Introduction to schools & perspectives of psy.pptx

schools and perspectives of psychology

1. PY-304: Schools & Perspectives in Psychology

2. Course Outline Introduction to Schools and Perspectives of Psychology Major assumptions, contributions and basic concepts. Schools of Psychology Brief history of Psychology, Structuralism, Functionalism, Greek contribution Biological Perspective Heredity, Genes and Chromosomes, Endocrine glands Psychodynamic Perspective Classical psychoanalysis, Neo-Freudians Behavioristic Perspective Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning, Social learning Cognitive Perspective Cognitive perspective by Aron Beck, Cognitive perspective by Albert Ellis, Cognitive perspective of appraisal and coping, Cognitive behavioral model Humanistic Perspective: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers Existential Perspective: Thomas Szaz , Victor Frankel Gestalt Perspective : Fritz Perls Socio-Cultural Perspective Islamic Perspective in the light of teachings of Quran & Sunnah Current Trends Paradigm Shift in Modern Psychology

3. CH-1: Introduction to Schools & Perspectives of Psychology

4. Perspectives & Schools of Psychology Historical Perspective Majority of the institutions offer history of Psychology as a discipline. Within the discipline of psychology its own journals, its own division (Division 26) within the American Psychological Association, and its own research center ( The Archives of the History of American Psychology) at the University of Akron, Ohio (www3.uakron.edu/ahap/).

5. Perspectives & Schools of Psychology Historical Perspective Seven thousand years ago, people assumed that psychological problems were caused by evil spirits. To allow those spirits to escape from a person’s body, ancient healers chipped a hole in a patient’s skull with crude instruments—a procedure called trephining.

6. Perspectives & Schools of Psychology Historical Perspective The origins of the field of psychology can be traced to two different time periods, some 2,000 years apart. Thus, psychology is among the oldest of all scholarly disciplines as well as one of the newest. First, we can trace ideas and speculations about human nature and behavior back to the fifth century BC, when Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers were grappling with many of the same issues that concern psychologists today. These ideas include some of the basic topics you covered in your introductory psychology classes: memory, learning, motivation, thought, perception, and abnormal behavior. Conversely, psychology emerged as one of the newer fields of study and begin our coverage approximately 200 years ago, when modern psychology emerged from philosophy and other early scientific approaches to claim its own identity as a formal field of study.

7. According to the 17th-century philosopher Descartes, nerves were hollow tubes through which “animal spirits” conducted impulses in the same way that water is transmitted through a pipe. So when a person got too close to a fire, heat was transmitted to the brain through the tubes Franz Josef Gall, an 18th-century physician, argued that a trained observer could discern intelligence, moral character, and other basic personality characteristics from the shape and number of bumps on a person’s skull. His theory gave rise to the field of phrenology, employed by hundreds of practitioners in the 19th century.

8. Although these explanations might sound far-fetched, in their own times they represented the most advanced thinking about what might be called the psychology of the era. Our understanding of behavior has progressed tremendously since the 18th century, but most of the advances have been recent. Traces of psychology’s roots back to the ancient Greeks: considered the mind to focus for scholarly concerns. Later philosophers argued for hundreds of years about some of the questions psychologists still grapple with today. The 17th-century British philosopher John Locke: “tabula rasa” view (Latin). His views contrasted with those of Plato and the 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes, who argued that some knowledge was inborn in humans. the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline in the late 19th century, in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental lab for psychological studies. At about the same time , William James was setting up his laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

9. Development of tools, techniques, and methods to achieve the increased precision and objectivity. Until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, philosophers studied human nature by speculating, intuiting, and generalizing based on their own experience. However, a major transformation occurred when philosophers began to apply the tools and methods already successful in the biological and physical sciences to explore questions about human nature. Only when researchers came to rely on carefully controlled observation and experimentation to study the human mind did psychology begin to attain an identity separate from its philosophical roots.

10. Significant Influences on Psychology as a Discipline Economic opportunities in the Twentieth Century Rise in number of psychologists & psychological labs in USA. Establishment of universities & more teaching jobs but less financial support. Psychology departments came to be judged on the basis of their practical worth such as solving social, educational, and industrial problems. The influx of immigrants to the United States, along with their high birth rate, made public education a growth industry. emphasis in American psychology shifted from experimentation in the academic laboratory to the application of psychology to the issues of teaching and learning.

11. Significant Influences on Psychology as a Discipline The World Wars World Wars I and II accelerated the growth of applied psychology by extending its influence into such areas as personnel selection, psychological testing, and engineering psychology. War had a personal impact on the ideas of several major theorists . After witnessing the carnage of World War I, for example, Sigmund Freud proposed aggression as a significant motivating force for the human personality. Erich Fromm , a personality theorist and antiwar activist, attributed his interest in abnormal behavior to his exposure to the fanaticism that swept his native Germany during the war.

12. Significant Influences on Psychology as a Discipline Prejudice and Discrimination Discrimination against women Discrimination based on ethnic origin

13. Psychology: emergence as modern science Transitions in 17 th & 18 th century Inspiration by Mechanism (Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) & Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Determinism and Reductionism Automata People as Machines Modern computers as duplicate of human cognitive processes and a form of artificial intelligence. Scientists and inventors of 20 th century predicted that there would be no limit to what machines might be designed to do or to the humanlike functions they might perform.

14. Psychology: emergence as modern science Empiricism : The pursuit of knowledge through the observation of nature and the attribution of all knowledge to experience ( the 17 th century became illuminated by discoveries and insights that reflected the changing nature of scientific inquiry). The primary role of the process of sensation The analysis of conscious experience into elements The synthesis of elements into complex mental experiences through the process of association The focus on conscious processes Prominent Figures: René Descartes (1596–1650) John Locke (1632–1704) George Berkeley (1685–1753) James Mill (1773–1836) John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

15. Psychology: emergence as modern science René Descartes ( mathematics and the humanities;1596–1650 ) Pioneer in the era of modern psychology Application of scientific knowledge to practical concerns. Anticipated the notion of conditioning in dogs Theory of mind-body interaction , the mind and body works as a mutual interaction. redirected the attention from the abstract theological concept of soul to the scientific study of the mind and mental processes. The outcome was that methods of inquiry shifted from subjective metaphysical analysis to objective observation and experimentation. Reflex action theory : The idea that an external object (a stimulus) can bring about an involuntary response (without any involvement of cognitive processes) . Derived and innate ideas : Derived ideas are produced by the direct application of an external stimulus; innate ideas arise from the mind or consciousness, independent of sensory experiences or external stimuli (God, the self, perfection, and infinity).

16. Psychology: emergence as modern science John Locke (1632–1704 ) ( Natural philosophy & Medicine ) Tabula Rasa View: human mind is a blank or clean slate on which experience would write. Sensation and reflection : there are two kinds of experiences, one deriving from sensation and the other from reflection. The ideas that derive from sensation—from direct sensory input from physical objects in the environment—are simple sense impressions. These sense impressions operate on the mind, and the mind itself also operates on the sensations, reflecting on them to form ideas. Thus, all ideas arise from sensation and reflection, but the ultimate source remains our sensory experiences. Simple and complex ideas : Simple ideas are elemental ideas that arise from sensation and reflection; Through the process of reflection, however, the mind actively creates new ideas by combining simple ideas which are complex ideas. Theory of Association : The notion that knowledge results from linking or associating simple ideas to form complex ideas (Association as learning).

17. Developments in Physiology : Research on brain functions Empirical philosophers such as Locke and Berkeley had discussed the subjective nature of human perception, arguing that there is not always—or even often—an exact correspondence between the nature of an object and our perception of it. As a result, scientists shift their focus on the role of the human observer to account fully for the results of their experiments. They began to study the human sense organs—those physiological mechanisms through which we receive information about our world—as a way of investigating the psychological processes of sensing and perceiving. Physiology became an experimentally oriented discipline during the 1830s, primarily under the influence of the German physiologist Johannes Müller, through experimental methods.

18. Developments in Physiology : Research on brain functions Substantial contributions by many psychologists in the 19 th century were made to the study of brain functions by conducting research directly on brain tissue. Their efforts constituted the first attempts to map the brain’s functions; to determine the specific parts of the brain that controlled different cognitive functions. Two additional experimental approaches to brain research Clinical method Electrical stimulation

19. Research on brain functions Phrenology German physician Franz Josef Gall (1758–1828), dissected the brains of deceased animals and humans. confirmed the existence of both white and gray matter in the brain, the nerve fibers connecting each side of the brain to the opposite side of the spinal cord, and the fibers connecting both halves of the brain. Investigated the shape & size of brain examined the bumps and dents of a great many people and mapped the location of 35 human attributes.

20. The Beginnings of Experimental Psychology Applications of the experimental method to the mind, the subject matter of the new psychology: Hermann von Helmholtz, Ernst Weber, Gustav Theodor Fechner, and Wilhelm Wundt. (German scientists, trained in physiology, influenced by the developments in modern science). Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894): the speed of the neural impulse and research on vision and hearing. Ernst Weber (1795–1878): physiology of the sense organs, (skin) senses and muscular sensations. Two-point threshold: Just noticeable difference between two stimuli. Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) : proposed two ways to measure sensations. to determine whether a stimulus is present or absent, sensed or not sensed. Absolute threshold of sensitivity.

21. Psychology as a Scientific Discipline By the middle of the nineteenth century, the methods of the natural sciences were being used to investigate purely mental phenomena . Techniques had been developed, apparatus devised, important books written, and widespread interest aroused. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): Founding Father of Modern Psychology established the first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany edited the first journal, began experimental psychology as a science. Areas under investigation: sensation and perception, attention, feeling, reaction, and association

22. Psychology as a Scientific Discipline Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) By working alone, isolated from any academic center of psychology, began to experiment successfully on the higher mental processes. Hermann Ebbinghaus became the first psychologist to investigate learning and memory and forgetting experimentally. 2300 Nonsense syllables

23. School of thought / perspective in Psychology A group of psychologists who become associated ideologically, and sometimes geographically, with the leader of a movement. Typically the members of a school of thought share a theoretical or systematic orientation and investigate similar problems.

24. Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) focused on the study of the building blocks of the mind. He considered psychology to be the study of conscious experience . His perspective, which came to be known as structuralism , focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities. To determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world. Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection , in which they presented people with a stimulus—such as a bright green object or a sentence printed on a card—and asked them to describe, in their own words and in as much detail as they could, what they were experiencing . Wundt argued that by analyzing their replies, psychologists could come to a better understanding of the structure of the mind.

25. Structuralism Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927 ): Follower of Wundt, founder of Structuralism. Focused on elements or contents of consciousness, but his overriding concern was their organization ; that is, their synthesis into higher-level cognitive processes through apperception. In Wundt’s view, the mind had the power to organize mental elements voluntarily , a position that contrasted with the passive, mechanistic explanation favored by most of the empiricists. In Titchener’s view, psychology’s fundamental task was to discover the nature of the elementary conscious experiences—to analyze consciousness into its component parts and thus determine its structure. Subjective conscious experience ; According to Titchener, the subject matter of psychology is conscious experience as that experience is dependent on the person who is actually experiencing it. This kind of experience differs from that studied by scientists in other fields ( e.g , light and sound in a room).

26. Structuralism Introspection : Titchener’s used the method of introspection, relied on observers who were rigorously trained to describe the elements of their conscious state rather than reporting the observed or experienced stimulus by a familiar name (e.g., an apple—in everyday life this is beneficial and necessary). In his psychology laboratory, however, this practice had to be unlearned. Titchener adopted Külpe’s label, systematic experimental introspection, to describe his method. Titchener used detailed, qualitative, subjective reports of his subjects’ mental activities during the act of introspecting as opposed to Wundt’s objective and quantitative measurements .

27. Structuralism Critique: Introspection can’t reveal the structure of the mind. Role of outside observer to confirm the accuracy of others’ introspections. Introspection was not a truly scientific technique. People may have difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences, such as emotional responses. Those drawbacks led to the development of new approaches in replacement of structuralism.

28. Functionalism Functionalist perspective became prominent in the early 1900s (American psychologist William James). concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions asked what role behavior plays in helping people adapt to their environments. (e.g., the function of the emotion of fear in preparing us to deal with emergency situations). examined how behavior enables people to satisfy their needs and how our “stream of consciousness” thinking permits us to adapt to our environment . The American educator John Dewey drew on functionalism to develop the field of school psychology , proposing ways to best meet students’ educational needs.

29. Functionalism Functionalism is concerned with how the mind functions or how it is used by an organism to adapt to its environment . The functional psychology movement focused on a practical question: What do mental processes accomplish? Functionalists studied the mind not from the standpoint of its composition—its mental elements or its structure— but rather as an addition of functions and processes that lead to practical consequences in the real world . With the emphasis on mental functions, the functionalists became interested in the potential applications of psychology to everyday problems of how people function in and adapt to different environments. The rapid development of applied psychology in the United States may be considered the most important legacy of the functionalist movement.

30. Functionalism The Evolution Revolution: Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Theory of evolution . The variability among individual members of a species was inheritable. Survival of the Fittest Individual differences Those life forms that survive the struggle and reach maturity tend to transmit to their offspring the skills or advantages that enabled them to thrive. Further, because variation is one of the general laws of heredity, offspring will show variation among themselves (some will possess the useful qualities developed to a higher degree than their parents). The qualities tend to survive, and in the course of many generations changes may occur. These changes can be so extensive as to account for the differences among species found today. Similarity between animal and human mental processes. Emotional expressions in humans and animals.

31. Functionalism Individual Differences: Francis Galton (1822–1911) Francis Galton’s work on mental inheritance and the individual differences in human capacities. Hereditary Genius (1869); Galton explained that individual greatness or genius occurred within families far too often to be explained solely by environmental influences. Eugenics: If people of considerable talent were selected and mated generation after generation, the result would be a highly gifted human race. Galton studied issues in measurement and statistics. He applied statistical concepts to problems of heredity (sorting the prominent men in his sample into categories according to the frequency with which their level of ability occurred in the population). The probability of eminence(distinction) in certain families may not high enough to consider seriously any possible influence of a superior environment, better educational opportunities, or social advantages. Galton argued that eminence—or the lack of it—was solely a function of heredity, not of opportunity

32. Functionalism Individual Differences: Francis Galton (1822–1911) Galton’s prominent work in Psychology Correlation & regression analysis. Originated the concept of mental tests. The Association of Ideas Galton worked on two problems in the area of association : the diversity of associations of ideas and reaction time (the time required to produce associations). Word Association Test. Mental Imagery hereditary similarities through imagery : He found that similar images were more likely to occur between siblings than between people who were unrelated.

33. Functionalism William James (1842–1910) Stream of consciousness : consciousness is a continuous flowing process and that any attempt to reduce it to elements will distort it. The function of consciousness is to guide us to those ends required for survival. Consciousness is vital to the needs of complex beings in a complex environment ; without it, human evolution could not have occurred. Emphasis on the non-rational . He noted that intellect can be affected by the body’s physical condition, that beliefs are determined by emotional factors, and that reason and concept formation are influenced by human wants and needs. James emphasized Pragmatism: the validity of an idea or conception must be tested by its practical consequences.

34. Functionalism William James (1842–1910) Theory of emotions : the arousal of the physical response precedes the appearance of the emotion, especially for what he termed “coarser” emotions such as fear, rage, grief, and love. For example, we see the wild animal, we run, and then we experience the emotion of fear. “Our feeling of the [bodily] changes as they occur is the emotion.” The Three-Part Self James suggested that a person’s sense of self is made up of three aspects or components. The material self consists of everything we call uniquely our own, such as our body, family, home, or style of dress. The social self refers to the recognition we get from other people. we present different sides of ourselves to different people. The third component, the spiritual self, refers to our inner or subjective being. Our choice of clothing and manner of dress influence and reflect not only our material self, but also our social and spiritual selves. Further, how we are perceived, recognized, and judged by other people can all be influenced by how we dress.

35. Criticisms on Functionalism As functionalism did not adhere to structuralism’s subject matter and methods thus, in Titchener’s view, any approach to psychology that deviated from the introspective analysis of the mind into elements could not truly be called psychology . Structuralists also criticized functionalists’ interest in practical concerns, thus reawakening the longstanding controversy between pure and applied science. Whereas, functionalists argued that both pure and applied psychology could adhere to rigorous scientific procedures and that valid research could be performed in factories, offices, and classrooms as well as in university laboratories . It is the method and not the subject matter that determines the scientific worth of any field of inquiry.

36. Contributions of Functionalism Practical application of psychology to real-life problems is among functionalism’s most important and lasting contributions. Research on animal behavior , which was not part of the structuralist approach, became a vital area of study in psychology. The functionalists’ also incorporated studies of infants, children, and people with mental disabilities. Supplemented the introspective method with data obtained from other methods , such as physiological research, mental tests, questionnaires, and objective descriptions of behavior. These approaches, rejected by the structuralists , became vital sources of information for psychology. Functionalism left its imprint on contemporary American psychology most significantly through its emphasis on the application of the methods and findings of psychology to the solution of practical problems.