός πολλών αμαξών, αστράπτοντα όλα εκ νεοχύτου
χαλκού και σιδήρου, και ούτως εντέχνως διατεθειμένα και
συναρμοσμένα, ώστε να φαίνωνται ως αν είχον σωρευθή
ανωμάλως και αυτομάτως, περικεφαλαίαι πλησίον ασπίδων,
και θώρακες επί κνημίδων, και Κρητικαί πέλται, και Θράκια
δόρατα, και φαρέτραι μεθ' ιππικών αναμεμιγμέναι χαλινών,
και ξίφη γυμνά μεταξύ τούτων προκύπτοντα, και σάρισσαι
παραπεπηγμέναι· και ήσαν δεδεμένα χαλαρώς, όσον
απητείτο ώστε η προς άλληλα κρούσις, όταν εσύροντο υπό
των αμαξών, να ηχή τραχέως και φοβερώς, και η όψις
αυτών και νενικημένων να εμπνέη φόβον τινά. Μετά δε τας
οπλοφόρους αμάξας είποντο άνδρες τρισχίλιοι, νόμισμα
φέροντες αργυρούν εντός αγγείων επτακοσίων πεντήκοντα
τριταλάντων, ών έκαστον εκόμιζον ανά τέσσαρες. Άλλοι δ'
έφερον κρατήρας αργυρούς, και κέρατα (348) και φιάλας,
και ποτήρια, και καλώς διατεθειμένα όλα διά την πομπήν, και
αξιόλογα διά το μέγεθος και την παχύτητα των τορευμάτων
αυτών.
ΛΓ. Την δε τρίτην ημέραν ευθύς την αυγήν επορεύοντο
σαλπιγκταί, παίζοντες μέλος ουχί προσόδων (349) ούτε
πομπικόν, αλλ' όμοιον εκείνου δι' ού παροτρύνονται εις τας
μάχας. Μετά δε τούτων ωδηγούντο εκατόν είκοσι οικότροφοι
βόες χρυσόκεροι, κεκοσμημένοι διά ταινιών και στεμμάτων.
Οι δ' οδηγοί αυτών νεανίσκοι προυχώρουν περιζώματα
φορούντες ευπάρυφα, ως προς ιερουργίαν, και μετ' αυτών
ήσαν παίδες, σπονδής αγγεία αργυρά κομίζοντες και χρυσά.
Είποντο δε μετά τούτους οι το χρυσούν νόμισμα φέροντες
εις αγγεία τριταλαντιαία διηρημένον, ως και το αργυρούν. Το
δε πλήθος των αγγείων ήτον ογδοήκοντα, πλην τριών.
Τούτους παρηκολούθουν οι κρατούντες την ιεράν φιάλην,
ήν κατεσκεύασεν ο Αιμίλιος εκ χρυσού δεκατάλαντον, και
διά πολυτίμων λίθων κεκοσμημένην, ως και οι επιδεικνύντες
τας Αντιγονίδας και Σελευκίδας και τα Θηρίκλεια (350) και
όλα τα κατά το δείπνον χρυσώματα του Περσέως. Τούτους
παρηκολούθει το άρμα του Περσέως, και τα όπλα αυτού, και
το διάδημα επί των όπλων του κείμενον. Έπειτα, μετά

ημ μ ,μ
μικράν απόστασιν, εφέροντο δούλα τα τέκνα του βασιλέως,
και μετ' αυτών όχλος τροφέων και διδασκάλων και
παιδαγωγών, οίτινες εδάκρυον, και εξέτεινον μεν και αυτοί
τας χείρας προς τους θεατάς, εδίδασκον δε και τα παιδία να
παρακαλώσι και να ικετεύωσιν. Ήσαν δε, άρρενα μεν δύο,
θήλυ δ' έν, μη εννοούντα εντελώς το μέγεθος των κακών,
ένεκα της ηλικίας των· και καθίστα αυτά έτι μάλλον άξια
ελέους η αναισθησία των προς την μεταβολήν, ώστε παρ'
ολίγον να παρέλθη παροραθείς ο Περσεύς, διότι οι Ρωμαίοι
υπ' οίκτου προσείχον εις τα νήπια, και εις πολλούς και
δάκρυα συνέβη να χύσωσιν. Δι' όλους δε ην πλήρης λύπης
και χάριτος η θέα, έως ότου τα παιδία παρήλθον.
ΛΔ. Κατόπιν δε των τέκνων και της ακολουθίας αυτών
επορεύετο αυτός ο Περσεύς, ιμάτιον ενδεδυμένος χρώματος
σκοτεινού, και εμβάδας επιχωρίας μακεδονικάς· εφαίνετο δ'
ως υπό του μεγέθους των κακών τεθαμβωμένος και
στερηθείς της χρήσεως του λογικού του. Μετά τούτων δ'
είπετο χορός φίλων και οικείων αυτού, οίτινες είχον υπό
πένθους βεβαρημένα τα πρόσωπα, βλέποντες δ' αδιακόπως
προς τον Περσέα, εδάκρυον, ώστε προφανές ήτον εις τους
θεατάς ότι διά την τύχην εκείνου έκλαιον, ολίγον
φροντίζοντες περί της εδικής των. Ο Περσεύς είχε πριν
πέμψει εις το Αιμίλιον, και τον παρεκάλεσε να μη πομπευθή,
και ν' αποφύγη τον θρίαμβον. Εκείνος δε την ανανδρίαν
αυτού, ως φαίνεται, και την φιλοψυχίαν καταγελών, «Αλλά
τούτο, είπε, και πρότερον απ' αυτού εξηρτάτο, και ήδη
εξαρτάται εισέτι,» δηλών τον προ της αισχύνης θάνατον, όν
δεν υπέμεινεν ο ταλαίπωρος, αλλ' υπ' ελπίδων τινών
δελεασθείς, έγινε μέρος των ιδίων αυτού λαφύρων. Μετά
ταύτα δ' εκομίζοντο χρυσοί στέφανοι τετρακόσιοι το πλήθος,
ούς αι πόλεις έπεμψαν μετά πρεσβειών εις τον Αιμίλιον, ως
αριστεία της νίκης του. Έπειτα δ' ηκολούθει αυτός εις άρμα
κεκοσμημένον μεγαλοπρεπώς επιβαίνων, ανήρ και άνευ της
τοσαύτης εξουσίας αξιοθέατος, πορφύραν φέρων
χρυσόστικτον, και δάφνης κλάδον προτείνων εις την δεξιάν
του. Εδαφνηφόρει δε και πας ο στρατός, κατά λόχους και
τάξεις επόμενος εις το άρμα του στρατηγού, άδων δε οτέ μεν
πατρίους τινάς ωδάς, αίτινες είχον και μέρη προς γέλωτα,
οτέ δ' επινικίους παιάνας, και επαίνους των κατορθωμάτων
του Αιμιλίου, όστις ήτον περίβλεπτος και ζηλωτός υπό
πάντων, και ουδενός εστερείτο των αγαθών· εκτός αν
υπάρχη δαιμόνιόν τι προσδιωρισμένον ν' αφαιρή μέρος των

μεγάλων και υπερόγκων ευτυχιών, και να μιγνύη ούτω τον
ανθρώπινον βίον, ώστε ουδείς να έχη αυτόν άκρατον κακών
και καθαρόν, αλλά, καθ' Όμηρον, εκείνοι να φαίνωνται
μάλιστα ευτυχούντες δι' ούς αι τύχαι των πραγμάτων επ'
αμφότερα τρέπονται (351).
ΛΕ. Διότι είχε τέσαρας υιούς, δύο μεν εις άλλας
μετατεθέντας συγγενείας, ως ήδη ευρέθη, τον Σκηπίωνα και
τον Φάβιον, δύο δε, παίδας έτι την ηλικίαν, ούς έτρεφεν εις
την οικίαν του, γεννηθέντος εξ άλλης γυναικός. Εκ τούτων ο
μεν ετελεύτησε πέντε ημέρας πριν ή θριαμβεύση ο Αιμίλιος,
και ην ετών δεκατεσσάρων· ο δε, δωδεκαετής, απέθανε τρεις
ημέρας μετά τον θρίαμβον· ώστε ουδείς έμεινε ρωμαίος μη
λυπηθείς αυτόν διά το πάθος, και πάντες έφριξαν διά της
τύχης την ωμότητα, ότι δεν εδίστασε τοσούτον πένθος να
ρίψη εις οικίαν ζηλευομένην, και χαράς και θυσιών
γέμουσαν, και ν' αναμίξη θρήνους και δάκρυα εις παιάνας
επινικίους και εις θριάμβους.
ΛΣΤ. Αλλ' ο Αιμίλιος ορθώς φρονών ότι η ανδρία και το
θάρρος εισί χρήσιμα εις τους ανθρώπους ουχί μόνον κατά
των όπλων και των σαρισσών, αλλ' επίσης προς πάσαν της
τύχης αντίστασιν, ούτως ήρμοσε και διέθεσε τον
συγκερασμόν των εις αυτόν συμβαινόντων, ώστε εντός των
αγαθών ηφανίσθησαν τα κακά, και τα οικεία εντός των
δημοσίων, και δεν εταπεινώθη της νίκης το μέγεθος, ουδέ
καθυβρίσθη αυτής η αξιοπρέπεια. Και τον μεν πρώτον των
υιών του αποθανόντα θάψας, ευθύς εθριάμβευσεν, ως
ερρέθη· αφ' ού δε μετά τον θρίαμβον απέθανε και ο
δεύτερος, συναγαγών εις εκκλησίαν των Ρωμαίων τον
δήμον, είπε λόγους ανδρός μη χρήζοντος παρηγορίας, αλλά
παρηγορούντος τους πολίτας θλιβομένους δι' όσα εκείνος
υπέφερε. Προς ουδέν ουδέποτε, τοις είπε, δειλιάσας των
ανθρωπίνων, εκ των θείων εφοβήθη πάντοτε την τύχην, ως
απιστότατον και ποικιλώτατον πράγμα· μάλιστα δε, βλέπων
αυτήν ως πνεύμα λαμπρόν να βοηθή πάσας τας πράξεις του
εις τούτον τον πόλεμον, περιέμενε μεταβολήν αυτής τινά και
παλίρροιαν· «Διότι εις μίαν, είπεν, ημέραν τον Ιόνιον κόλπον
από Βρεντεσίου (352) περάσας, έφθασα εις την Κέρκυραν·
πέντε δ' ημέρας μετά ταύτα ήμην εις Δελφούς και έθυον εις
τον Θεόν, και μετ' άλλας πέντε ημέρας παρέλαβον τον
στρατόν εν Μακεδονία, και τελέσας τον συνήθη καθαρμόν
αυτού (353), και αρχίσας τας πράξεις, εντός άλλων

δεκαπέντε ημερών επέθηκα εις τον πόλεμον το κάλλιστον
τέλος. Απιστών δε προς την τύχην, διότι πάντα κατά ρουν
εχώρουν, και ουδείς ήτον φόβος και ουδείς κίνδυνος από
των εχθρών, προ πάντων κατά τον πλουν εφοβούμην την
μεταβολήν της μοίρας, διότι έφερον ευτυχώς τοσούτον
στρατόν νικήσαντα, και λάφυρα και βασιλείς αιχμαλώτους.
Αλλά και αφ' ού σώος ήλθον προς υμάς, και είδα την πόλιν
χαράς γέμουσαν και προθυμίας και θυσιών, πάντοτε
υπώπτευον την τύχην, ηξεύρων ότι ουδέν μέγα χαρίζει εις
τους ανθρώπους ειλικρινώς και άνευ φθόνου. Η δε ψυχή
μου αγωνιώσα, και υπέρ της πόλεως το μέλλον
επισκοπούσα, δεν αφήκε τούτον τον φόβον, ειμή αφ' ού
τοσαύτη μοι επέπεσε δυστυχία εις τον οίκον, και
ηναγκάσθην να θάψω αλλεπαλλήλως, εν ημέραις ιεραίς,
υιούς αρίστους, τους μόνους ούς κατέλιπον εις εμαυτόν
διαδόχους. Τώρα πλέον είμαι όλως ακίνδυνος, και θάρρος
έχω, και νομίζω ότι η τύχη θέλει σας μείνει αβλαβής και
βεβαία. Διότι ικανώς ανταπέδωκεν εις εμέ και διά των εμών
κακών τα γενόμενα κατορθώματα, τον θριαμβεύοντα ουχ
ήττον προφανές παράδειγμα της ανθρωπίνης παραστήσασα
ασθενείας παρά τον εν θριάμβω συρόμενον· εκτός ότι ο
Περσεύς μεν και νικηθείς έχει τους υιούς του, ο δ' Αιμίλιος,
νικήσας, εστερήθη των εδικών του.»
ΛΖ. Τοιούτους ευγενείς και μεγάλους λόγους λέγουσιν ότι
επρόφερεν ο Αιμίλιος εις τον δήμον, εξ αληθινού και
απλάστου φρονήματος. Ως προς τον Περσέα δεν ει και
οικτείρων της τύχης την μεταβολήν, και προθυμηθείς να τον
βοηθήση, ουδέν κατώρθωσεν, εκτός του να τον μεταφέρη εκ
του καλουμένου κάρκερε παρ' αυτοίς (354) εις τόπον
καθαρόν και εις φιλανθρωποτέραν δίαιταν. Εκεί
φρουρούμενος, ως μεν οι πλείστοι έγραψαν, απέθανεν
εκουσίως εξ ασιτίας. Τινές όμως ιστορούσιν ίδιόν τινα και
διάφορον του θανάτου του τρόπον. Λέγουσιν ότι
δυσαρεστηθέντες κατά τι και θυμώσαντες κατ' αυτού οι
φυλάττοντες αυτόν στρατιώται, επειδή κατ' άλλο δεν
εδύναντο να τον ενοχλήσωσι και τον βλάψωσι, του αφήρουν
τον ύπνον, και προσέχοντες ακριβώς, τον εμπόδιζον ν'
αποκοιμηθή, και διά παντός τρόπου τον διετήρουν έξυπνον,
και ούτω βασανισθείς ετελεύτησεν. Απέθανον δε και τα δύο
εκ των παιδίων του. Ο δε τρίτος, ο Αλέξανδρος, λέγουσιν ότι
έγινεν επιτήδειος εις την τορευτικήν και την λεπτουργικήν,
και ότι μαθών τα ρωμαϊκά γράμματα και την διάλεκτον,

έγινεν υπογραμματεύς των αρχόντων, και ότι εις την
υπηρεσίαν ταύτην έδειξεν ευφυίαν και επιτηδειότητα.
ΛH. Μεταξύ δε των Μακεδονικών κατορθωμάτων του
Αιμιλίου προσαναφέρεται η δημοτικωτάτη και τον λαόν
μεγάλως ευχαριστήσασα πράξις, ότι τοσαύτα κατετέθησαν
υπ' αυτού χρήματα εις το δημόσιον, ώστε δεν εχρειάσθη
έκτοτε πλέον να πληρώση φόρον ο δήμος μέχρι των καιρών
του Ιρτίου και Πάνσα, οίτινες ήσαν ύπατοι επί του πρώτου
πολέμου του Αντωνίου και Καίσαρος. Και εκείνο δε ιδίον
είναι και αξιόλογον του Αιμιλίου, ότι εν ώ ηγαπάτο και
ετιμάτο διαφερόντως υπό του δήμου, επέμεινεν όμως εις τας
αριστοκρατικάς του αρχάς, και ουδ' είπεν ουδ' έπραξε τι
χαριζόμενος εις τους πολλούς, αλλά μετά των πρώτων και
ισχυροτάτων συνειργάζετο πάντοτε τα της πολιτείας. Τούτο
μάλιστα και προσήψε μετά καιρόν ο Άππιος εις τον
Αφρικανόν Σκηπίωνα, ότι μέγιστοι όντες ούτοι εις την πόλιν,
εζήτουν την τιμητικήν αρχήν (355), ο μεν την βουλήν έχων
και τους αρίστους περί αυτόν (διότι αύτη ήτον η
πατροπαράδοτος των Αππίων πολιτική), ο δε, μέγας μεν ων
αφ' εαυτού, μεγάλως όμως σπουδάζων πάντοτε και να
ευχαριστή τον δήμον. Όταν λοιπόν είδε ποτέ ο Αππιος τον
Σκηπίωνα να εισέλθη εις την αγοράν, έχων παρά την
πλευράν αυτού ανθρώπους αγεννείς και αρχαίους δούλους,
ανθρώπους αγοραίους και δυναμένους να συναθροίσωσιν
όχλον, και να βιάσωσι πράγματα διά κραυγής και διά
σπουδαρχίας, αναβοήσας, «Ω Παύλε, είπεν, Αιμίλιε,
στέναξον υπό την γην, βλέπων ότι τον υιόν σου φέρουσιν
εις την τιμητίαν ο κήρυξ Αιμίλιος και ο Λικίννιος και ο
Φιλόνεικος (356)». Αλλ' ο Σκηπίων απελάμβανε της ευνοίας
ταύτης του δήμου, ωφελών μεγάλως αυτόν. Ο δ' Αιμίλιος,
καί τοι ων αριστοκρατικός, ηγαπάτο όμως υπό του πλήθους
ουχί ολιγώτερον εκείνου όστις δημαγωγικώς εφαίνετο
κολακεύων αυτό, και ομιλών ούτως ώστε να τω ευχαριστή.
Εδήλωσε δε τούτο και διά του ότι, εκτός των άλλων καλών
τον ηξίωσαν και της τιμητίας, ήτις είναι των αρχών η
ιερωτάτη, και μεγάλης απολαμβάνουσα δυνάμεως και ως
προς τ' άλλα, και ως προς την των βίων εξέτασιν διότι οι
τιμηταί έχουσι το δικαίωμα να εκβάλωσι της συγκλήτου τον
απρεπώς ζώντα, και να προγράφωσι τον άριστον, και ν'
ατιμάζωσι τον ακολασταίνοντα νέον δι' αφαιρέσως του ίππου
αυτού. Προσέτι αυτοί επιβλέπουσι των περιουσιών τας
εκτιμήσεις, και του πληθυσμού τας απογραφάς.

Απεγράφησαν δ' επ' αυτού χιλιάδες ανθρώπων τριακόσιοι
τριάκοντα επτά, και τετρακόσιοι πεντήκοντα δύο.
Προέγραψε δ' εκ της βουλής τον Μάρκον Αιμίλιον Λέπιδον,
τετράκις ήδη καρπούμενον την ανωτάτην ταύτην τιμήν·
εξέβαλε δε τρεις συγκλητικούς εκ των μη επισήμων, και εις
την των ιππέων εξέτασιν εδείχθη μετριώτατος και αυτός, και
ο συνάρχων αυτού Μάρκιος Φίλιππος.
ΛΘ. Αφ' ού δε διευθέτησε τα πλείστα και μέγιστα, ενόσησε
νόσον κατ' αρχάς μεν δεινήν, έπειτα δ' ακίνδυνον, αλλά
μακράν και δυσθεράπευτον γενομένην. Πεισθείς δ' υπό των
ιατρών, έπλευσεν εις την Ελέαν της Ιταλίας, και διέτριβεν
εκεί πολύν χρόνον εις παραλίους αγρούς εν μέσω ησυχίας
βαθείας. Τότε δ' επόθησαν αυτόν οι Ρωμαίοι, και φωνάς
πολλάκις εξέπεμπον εις τα θέατρα, ως ευχόμενοι και
ανυπόμονοι όντες να τον ιδώσιν. Επειδή δε τις ιερουργία
ετελείτο, και η υγεία αυτού εφαίνετο ικανώς αναλαβούσα,
επανήλθεν εις την Ρώμην. Και εκείνην μεν την θυσίαν έθυσε
μετά των άλλων ιερέων, εν ώ ο λαός όλος χαίρων τον
περιεστοίχιζε. Την δ' επαύριον έθυσε πάλιν ο ίδιος εις τους
Θεούς ευχαριστήρια διά την σωτηρίαν του. Ως δ' ετελείωσεν
η θυσία, επιστρέψας εις την οικίαν του, και εις την κλίνην
ριφθείς, πριν ή αισθανθή και νοήση την μεταβολήν, τω
επήλθεν έκστασις και παραφορά των φρενών, και απέθανε
την τρίτην ημέραν, ουδενός στερηθείς και πάντων
απολαύσας όσα θεωρούνται εις ευδαιμονίαν συντείνοντα·
διότι και η περί την εκφοράν αυτού πομπή θαυμασία
εγένετο, μετά προθυμίας ήτις εκόσμησε την αρετήν του
ανδρός διά των αρίστων και μακαριωτάτων ενταφίων
δώρων. Ήσαν δε ταύτα ουχί χρυσός, ουδ' ελέφας, ουδ' η
λοιπή πολυτέλεια και επίδειξις της παρασκευής, αλλ' εύνοια,
και τιμή, και ευγνωμοσύνη, ου μόνον παρά των πολιτών,
αλλά και παρά των εχθρών. Και όσοι κατά τύχην παρήσαν
Ίβηρες και Λίγυοι και Μακεδόνες, οι μεν ισχυροί κατά τα
σώματα και νέοι, λαβόντες την νεκρικήν κλίνην, την
ύψωσαν επί των ώμων των και την έφερον· οι δε
πρεσβύτεροι παρηκολούθουν καλούντες τον Αιμίλιον
ευεργέτην και σωτήρα των πατρίδων των· διότι ου μόνον
κατά τους καιρούς των κατακτήσεών του μετεχειρίσθη
πάντας ηπίως και φιλανθρώπως, αλλά και καθ' όλον τον
λοιπόν βίον του διετέλεσε πάντοτε ευεργετών αυτούς, και
φροντίζων υπέρ αυτών ως υπέρ οικείων και συγγενών. Η δε
περιουσία αυτού λέγουσιν ότι μόλις συνεποσούτο εις

τριακοσίας εβδομήκοντα χιλιάδας δραχμών, και ότι
κληρονόμους αυτής αφήκε τους δύο υιούς του· αλλ' ο
νεώτερος Σπηκίων την παρεχώρησεν όλην εις τον αδελφόν
του, διότι αυτός είχε δοθή εις οίκον ευπορώτερον, τον του
Αφρικανού Σκηπίωνος. Τοιούτος λέγεται ο τρόπος και ο βίος
του Παύλου Αιμιλίου.
ΣΥΓΚΡΙΣΙΣ
ΤΙΜΟΛΕΝΤΟΣ
ΚΑΙ
ΑΙΜΙΛΙΟΥ ΠΑΥΛΟΥ
A. Ταύτα διηγείται η ιστορία, και προφανές είναι ότι δεν έχει
πολλάς διαφοράς ουδ' ανομοιότητας η σύγκρισις. Διότι
αμφότεροι επολέμησαν προς ενδόξους ανταγωνιστάς, ο μεν
προς Μακεδόνας, ο δε προς Καρχηδονίους· και αι νίκαι
αυτών υπήρξαν περιβόητοι, διότι ο είς εκυρίευσε την
Μακεδονίαν, και έπαυσε την απ' Αντιγόνου διαδοχήν εις τον
έβδομον Βασιλέα· ο δε εξήλειψε τας τυραννίδας πάσας εκ
Σικελίας, και ηλευθέρωσε την νήσον. Εκτός μόνον αν
θελήση τις να προτείνη την ένστασιν, ότι ο μεν Αιμίλιος
επολέμησε προς τον Περσέα ακμαίον και νικήσαντα τους
Ρωμαίους, ο δε Τιμολέων προς τον Διονύσιον απηυδημένον
και κατασυντετριμμένον· και πάλιν υπέρ του Τιμολέοντος ότι
πολλούς μεν τυράννους, μεγάλην δε δύναμιν, την των
Καρχηδονίων, διά του τυχόντος στρατεύματος ενίκησε, και
ουχί, ως ο Αιμίλιος, έχων άνδρας εμπειροπολέμους και
μαθόντας να διοικώνται, αλλά διά μισθοφόρων, και ανδρών
ατάκτων, και συνειθισμένων να εκστρατεύωσι προς ιδίαν
αυτών ευχαρίστησιν. Διότι ίσα κατορθώματα δι' ανίσου
δυνάμεως τιμήν προσθέτουσιν εις τον στρατηγόν.
Β. Ήσαν δε και οι δύο καθαροί και δίκαιοι εις την διοίκησιν
των πραγμάτων· αλλ' ο μεν Αιμίλιος φαίνεται ότι ήλθεν εξ
αρχής αμέσως ούτω παρεσκευασμένος υπό των νόμων της
πατρίδος του· ο δε Τιμολέων εμόρφωσεν ούτως αυτός
εαυτόν. Τούτου δε τεκμήριον είναι ότι οι μεν Ρωμαίοι κατά
τους τότε καιρούς ήσαν όλοι επίσης εύκτατοι, και εις τα
έθιμα υποκείμενοι, και τους νόμους σεβόμενοι και τους

πολίτας· εκ δε των Ελλήνων ουδείς υπάρχει αρχηγός ή
στρατηγός, όστις διοικήσας εν Σικελία δεν διεφθάρη, εκτός
μόνου του Δίωνος· αν και αυτόν τον Δίωνα υπώπτευόν τινες
ότι της μοναρχίας ωρέγετο, και ωνειροπόλει βασιλείαν τινά
λακωνικήν. Ο δε Τίμαιος (357) λέγει ότι και τον Γύλιππον
(358) αδόξως και ατίμως απέπεμψαν οι Συρακούσιοι,
κατηγορήσαντες αυτόν διά φιλοπλουτίαν και απληστίαν κατά
την στρατηγίαν του. Όσα δε παρενόμησαν και ηπίστησαν
Φάραξ ο Σπαρτιάτης και Κάλλιππος ο Αθηναίος (359),
ελπίσαντες να άρξωσι της Σικελίας, ταύτα υπό πολλών
ιστορήθησαν. Αλλά τίνες ήσαν ούτοι, και τίνων πραγμάτων
κύριοι, ώστε τοιαύτα να ελπίσωσιν; Ο είς εξ αυτών υπηρέτει
τον Διονύσιον διωχθέντα των Συρακουσών, ο δε Κάλλιππος
ήτον είς των αρχηγών των ξένων, οίτινες εβοήθουν τον
Δίωνα. Αλλ' ο Τιμολέων, στρατηγός αυτοκράτωρ σταλείς εις
τους Συρακουσίους κατ' αίτησιν και παράκλησιν αυτών, και
οφείλων ουχί να ζητή δύναμιν αλλά να έχη όσην εκείνοι τω
έδωκαν οικειοθελώς, ως τέρμα εθεώρησε της στρατηγίας και
της αρχής του την κατάλυσιν των παρανόμων αρχόντων.
Εκείνο όμως του Αιμιλίου είναι θαυμαστόν, ότι τοσαύτην
βασιλείαν καταστρέψας, ουδέ κατά μίαν δραχμήν ηύξησε την
περιουσίαν του, ουδ' είδεν, ουδ' ήγγισε τα χρήμματα, καίτοι
πολλά εις άλλους δους και χαρίσας. Δεν λέγω δ' ότι ο
Τιμολέων είναι αξιόμεμπτος, καλήν οικίαν λαβών και χωρίον
διότι αισχρόν δεν είναι το να λάβη τις τοιαύτα, αλλά να μη
λάβη είναι καλήτερον, και άκρας αρετής επίδειξις είναι το ν'
αρνήται εκείνα, όσα τω είναι επιτετραμμένον να λάβη.
Καθώς δε το σώμα δύναται μεν να υποφέρη ή το ψύχος ή
την ζέστην, αλλά ρωμαλεώτερον είναι το ανεχόμενον
αμφοτέρας ομού τας μεταβολάς, ούτως άκρα είναι της
ψυχής η ευρωστία και η ισχύς, όταν ούτε αι ευτυχίαι την
εξογκώσιν εις ύβριν και υπεροψίαν, ούτε αι συμφοραί την
ταπεινώσι. Διά τούτο φαίνεται τελειότερος ο Αιμίλιος, όστις
επί της καταδρομής της τύχης και κατά το μέγα πάθημα του
θανάτου των υιών αυτού ουδέ μικρότερος ουδ' ήττον
αξιοπρεπής εφάνη παρά επί των ευτυχημάτων του. Ο δε
Τιμολέων, μετά την γενναίαν του πράξιν κατά του αδελφού
του, δεν αντέσχε διά της φρονήσεως προς την συμφοράν,
αλλ' υπό μετανοίας και λύπης ταπεινωθείς, επί είκοσι έτη δεν
υπέμεινε να ιδή το βήμα και την αγοράν (360). Πρέπει δε τα
αισχρά ν' αποφεύγη τις, και δι' αυτά να αισχύνηται· το δε να
φοβήται πάσαν αδοξίαν είναι ίδιον ήθους ημέρου μεν και
απλού, αλλά μη έχοντος μέγεθος.

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Improving Classroom Learning With Ict Improving Learning 1st Edition Rosamund Sutherland

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