Introducation_of_Secondary_School_Curriculum_&_Instruction_PGDT (1).pptx

Introduction of secondary school curriculum which is a material uses for the teachers who are in the profession of teaching

1. Secondary School Curriculum & Instruction (PGDT-413) By : Temesgen L(PhD)

2. Part I: Curriculum Component Unit One: Introductory Remarks on Curriculum

3. 1.1. The Concept, Scope and Types of Curriculum

4. Activity ( First try individually and then discuss in pair 7 ’) 1 / What is curriculum to you? Define in your own words? 2/ Have you defined curriculum in the same way with your friend? Why? 3/Why do you need to study about curriculum as a teacher? 4/ What do you think is the scope of Curriculum? 5 / Is there relationship between curriculum and instruction? How/why? 6/ Explain the types of Curriculum that you know? 7/ Is there relationship between curriculum and a teacher? How/Why?

5. The Concept of Curriculum Curriculum Latin root of the word " currere ", which means, " to run" as in to run a race course. the course / path that students have to run to finish the "race". all the activities which students need to do if they are to finish a program of study and achieve the intended learning goals. 5

6. Broad definitions ` A plan for action or a written document that includes strategies for achieving desired goals or ends /Tyler, Taba /. A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated /Saylor/. An organized set of formal education and/or training intentions/ Pratt/. All experiences of the learners have under the guidance of school// Dewey, Caswell/ On going experiences of children under the guidance of the school/Ragan/ A program /the school/ offers to its students. What is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school. Everything that is planned by school personnel. A series of experiences undergone by learners in school. An individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.

7. Specific Definitions Curriculum refers to:

8. Definition Based on School Role

9. Thus curriculum: in a narrow sense is subjects taught/ an outline of the course of study/ a sequences of course of study/ a plan for action. broadly all the experiences of learners, both in and out school, that are directed by the educational institution towards the achievement of educational goals. a state document utilized to help students achieve the objectives of the educational program (acquire knowledge , form attitudes and develop skills).

10. Why we Study about Curriculum ? As a teacher, we need to know what curriculum means in order to: Relate education to the socio-economic, technological, political and environmental demands of the society. Relate content or the body of knowledge to local setting. Apply the most effective and relevant teaching and learning methodologies and materials. Evaluate teaching and learning processes in education system.

11. The Scope of Curriculum Curriculum scope refers to the knowledge of curriculum development, planning and design. Curriculum Development: concerned with how curriculum evolved, implemented, evaluated and what various people, process, and procedures are involved in the construction of the curriculum. Curriculum Planning: is the process of making the curriculum materials after identification of objectives, selection of contents, learning experiences, instructional materials and evaluation mechanism. Curriculum Design: the way one conceptualizes a curriculum arrange its major components to provide direction and guidance in developing the curriculum.

12. Relationship between Curriculum and Instruction Curriculum Instruction Which is taught means used to teach which is taught Conceived as “what” conceived as the ‘how” A program, plan, content learning experience methods, the teaching act, implementation, presentation In general: Curriculum and instruction are sub-system of a larger system called schooling or education.

13. Types of Curriculum

14. Types of Curriculum…… 1 . Intended/official curriculum: as written and documented in syllabi, curriculum guides, textbooks and other printed materials. 2. Operational/taught curriculum: What the teacher actually teaches and the learning for which the student is held accountable , or curriculum in use. 3. Learned curriculum: What students actually learn. 4 . Assessed curriculum Which is tested or evaluated.

15. Types of curriculum…….. 5. Supported curriculum Those resources that support and help with the implementation of the curriculum . 6. The hidden curriculum: the unplanned and unrecognized values that are taught and learned through the process of education. lessons that schools teach children about appropriate roles and behavior for people of different ages and sexes. It is generally non-academic, but very important. is a vital necessity though it is unforeseen occurrence in the school. E.g. home-economics, hygiene, respect, positive relationship, flag ceremony, minor games, cultural norms, loyalty, ethics, advisement, discipline, and school regulations .

16. Con’t 7.The Null Curriculum subject matter that is not taught, and urged us to consider carefully. Subject matters and/or units that are considered important but non-existent in the current school curricula. E.g. HIV and AIDS, environmental sanitation, sex education, and gender issue .

17. Curriculum – Teachers Relationship Teachers and curriculum are closely related. On one hand, curricular documents provides teachers with information for: planning lessons, organizing students’ and their activities, directing the instructional work and employing different instruments to measure the outcomes and making sensible decisions.

18. Con’t On the other hand, teachers : translate curriculum into practice. investigate specific curricular weaknesses; develop plans for particular curriculum purposes; conduct curriculum research and experiments; evaluate the existing instructional program; play a vital role in the deve’tof a new curriculum or revising the existing one, etc

19. 1.2. Foundations of Curriculum Foundations of curriculum refers to: The “why” of experiences children have in the school. The values, traditions, forces and professional understandings which determines what the school does. Basic forces that influence and shape the content and organization of the curriculum. They are often referred to as the sources or determinants of the curriculum. The most commonly accepted foundations of the curriculum are:

20. Foundations of Curriculum………

21. 1.2.1. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum Philosophy is: Love of wisdom/ search for truth or the search for knowledge . gives meaning to our decisions and actions. deals with the larger aspects of life, the problems and prospects for living and determines, our educational decisions, choices and alternatives. framework or base for organizing schools and classrooms. answer what schools are for, what subjects are of value, how students learn, what method s and materials to use.

22. Co’t Thus, the three main basic philosophical questions include: What is real? Metaphysic What is truth? Epistemology What is of value? Axiology There are different philosophies but, all wants the same thing of education, they wish: To improve the educational process To enhance learners’ achievement To produce better and more productive citizens, and To improve the life of the society.

23. Major Philosophies Influencing Curriculum

24. 1. Idealism One of the oldest. Proponent: Plato, Kant, Hegel, Froebel, Butler, etc. mind is central element of philosophy; Give primacy to idea . The idealist assumes that: truth exist separate and apart from individual /society he lives. Emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as chief explanation of the world. Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal. The world of idea and mind are permanent, regular and orderly and it represents a perfect order. Eternal ideas are unalterable and timeless. To know is to rethink the latent ideas that are already present in the mind. The teacher’s task is to bring the latent knowledge to consciousness. Use rationalistic approach-deductive to problem solving.

25. Idealism…….. Education: Purpose to transmit cultural heritage. Eternal process of superior adjustment of the physical and mental developed human being to God. Curriculum: prefer the order and pattern of subject matter that relates ideas and concepts to each other. Is hierarchal and it constitutes the cultural heritages of humankind. At the top of hierarchy the most general and abstract subjects like philosophy and theology. Based on learned disciplines (liberal arts) Revolves around ideas drawn from the past.

26. 2. Realism View the world in terms of objects and matter. Realism means objects exist in real world separate and apart from the human mind and perception. Proponents; Aristotle T.Aquinas , Pestalozzi, Broudy , etc. People come to know the world through their sense and their reason. Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its law. Universe is matter in motion. The real world is the physical world. Reality and truth emanate from both science and art. Use inductive method of gathering data. Emphasizes cause-effect relationships in the physical world.

27. Realism…….. Education: To induct the learner into culture. Society and its institutions must operate in ways that are consistent to natural laws. School is social agency which transmits natural laws to learners. Curriculum: Consists primarily the physical and social sciences that explain the natural phenomena. Acquiring of subject matter/facts encouraged. Consists of organized, separate subject matter, content and knowledge that classify objects. View subject matter experts as a sources of authority.

28. 3. Pragmatism/Experimentalism Based on change, process and relativism. Proponents: C. Darwin, J. Dewey, W. Kilpatrick, Bode, etc. truth is based on one’s experiences; situational experiences Considers knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly changing. Learning occurs as persons engage in problem solving. Knowledge is considered a transaction between learner and environment. Basic to this interaction is the notion of change . Both the learner and environment are constantly changing as are the experiences/interaction. Hypothesis is used in seeking knowledge. Both deductive and inductive methods are used.

29. Pragmatism……… Education: a process of experiencing on the part of the learner. A means for reacting, controlling and directing experience. The goal of ed. is to aid the learner to solve his/her problems. Not regarded as preparation for life, rather it is considered to be an integral part of life. The role of the teacher is facilitator. Is reconstruction and reorganization of experience. Learning takes place in an active way as learners, either individually or in groups solves problems. Curriculum: Emphasizes the interest of the learner than subject matter to organize curriculum. The method is more important than the subject matter. Teaching is more exploratory than explanatory.

30. 4. Existentialism Stress individualism and personal self-fulfillment. Proponents: M.Greene , G.Kneller , Morris, etc. the world of existence, choice, and responsibility is primary. Personal choice is central the decision lead to personal self -definition. Education: should stress individual responsibility and choice. is a process that originates within the self. The student is responsible for his/her own motivation and learning. The teacher’s task is to provide learning experiences that promotes autonomy, interaction, and choice. The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to possess. Curriculum : avoid systematic knowledge or structured disciplines.

31. Major Educational Philosophies

32. A. Perennialism Oldest and rooted in realism. Proponent R. Hutchins. Relies on past asserted by agreed-upon, universal knowledge and cherished values of society. A plea for the permanency of knowledge. A view of the unchanging nature of the universe, human nature, truth, knowledge, virtue, beauty, etc. The goal of education is to develop the natural person and to uncover universal truth by training the intellect. Curriculum: Subject centered-liberal arts. The teacher : is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge and expertise are unquestionable. Teaching method : based on Socratic Method. Student’s: mind as a sponge for absorbing knowledge.

33. B. Essentialism Rooted in both idealism and realism. Proponents: Bagley, Bestor , Rickover,etc . School curriculum should be geared to fundamentals or essentials. Curriculum: Subject centered but concerned with the contemporary scene. Teacher’s role: is as an authority in the field. The back-to-the basics focus on reading, writing and Mathematics. Stress on increasing time and improving the quality of instruction, upgrading teachers and schools analyizing education interms of inputs and outputs.

34. C. Progressivism Rooted in pragmatism and considered as contemporary. Proponents: Follette , Roosevelt, etc. The skills and tools of learning include problem solving and scientific inquiry. Emphasize on how to think not on what to think. Curriculum: was interdisciplinary in nature and focused on the child as the learner . Teacher’s role: is guiding. Methods: emphasized on activities and experiences rather than competitive individualized lesson learning.

35. D. Reconstructionism Rooted in pragmatism. Mainly served the individual child. Proponents: Fantini , Education for change and social reform . Emphasis on society centered education. Curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism , Focus on internationalism and futurisng education. Teacher serve as an agent of change and reform . Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of many nations. Curriculum has to be changed with the society. Learning is active.

36. Major Theories of Learning as Foundations of Curriculum 1/ Mental discipline Known as faculty psychology. Mind was made up of series of faculties each of which was related to a particular function or ability of the mind. Learning: exercising various faculties( e.g.memory,muscles,etc ) Curriculum: content was often chosen on the basis of how well it will discipline and exercise the mind rather than its value in the life of the student.

37. 2. Connectionism Connectionism: is a theory of learning based on the connection of various elements of the nervous system in causing behavior. Lear ning: Was the process of formulating the neural passages or connections. Once these connections have been established, behavior may be repeated under similar conditions indicating that learning has occurred. E.Thorndike three laws a/ The law of effect: Effect either strengthen or weaken connection. b/The law of readiness: The tendency of the physiological neurons to operate. c/ The law of exercise: Repeating or exercise strengthens connection and v-versa. Curriculum: demand drill and repetitions. Experiences are selected on the basis of their securing a satisfying reaction from the learner.

38. 3. Behaviorism Behavior was dealt with and explained in terms of observable reactions. Most of their experiments dealt with the conditioned response. Learning : explained as a conditioned response. Stimulus-Response Occurs when a particular response is desired and a stimulus is found to produce it. There is much concern for reinforcement, association and habit formation. Curriculum: Drill remained a prominent method of teaching and experiences selected were such as to produce conditioned responses .

39. 4. Gestalt Pattern which is important. Understanding is based upon insight. Learning: is the organization of parts into meaningful whole. A learning situation is taken as a problem situation seeking solutions by which the learner develops insight. Curriculum: Offers the learner an opportunity to discover processes and relationships. Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to understand the importance of a specific. Generalities and principles are emphasized in preference to isolated facts and meaningless drill.

40. 3. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum refers to concepts and theories of the way that groups manifest themselves in their culture. analyses the relationships of individuals, groups and institutions and their `contribution to the process and growth of the educational system as well as established practices in the school system. curriculum designer is actually dealing with cultural value, societal needs and the learners’ background. Thus, cultures affect and shape the schools and their curricula. Likewise, schools influence the cultures of the people that the school serve .

41. 4. Historical Foundations of Curriculum refers to those influence on the curriculum that are derived from the developments in the past influencing the present. Form the basis for decision making and systematic growth of the educational system. In the prehistoric times: the informal type of education focused on transmitting the cultural heritage. The Egyptians: had a form of writings, drawings and used phonetics. The Greeks: had schools designed to serve the public good in Athens and Sparta. The Romans: Upgraded elementary to secondary schools. The Early Christian education: added philosophy and theology to earlier seven Liberal Arts . During Renaissance: The curriculum was based on the study of man and scientific thinking refocused. The Scientific Sprit: Had view that if human kind followed reason and used the scientific method and natural laws continued progress in this planet is possible.

42. Unit Two Curriculum Development Process and Models

43. 2.1.Definition of Curriculum Development, Curriculum Design and Curriculum Planning Curriculum Development is more comprehensive term. It includes planning, implementation, and evaluation. Curriculum Planning is a preliminary phase of curriculum development when the curriculum workers make discussions and take actions to establish the plan that teachers and students will carryout. It is the thinking and design phase. Curriculum Design Refers to the way we conceptualize the curriculum and arrange its major components to provide direction and guidance as we develop the curriculum.

44. 2.2.Curriculum Development Models: Types and their Assumptions

45. 1) The objective / Ends-Means / Model Also known as rational, classical or technical-scientific model. Emphasizes fixed sequence starting from objective. Objective serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements. The two principal proponents of this model are Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba . a/ The Tyler Model four basic principles: Suggest those involved in curriculum inquiry must try to define: 1. Purposes of the school (Objectives), 2. Educational experiences related to the purposes, 3.Organiztion of these experiences and 4. Evaluation of the purposes.

46. Tyler’s Model

47. The Taba Model: Grass root Rational Suggest those who teach the curriculum should participate in developing it. The users of the program should design the curriculum. Advocate inductive and bottom-up approach in curriculum development. Noted the following seven steps to the model: Diagnosis of needs Formulation of objectives Selection of contents Organization of content Selection of learning experiences Organization of learning` activities Evaluation and means of evaluation

48. The Wheeler Model Converted Tyler’s original ideas into cyclic form and evaluation should take place at every stage. The first step is the statement of aims, goals and objectives. Ultimate goals Are the expected outcomes expressed as patterns of categories of behavior over time. B. Mediate goals Expected behavior at given stage over ed. time. C. Proximate goals Goals for shorter periods. D. Specific objectives Goals for specific period.

49. The Wheeler Model

50. 2. The Process /Means-Ends/ Model Developed by L. Stenhouse Specify content and principles of procedures than objectives. The end product is not specified before hand in terms of behavior. Behavioral objectives are absent. More concerned with teaching content. Steps involved: Selection of content Selection of principle or procedure (learning strategies) Developing teaching methods and materials Evaluating by criteria inherent in the field of knowledge

51. 3.Situation Analysis /Process-Product/ School-Based Model This model is: the latest/recent model of curriculum development. shares the idea of process model, but emphasizes meeting standards . puts curriculum development firmly within a contextual framework . teachers modify and transform learners’ experiences in the curriculum. curriculum development should be based on the context where learning is taking place including national, societal and institutional. Assumes institution-based curriculum development is one of the most effective ways of promoting genuine change at institutional level . both close-ended and open-ended evaluations are very common. The stages in this model are: 1. Situation analysis 2. Goal Formulation 4. Interpretation and Implementation 3. Program building 5. Monitoring, Assessment, Feedback and Reconstruction

52. 4. A Hybrid Model A hybrid model that features elements of the objective, process and situation analysis models is made up of the following steps: 1. Diagnosis of needs /Need assessment/Situation analysis/ 2. Formulation/Identifications of objectives 3. Selection of curriculum contents 4. The selection of learning experiences 5. Organization of curricular experiences (Contents and learning experiences) 6. Pilot testing 7. Revising and consolidating 8. Approval governing council 9. Use of the approved curriculum 10. Periodic review

53. 2.3.Curriculum Planning Process 2.3.1. Conducting Need Assessment /Situational Analysis / Diagnosis of Needs / Needs are the gaps between the current state and desired changes. Whose needs to be assessed? 1.The need of the society: refers to assessing the culture, value, attitudes and norms, etc. 2.The needs of the learner: social , cultural , language and perception , cognitive, physical, 3. The needs of the subject matter: knowledge relevant to contemporary life, to the education of the intended learner and the society. Basic considerations in needs assessment: should be a continuing activity that takes place: a) Before specification of curricular goal and objectives. b) After identification of curricular goals and objectives. c) After evaluation of instruction, and d) After evaluation of the curriculum . Instrument of Data Collection for Need Assessment include: Questionnaires, Interview, Public Hearings, Observation, Document Analysis, etc .

54. 2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives

55. 2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives 1. Educational Aims give general direction to education universally throughout the country. visionary statements that indicate where to go . answer the question “why to educate/train?” achieved in long time and can be divided in to several goals. Ends striven for education in general. Stated at national level. Applied to the system. They are of long term. E.g. dev’t of democratic attitude. Very broad statements of purposes of education. Equated with ends, functions, and purposes..

56. Con’t 2. Educational Goals Results from learning over the years. Stated at institutional level and across subject matters of schooling. of medium terms. defined as general program expectations. 3. Formulating educational objectives Indicate in more specific terms the outcomes. Intended educational consequences of a particular course /unit. Statement of intent about anticipated changes in learner at classroom level

57. Criteria for setting Objectives The following points must be kept into consideration for this :- Matching – objectives should be related to the broad goals of education from which they are derived. Worth – it relates to weather attaining an objective has value in the life of the student in the present or future. Wording – he statements of the objectives should be worded properly. Appropriateness – all objects should be derived from and cater to the needs and interests of the students. Logical grouping – the objectives should be properly organized in a coherent manner. Revision – the objectives needs periodic revision because the needs, knowledge change at a fast pace .

58. 2.3.3. Selection of contents and Learning Experiences Curriculum experiences consists of two components: Contents and learning experiences. Curriculum content are: elements of information to be learned by students: concepts, facts, principles, rules, etc .

59. Con’t Criteria for content selection Utility: Usefulness of the content Relevance to life : the content should be functional to the life of the learner . Validity : the authenticity or actual contribution of the content to stated objectives. Learnability: optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of the content. Feasibility: the content in the light of the time and resources available. Comprehensiveness: Content should have corresponding objectives. Suitability/Appropriateness: content should be to the level of the learner. Interest - the content should suit the personality and intellectual capabilities of the students

60. Selection of learning experiences Learning experiences refers to : the mental operational of students in the teaching learning process. learning activities which shape the learner’s orientation to the content and ultimately their understanding of it. Principles of selecting learning experiences that give an opportunity to the learner practice the kind of behavior implied by the objectives be such that the students obtain satisfaction from carrying out the kind of behavior implied by the objectives. The reactions desired in the experience must be within the range of the students involved. should be as varied as the objectives they represent at minimum.

61. Curriculum Organization

62. Organization……. Horizontal organization : describes the scope and integration of content taught concurrently . Scope :deals with breadth and depth of the curriculum content. Integration: refers to the linking of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the curriculum plan. It emphasizes horizontal relations among various content or topics. Vertical organization: describes the continuity and sequencing of content. Continuity: deals with the vertical repetition of curriculum components. Sequence emphasizes the importance of having each successive experience builds upon the preceding one but to go more broadly and deeply into the matter involved. Organizing Elements: Concepts, skills and Values

63. 2.3.5.Curriculum Change and Implementation A. Curriculum Change Any alteration in the aspect of the curriculum-educational philosophy, values, objectives, organizational structure, materials, teaching strategies, assessment, etc. The process of curriculum change has three phases: initiation , use and assessment . Initiation: decisions taken in the construction of a new or revised curriculum. Use: implementing in relation to the intention. Assessment: checking the degree of embedeness or institutionalization.

64. Change Typologies (in nature and process)

65. Change according to complexities 1.Substitution : one element is substituted for another. E.g. the substituting a new textbook for an old one. 2.Alteration: minor change and thus be readily adopted. E.g. use of graphing calculator in mathematics teaching. 3. Perturbations: changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them within a fairly short time. E.g. the assistant principal changes the timetable . 4. Restructuring: changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system. E.g. the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team teaching. 5. Value Orientation: shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel. E.g. if the new teachers who join the school place more emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.

66. Factors Affecting Change or Resistance to Curriculum Change Their resistance to change can be attributed to various factors. Inertia: Wanting to keep things as they are is often mixed with believing that things do not need to be changed or that change being suggested is unwise and will thus be unproductive in meeting the objectives of the school. Insecurity: People feel insecure about the uncertainty of things to happen. Those who are comfortable with the present are resistant to change . Rapidity of change: people resist change anticipating another change in curriculum soon. Lack of knowledge: sometime people resist innovation and change either they do not know about the innovation at all or they have little information about it. Lack of support : Lack of financial or time support is given to the effort. A project for which no monies are budgeted is rarely designed to be implemented.

67. Mechanisms for Improving/Increasing Receptivity to Change Curriculum activity must be cooperative: Creating sense of ownership is achieved by involving people directly and indirectly with the major aspect of change. Considering the feelings, worries and concerns of people: Resistance to any new idea is often natural. Curriculum leaders should anticipate it, and should prepare procedures for dealing with it. Making the people recognize that innovations are subject to change: A new curriculum is presented as a response to a particular time and context. Change is a constant, and people need to realize that all programs will be constantly reviewed to determine if they should be continued. Proper timing is a key to increasing peoples’ receptivity to an innovation: program addressing the need is likely to meet with success and acceptance.  

68. B. Curriculum implementation is a process of putting the developed/planned curriculum into practice. is actual use of the curriculum. deals with the means accomplishing desired educational objectives. The process is developmental and occurs at different levels. Focus on the extent to which actual change in practice occurs and which influence the extent of change. to consider the following dimensions. Planning ( people, program & organization) in advance, Communication- establishing effectively, Cooperation -of various individuals and groups and Support- financial and material.

69. Approaches to Curriculum of Implementation

70. Curriculum Implementation Approaches…

71. Curriculum Implementation Approaches…

72. Curriculum Implementation Approaches …

73. 2.3.6. Curriculum Evaluation evaluation is the process of determining the significance or worth of programmes or procedures. is the process of collecting data on a programme to determine its value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject, or revise the programme. is a systematic process of determining whether the curriculum as designed and implemented has produced or is producing the intended and desired results. Purposes of curriculum evaluation: to identify the weaknesses and strengths of the program. to improve the curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance allocated.

74. Types of Curriculum Evaluation Formative evaluation: include those activities under taken to improve an intended program. data gathered informally during the development stage of the program to modify it. Provides an ongoing data about learning ,methods, materials, etc. Uses the process of feed-back and adjustment and thus keeps the curriculum development process open. Summative Evaluation aims at getting the total picture of the quality of the produced curriculum. data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum programme using formal data gathering tools. enables the concerned body to make decision or draw conclusions about how well the curriculum has worked. a means to certify/promote/ place students.