Kcse Score More Biology Charles Oluoch Jackson Muraya

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KCSE Score More Biology 1
Meaning of biology
• Biology is the study of living organisms.
• Living organisms include animals and
plants. Some organisms are so small
that they cannot be seen with unaided
eye. Such animals are called micro-
organisms e.g. bacteria and protozoa.
Branches of biology
There are many different branches of
biology depending on the field of study.
The branches include:
1. Zoology – this is the study of animals.
2. Botany – this is the study of plants.
3. Anatomy– this is the study of the body
structure of living organisms.
4. Physiology – this is the study of life
processes.
5. Entomology – this is the study of insects.
6. Parasitology – this is the study of
parasites.
7. Protozoology – this is the study of
protozoa.
8. Bacteriology – this is the study of
bacteria.
9. Phycology – this is the study of algae.
10. Ecology – this is the study of
relationships between living organisms
and their environment.
Importance of Biology
Studying Biology equips us with the
scientific knowledge and skills and enables
us to:
1. Understand the interrelationship
between plants and animals, and
between humans and their environment
2. Improve and maintain our health, that
of our family and the community at
large
3. Understand, appreciate and conserve
our environment – both living and non-
living
4. Control pollution
5. Have a good foundation for professional
training in fields such as medicine,
pharmacy, forestry, food technology,
agriculture and teaching
6. Acquire scientific skills such as ability to
observe, identify, recording, classifying,
measuring, analysing and evaluating;
all of which are useful in everyday life
e.g. to use natural resources more
efficiently.
Characteristics of living
organisms
All living organisms have the following
characteristics:
1. Nutrition – this a process where
organisms obtain food and utilise it.
Plants manufacture their own food
while other organisms feed on already
manufactured food.
2. Respiration – this a process whereby
organisms break down foods in cells to
produce energy. In most cases oxygen is
used while carbon (IV) oxide, water and
energy are the products.
3. Gaseous exchange – all living
organisms have mechanisms of taking
in air rich in oxygen and give out air rich
in carbon (IV) oxide, across specialised
FORM ONE
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

KCSE Score More Biology 2
gaseous exchange surfaces. The oxygen
is used in respiration to oxidise food
substrates to produce energy.
4. Growth and development – growth
is irreversible increase in size and
mass. Development is an increase in
complexity of structure brought about
by specialisation of cells to perform
different functions.
5. Reproduction – the process by which
organisms give rise to new ones of the
same kind. This ensures continuity of
the species.
6. Excretion – it is removal of waste or
harmful by-products of biochemical
reactions in cells. Such wastes or by-
products, if left to accumulate, they may
poison the cell.
7. Movement/locomotion – this refers
to change in position by a part of the
body or the whole organism. Change
in position by whole organisms is
locomotion. Movement is necessary
to search for food, shelter, mates,
escape predators or hostile conditions.
Movements in plants includes folding
of leaves, flowers or growth.
8. Irritability – living organisms have
ability to detect stimuli (changes in
environment) and respond to them. For
example, removing a hand from a hot
object, plant growing toward source of
light. Non-living things do not respond
to such changes.
Comparison between plants and animals
Feature Plants Animals
Mode of nutritionGreen plants have chlorophyll that
enable them manufacture own food
in the presence of light.
Lack chlorophyll hence feed on
already made food.
Irritability They respond slowly to stimuli
(changes in environment).
Respond quickly to changes in
the environment.
Movement Plants are generally stationary.
Movement confined within the
cells.
Whole organism move about
in search of food and shelter
except sessile animals, e.g.
sponges and sea anemones.
Cell structureTheir cells have cellulose cell wall.Their cells lack cellulose cell
wall.
Excretion They lack specialised excretory
organs.
Have complex excretory
organs, e.g. kidneys
Growth Growths occur at specific points
only.
Growth occurs in all parts of
the body.

3
• Classification is the scientific way of
grouping living organisms in a series
of increasingly specialised groups
according to their similarities and
differences.
• The study of classification is called
taxonomy. In taxonomy, organisms
with similar structures are placed in one
group referred to as taxon (taxa-plural).
• Some structures on organisms are tiny,
that require a magnifying lens e.g. a
hand lens to help in clear observation.
Handle
Convex lens
Frame
• When a hand lens is used to magnify an object and a drawing is done of the object, the magnification of the
object bears no relation to the size of
the drawing, and therefore must be
calculated as follows:
External features
commonly used for
classifications
a) Plants
1. Rhizoids e.g. in moss plants, rhizopus
etc.
2. Fonds e.g. in ferns.
3. Roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds,
fruits, cones (in higher plants).
b) Animals
1. Tentacles in hydra.
2. Feathers and wings in birds and insects.
3. Shells in snails.
4. Fur in mammals and scales in fish,
reptiles and birds.
5. Proglottids in tapeworms. A proglottid
each individual segment that join
with others to make up the body of a
tapeworm. It usually contains both male
and female reproductive systems.
6. Mammary glands in mammals.
7. Locomotory structures and appendages.
8. Body pigmentation.
Taxonomic units used in
classification
There are seven taxonomic units used in
classification
Kingdom
↓
Phylum
↓
Class
↓
Order
↓
Family
↓
Genus
↓
Species
CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION I

KCSE Score More Biology 4
Collecting specimens
Organisms that are studied are called
specimens. They can be studied in
the natural habitats or carried back to
the laboratory. There are a number of
instruments used to collect organisms for
study.
i) Forceps
Figure 2.1: Forceps
For picking small animals or insects
especially those that can sting.
ii) Sweep net
Bio Form1 sweep net
Figure 2.2: Sweep net
For catching and collecting flying insects such as grasshoppers and butterflies.
iii) Pitfall trap
Pitfall trap BioForm1
Figure 2.3: Pitfall trap
For collecting small crawling animals such as beetles and spiders.
iv) Pooter
Bio Form1 Pooter
Figure 2.4: Pooter
For collecting very small animals such as insects by sucking them.
v) Fish net
Bio Form1fshnet
Figure 2.5: Fish net
For collecting water animals such as fish and crabs.
REVISION EXERCISE
1. State one use for each of the following apparatus in the study of living organisms.
a) Pooter. (1mk)
b) Pitfall trap. (1mk)
c) Sweep net. (1mk)
2. List five different between a plant and an animal. (5mks)
3. State the name given to the study of:
a) the cell (1mk)
b) microorganisms (1mk)

KCSE Score More Biology 5
c) fungi (1mk)
d) insects. (1mk)
4. All living organisms have certain
characteristics that distinguish them
from the non-living things. Identify
the specific characteristic manifested
in each of the following activities.
a) A crocodile basking in the sun on
a sandy river bank. (1mk)
b) A honey bee sucking nectar from a
flower. (1mk)
c) An insect undergoing
metamorphosis. (1mk)
d) A man sneezing. (1mk)
e) A mango tree producing flowers.
(1mk)
f) A plant closing its flowers in the
morning and closing them in the
evening. (1mk)
5. Give five differences between a plant
such as a bean and an animal such as
a mosquito. (5mks)

KCSE Score More Biology 6
Definition of the cell
• A cell is the basic unit of life. It is the
smallest structure capable of performing
all life activities.
• All organisms are composed of cells. In
some organisms, the body is made up of
a single cell. Such organisms are known
as unicellular organisms or single-
celled organisms. Examples include
bacteria and amoeba.
• In other organisms, the body is made
up of many cells. Such organisms are
known as multicellular organisms.
Examples include plants and animals.
Viewing small specimens
In biology, small organisms or parts of an
organism are often viewed and studied.
There are certain instruments that are
used to view such small specimens. These
instruments include:
1. hand lens
2. light microscope
3. electron microscope.
The hand lens
• This is a convex glass lens that is used to
produce a magnified image of an object.
The lens is usually mounted in a frame
with a handle.
Handle
Convex lens
Frame
Figure 3.1: Hand lens
• A typical hand lens has a magnification of x 10. This means one can see the object ten times larger than it actually
is.
The light microscope
It is an instrument that uses light rays to
illuminate and magnify the image of an
object. It uses glass lenses to refract the
light rays.
Eye piece
Body tube
Coarse adjustment knob
Fine adjustment knob
Arm
Revolving nose-piece
Objective lens
Clip
Stage
Condenser
Diaphragm
Hinge screw
Base
Mirror
Figure 3.2: Light microscope
CHAPTER 3
THE CELL

KCSE Score More Biology 7
Main parts of the light microscope and their functions
Part Function
Base The bottom part used for support.
Mirror Directs light rays through the condenser.
Condenser It concentrates and focuses light rays on the stage.
Diaphragm/Iris. Controls the amount of light that passes through to the condenser
and stage and hence through the specimen.
Stage The flat platform where the microscope slide with the specimen
is placed. The clip is for holding the slide in place.
Objective lensesThe lenses closest to the object. They magnify the image of the
specimen.
Rotating nose-
piece/turret
The part that holds the objective lenses. It can be rotated to
change from one objective lens to another.
Body tube Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Eye-piece Contains the ocular lens where one looks into. The lens further
magnifies the image of the specimen.
The arm/limb Supports the body tube and connects it to the stage and base.
Coarse adjustment
knob
Brings the image into focus by raising or lowering the body tube
for longer distances.
Fine adjustment
knob
Brings the image into sharper focus by raising or lowering the
body tube for small distances.
7. Turn the turret to change to the medium
power objective lens, then if need be to
the high power objective lens. Use the
fine adjustment knob to bring the image
into sharper focus.
Magnification of the image
under the light microscope
The magnification is calculated by
multiplying the eye-piece lens magnification
and objective lens magnification.
Thus Magnification = Eyepiece lens
magnification × objective lens magnification
Example
If the eye-piece magnification is × 5, while
that of the objective lens in use is × 15,
Therefore, magnification = 5 × 15
= × 75.
Using the light microscope
1. Turn the turret to click the low objective
lens into position.
2. Adjust the mirror so that it reflects
maximum light into the microscope.
3. Place the microscope slide with the
specimen to be studied on the stage
and clip it into position. Ensure that the
specimen is within the field of view.
4. While looking from the side, move the
body tube downward, as close to the
specimen as possible without touching
it, using the coarse adjustment knob.
5. Then look through the eye-piece lens
and move the body tube upward, using
the coarse adjustment knob, until the
image comes into focus.
6. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring
the image into sharper focus.

KCSE Score More Biology 8
The cell structure as seen under
light microscope
a) A typical plant cell as seen under the
light microscope
Nucleus
Sap vacuole
Cytoplasm
Tonoplast
Cell membrane
Chloroplast
Cell wall
Figure 3.3: Plant cell under light microscope
A typical animal cell as seen under the light
microscope
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Figure 3.3: Animal cell under light microscope
The electron microscope
An electron microscope uses an electron beam to illuminate a specimen and produce a magnified image. It has a greater magnification of up to x500, 000 than a light microscope. The microscope uses electromagnetic lenses to control the electron beam and focus it to form an image.
It also has a higher resolving power than
a light microscope. The resolving power is
the ability of a microscope to separate two
or more close points of an object such that
they are seen as distinct. Due to its higher
magnification and resolution, the electron
microscope is used to investigate the fine
or ultra-structure of specimens.
The cell structure as seen under
the electron microscope
a) Plant cell as seen under the electron
microscope
Art work
Figure 3.4: A plant cell as seen under the
electron microscope
b) Animal cell as seen under the electron
microscope.
Figure 3.5: An animal cell as seen under the electron microscope

KCSE Score More Biology 9
The cell structure
A typical cell consists of a cell membrane that encloses a cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm
are specialised structures called organelles. The cell membrane encloses the cellular
materials and controls movement of substances into and out of the cell. In addition to
the cell membrane, plant cells have a cell wall which gives the cell a definite shape and
provides support and protection.
The table below shows a summary of the main animal
and plant cell organelles and their functions.
Organelle Function
Nucleus • Contains genetic materials.
• Controls all the activities of a cell.
Mitochondrion • Carries out respiration that release energy for the cell.
Lysosome • Contains lytic enzymes which break down worn out
organelles, cells and foreign substances.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Synthesis and transport of lipids.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Transport of proteins.
Ribosomes • Synthesis of proteins.
Golgi body/ apparatus• Transport of glycoprotein.
• Secretion of synthesised substances through secretory
vesicles.
• Formation of lysosomes.
Centrioles • Found in animal and fungal cells only.
• Formation of spindle fibres during cell division.
• Formation of cilia and flagella.
Sap vacuole • Are large and permanent in plant cells. Are small and
temporary in animal cells.
• Storage of water, sugars and salts.
• Provides support to the plant when filled with water.
Preparation of temporary slides of plant cells
• A temporary slide is prepared for immediate use during the lesson and thereafter
disassembled.
• The specimen is usually placed in a drop of liquid such as water or iodine solution. For
this reason the temporary slide is also known as wet slide. In contrast a permanent
slide is prepared using preservatives such as glycerine and can used over and over.

KCSE Score More Biology 10
• Plant tissues mounted for observation
include sections of sliced specimens, for
example, of the stem and/or the leaf.
The slicing is done using a sharp razor
or a scalpel. The sharp razor ensures
that the cells are not damaged during
cutting. Alternatively, the plant tissue
may consist of thin leaf epidermis.
Steps when preparing a
temporary slide
1. Make several thin sections of a stem or
root using a sharp scalpel in petri-dish
containing water, or remove a thin strip
of epidermis from the leaf using forceps.
The epidermis may be trimmed down to
a small to fit well on the slide.
2. Place the thinnest section of the stem or
root, or the leaf epidermis on a slide.
3. Place a drop of water or iodine solution
on a clean slide on the tissue. It may be
necessary to spread out the epidermis
gently using a mounted needle.
4. Using a mounted needle carefully lower
a cover slip by one edge gently, until it
lies flat over the specimen without any
air bubbles trapped between the glasses.
5. Mop up any surplus water or iodine
solution using a blotting paper.
6. Observe the slide first under the low
power objective lens.
Estimation of plant cell
size
You first prepare a temporary slide of an
onion leaf epidermis.
1. Measure the field of view diameter of
the low power objective lens by placing
a transparent ruler on the stage. The
field of view is the lit circular area one
sees as you look through the microscope
2. Focus on the ruler and lay it so that it
crosses the diameter of the field of view.
3. Count the spaces between the millimetre
marks to determine the diameter of the
field of view under the lower power.
1234 5
4. Convert the diameter of the field of view from millimetres to micrometers.
• 1 millimetre (mm) = 1,000 micrometers (µm)
5. Remove the ruler and place the slide with onion leaf epidermis on the stage.
6. Observe under the low power and count
the number of cells along the diameter
of the field of view lengthwise and also
width wise.
Diagram
7. Determine the length or width of one
cell by dividing the number of cells that
cross the diameter of the field of view by
the diameter of the field of view using
the formula:-
Length of one cell
=
Diameter of the field of view in micrometers
Number of cells across the field of view
lengthwise
Width of one cell
= Diameter of the field of view in micrometers
Number of cells across the field of view
width wise

KCSE Score More Biology 11
• For example, if the diameter of the field
of view is 5000 µm (5 mm x 1000µm)
and you counted 5 cells lengthwise,
then:-
Length of one cell = 5000µm
5 cells
= 1000µm.
If you counted 20 cells across the field
of view width wise, then:
Width of one cell = 5000µm
20 cells
= 250µm.
Cell specialisation,
tissues, organs and
organ systems
What is cell specialisation?
This is the structural modification of cell to
enable it to perform a specific function.
Examples of specialised animals’ cells
Cell Function Adaptation
Red blood cell Transport oxygen to the
various tissues in the
body.
• Biconcave in shape to increase the
surface area for diffusion of gases
• Lack of nucleus provides large
surface area for packing and
transporting oxygen.
• Are filled with haemoglobin,
which combines with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin.
Sperm cell
TailNucleus
• Responsible for fertilization of ovum cell.
• Contains and transmits hereditary traits (genes) to offspring.
• Has a tail to enable it to swim towards an ovum
• Contains numerous mitochondria which provide them with necessary
energy for rapid locomotion.

KCSE Score More Biology 12
Examples of specialised plant cells
Cell Function Adaptation
Palisade cell
Chloroplasts
Nucleus
The active area of
photosynthesis.
• Has many chloroplasts for
carrying out photosynthesis
• They are numerous and
closely packed together
just under upper epidermis
to get maximum light for
photosynthesis.
• They are made up of electro-
gated cells for maximum
trapping of light for
photosynthesis.
Parenchyma cells
Storage of carbohydrates and photosynthates.
• They have large sap vacuoles for storage of carbohydrates (photosynthates).
Absorption of dissolved nutrients and water.
• It is thin and small to penetrate easily between soil particles.
• They are numerous to provide a large surface area for absorption. Have thin outer membrane to allow efficient diffusion of
substances in.
Tissues
A particular type of cells that are grouped
together to perform the same function.
Examples of animal tissues
i) Connective tissue –provides support
and binds other tissues together.
ii) Nerve tissue – consists of nerve cells.
Receive and conduct nerve impulse.
iii) Blood – consists of red blood cells,
white blood cells and platelets. It
transports substances from one part of
the body to another. It also protects the
body against infection.
Examples of plants tissues
i) Palisade tissue – consists of palisade
cells. It carries out photosynthesis.

KCSE Score More Biology 13
ii) Conducting tissue – consists of
xylem and phloem. The xylem conducts
water and mineral salts from the roots
to the leaves while the phloem conducts
food substances from one part of the
plant to another.
Organs
An organ is composed of several tissues
forming a structural and functional unit.
Examples of organs in plants are leaves,
roots, stems, buds and flowers whereas
examples of organs in animals are heart,
kidney, stomach, liver, lungs, brain and
skin.
Organ systems
An organ system is composed of different
organs working together to perform one
main function. Organ systems are more
developed in animals than in plants.
Examples of organ systems- reproductive,
nervous, digestive, circulatory and
excretory.
REVISION EXERCISE
1. State the functions of the following
cell organelles.
a) Golgi apparatus. (2 marks)
b) Ribosomes. (1 mark)
c) Lysosomes. (1 mark)
2. Which organelle would be abundant
in:
a) Skeletal muscle cell. (1 mark)
b) Palisade. (1 mark)
3. Name the organelle in which protein
synthesis takes place in a cell. (1mk)
4. Name the tissues in plants responsible
for:
a) Transport of water and mineral
salts. (1 mark)
b) Transport of carbohydrates. (1
mark)
c) Primary growth. (1 mark)
5. State the functions of the following
parts of a light microscope.
a) Objective lens. (1 mark)
b) Diaphragm. (1 mark)
c) Mirror. (1 mark)
d) Fine adjustment knob. (1 mark)
e) Stage. (1 mark)
6. The diagram below shows a
specialised plant cell.
C
E
D
a) i) Name the cell. (1 mark)
ii) Name the parts labelled
iii) D and E. (2 marks)
b) State the function of the part labelled C. (1 mark)
7. The figure below is a fine structure of a generalised animal cell as seen under an electron microscope.
F
H
G
i) Based on the diagram, statewhether it represents an animal cell or a plant cell. (1 mark)

KCSE Score More Biology 14
ii) Give two reasons for your
answer in 7 (a) (i) above.
(2mks)
c) Name the parts labelled F and G.
(2mks)
d) How is the structure labelled H
adapted to its function? (2mks)
8. a) G
ive a reason why each of the
following steps are followed
when preparing cross sections of
a leaf for examination under the
microscope:
i) Cutting very thin sections.
(1mk)
ii) Using a sharp razor blade
during the cutting. (1mk)
iii) Placing the sections in water.
(1mk)
iv) Staining the sections with
iodine before observing under
the microscope. (1 mrk)
b) If a microscope with an eyepiece
lens of X15 was used to magnify
a cell 750 times, what power of
the objective lens was used in that
microscope? (2mks)
9. The diagrams below represent three
different types of cells. Identify each
cell and state how it is adapted to
its function.
a) i) Identity. (1mk)
ii) Adaptation to function. (1mk)
iii) Identity. (1mk)
iv) Adaptation to function. (1mk)
i) Identity. (1mk)
ii) Adaptation. (1mk)
10. Name two structures which are
present in plant cells but absent in
animal cells. (2 mks)
11. Describe how the various structures
in an animal cell are adapted to their
functions. (20 marks)
12. Below is electron micrograph showing
part of an animal cell. The centrioles
are labelled on the micrograph.

a) Name the parts labelled S, T, U
and W. (4mks)
b) What are the roles of centrioles in
animal cells? (3mks)
c) Explain why it possible to see
the finer internal parts of the cell
using an electron microscope
but not with a light microscope.
(2mks)

15
Definition of cell physiology
Cell physiology is the study of how the cell
functions. For the cell to function properly,
certain substances must enter and leave
the cell. Substances enter or leave the cell
through the cell membrane.
Biological membranes are of three types:
1. cell membrane
2. nuclear membrane
3. organelles.
All these membranes are similar in structure
and properties.
The cell membrane
It is composed of a phospholipid layer
sandwiched between two protein layers.
The main function of the cell membrane is
to control movement of substances in and
out. It has certain properties which adapt it
to this function. These include:-
i) Semi-permeability – it has tiny pores
which allow only small molecules to
pass through but not large ones.
ii) Possession of charges – this allows
only certain substances come inside or
go outside of the cell. The charges also
enables the cells to detect changes in
their environment.
iii) Sensitive to changes in
temperature – proteins are sensitive
to temperature. High temperatures
denature the protein hence the cell
membrane.
iv) Sensitive to extreme pH – very high
or low pH denature the structure of
proteins hence the cell membrane. Once
denatured the cell membrane cannot
function normally.
Movement of the substances
into and outside the cell
There are three main processes by which
substances move into or out of the cell
through the cell membrane. These processes
are known as physiological processes. They
are:
a) diffusion
b) osmosis
c) active transport.
Diffusion
• This is the process by which particles
move from a region of high concentration
to a region of low concentration.
Diffusion takes place within gases and
liquids only.
• The difference in concentration is
called concentration or diffusion
gradient.
• The cell membrane will allow only
particles that are small enough to
diffuse into or out of the cell.
Factors that affect diffusion
rate
1. The concentration gradient – the
greater the gradient, the faster the rate.
Diffusion goes on until the concentration
is uniform or homogeneous.
2. Size of the particles – the smaller the
particles the faster the diffusion rate.
Smaller particles are lighter and hence
move faster.
3. Thickness of the membrane – the
thicker the cell membrane or tissue,
the lower the rate. The thicker the
CHAPTER 4
CELL PHYSIOLOGY

KCSE Score More Biology 16
membrane the greater the diffusion
distance.
4. Temperature – the higher the
temperature the faster the rate. Increase
in temperature increases the kinetic
energy of the particles hence they move
faster.
5. Surface area to volume ratio – the
larger the surface area to volume ratio,
the faster the rate of diffusion into and
out of a body. The smaller the body
the larger the surface area to volume
ratio. Cells are tiny in size thus have
a large surface area exposed to the
surroundings for effective diffusion.
Role of diffusion in living
organisms
In plants
1. Absorption of mineral salts from the
soil through the roots.
2. Transport of manufactured food
substances from the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
3. Removal of excess water through
transpiration.
4. Gaseous exchange – absorption of
oxygen for respiration and carbon
(IV) oxide for photosynthesis.
Removal of oxygen as a by-product of
photosynthesis and carbon (IV) oxide
as a waste product of respiration.
In animals
1. Absorption of digestion products from
the ileum.
2. Reabsorption of some mineral ions at
the kidneys.
3. Excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
4. Gaseous exchange. Oxygen from the
surroundings diffuses across gaseous
exchange surfaces, such as the lungs
into the blood stream, while carbon (IV)
oxide diffuse out of the body.
Osmosis
Insert diagram
Figure: 4.1
This is the process in which water
molecules move from a region of low solute
concentration to a region of high solute
concentration across a semi-permeable
membrane.
Osmotic pressure
• The high solute concentration in
solution B creates a force which draws
water molecules from solution A. The
force with which water is drawn from
solution A into solution B across the
semi-permeable membrane is called
osmotic pressure.
• Osmotic pressure can also be described
as the pressure required to stop water
from moving into solution B.
• The osmotic pressure of any solution
depends on the solute concentration.
The higher the solute concentration,
the higher the osmotic pressure.
If two solutions of unequal solute
concentration are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane, the solution with
the higher solute concentration is said
to be hypertonic, and the solution
with lower concentration is hypotonic .
• Thus the hypertonic solution has
a higher osmotic pressure than the
hypotonic solution.
• In the diagram above, solution A is
hypotonic to solution B. During osmosis,
water moves from the hypotonic
solution into the hypertonic solution.

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• If the two solutions have the same solute
concentration then they are said to be
isotonic.
• When two solutions of unequal osmotic
pressure are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane, water molecules
will move from the hypotonic solution
to the hypertonic solution until the
two solutions become isotonic. In the
diagram above, water molecules will
continue to move from solution A to
solution B by osmosis until the two
solution s are isotonic.
Osmotic potential
• This is the ability of a solution to develop
an osmotic pressure when separated
from a hypotonic solution by a semi-
permeable membrane.
• When a solution is not separated
from another one by semi-permeable
membrane no osmosis can take place.
However it has the potential to develop
an osmotic pressure.
Water relations in animal cells
• An animal cell contains dissolved sugars
and mineral salts in its cytoplasm that
create an osmotic pressure. When the
animal cell is placed in a hypotonic
solution or distilled water, osmosis
takes place.
• Water molecules are more concentrated
outside than inside the cell, thus the
molecules enter the cells through the
semi-permeable cell membrane by
osmosis and the cell swells. This is most
easily observed in red blood cells.
• When red blood cells are placed in
distilled water, water molecules enter
the red blood cell by osmosis. As
more water enters the cell swells and
eventually bursts.
• The bursting of the red blood cells is
called haemolysis. It occurs because
the red blood cells, just like all the
animals cells lack cell walls to resists
the outward pressure of the expanding
cytoplasm.
• When placed in hypertonic solution,
water molecules are drawn out of the red
blood cell by osmosis. As more and more
water is lost from the cell, it shrinks in
process known as crenation.
Water relations in plant cells
• The cell wall is usually freely permeable
to substances in solution so is not
important in osmosis.
• The most important membranes are the
semi-permeable cell membrane and the
tonoplast.
• The cell sap in the vacuole contains
substances such as dissolved sugars and
salts which contribute to the osmotic
pressure of the cell.
• When placed in distilled water, water
molecules enter the cell by osmosis
through the cell membrane, into the
cytoplasm and then into the sap vacuole
through the tonoplast.
• As more and more water enters the
cell, the volumes of the vacuole and
cytoplasm increase. This leads to the
development of an outward pressure
against the cell wall called turgor
pressure.
• The more the water that enters the cell,
the more the turgor pressure against
the cell wall. The cell wall is strong and
rigid. It resists the outward stretching
by exerting an inward and opposite
pressure called wall pressure.
• As the turgor pressure increases, the
wall pressure also increases. At the
point when the wall pressure equals

KCSE Score More Biology 18
the turgor pressure, the cell is said to
be turgid. Such a cell firm and rigid.
Turgid cells give strength and support
to the plant leaves, flowers and stem.
• (Diagram of a plant cell
undergoing plasmolysis and
deplasmolysis) – needs to be
inserted from hard copy
• When placed in hypertonic solution,
water is lost first from the cytoplasm
and then from the vacuole through the
tonoplast by osmosis. As more water is
lost the cytoplasm and vacuole shrink,
becoming less turgid or flaccid.
• As more water is lost, eventually the cell
membrane pulls away from the cell wall.
This process is called plasmolysis,
and the cell is said to be plasmolysed .
The loss of turgidity in plants leads to
wilting, characterised by folding of
leaves and flowers and drooping of the
stem.
(Diagram)
Note:
• Plant cells become plasmolysed,
whereas red blood cells become
crenated when they lose water by
osmosis to a hypertonic solution.
• The process of plasmolysis is usually
reversible if the plasmolysed cell is
placed in distilled water. Water enters
the cell by osmosis. The vacuole and
cytoplasm increase in volume making
the cell turgid. This process in which
a plasmolysed plant cell becomes
turgid when placed in a distilled water
is called deplasmolysis.
Factors affecting osmosis
1. The osmotic pressure gradient
between the two solutions – the
greater the gradient the faster the rate.
2. The thickness of the semi-
permeable membrane – the thicker
the membrane the slower the rate of
osmosis.
3. Temperature – the higher the
temperature the faster the rate up to
certain point beyond which the cell’s
membrane becomes denatured thus
stopping osmosis.
Role of osmosis in living
organisms
In animals
1. Absorption of water from the colon
of the large intestines into the blood
stream.
2. Reabsorption of water in the kidney
tubules.
3. Movement of water from the blood
plasma into the tissues.
4. Movement of water from cell to cell
within the body.
In plant cells
1. Turgid cells provide support in
herbaceous plants, leaves and seedlings.
2. Absorption of water from the soil by the
roots.
3. Movement of water from cell to cell
within the body.
4. Feeding in insectivorous plants.
5. Opening and closing of stomata.

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Active transport
This is the process by which substances
move across the cell membrane from a
region of low concentration to a region of
high concentration, against a concentration
gradient.
Energy is required for the process to occur.
This energy is derived from respiration.
It is believed that there are carriers in
the cell membrane that transport the
substances across the membrane.
Factors affecting active
transport
Since energy derived from respiration is
required for the process, any factor that
affects the rate of respiration, will also
affect the rate of active transport. These
factors include:
1. Temperature – the higher the
temperature the faster the rate up to a
certain point beyond which the process
stops.
2. Glucose concentration – it is
broken down to provide energy during
respiration.
3. Oxygen concentration – oxygen is
used to breakdown organic molecules
such as glucose to provide energy.
4. The pH level – optimum pH enables
respiration to proceed at the fastest rate.
5. Enzyme inhibitors – these hinder
the respiration process, thus the higher
their concentration the less energy and
the slower the process.
Role of active transport in living
organisms
In animal cells
1. Absorption of digested food from the
alimentary canal into the blood stream.
2. Reabsorption of nutrients such glucose
and amino acids from the kidney tubules
into the bloodstream.
3. Accumulation of substances within
the cells in order to make the osmotic
pressure of the body isotonic to the
surrounding hypertonic solution. This
prevents water loss to the surrounding
hypertonic environment.
4. Excretion of waste products from body
cells.
5. Sodium ions pump mechanism in the
nerve cells.
In plants
1. Absorption of some mineral salts from
the soil by the roots.
2. Movement of photosynthetic products
from leaf cells into the phloem.
REVISION EXERCISE
1. a) What is diffusion? (2mks)
b) How do the following factors
affect the rate of diffusion?
i) Diffusion gradient. (1mk)
ii) Surface area to volume ratio.
(1mk)
iii) Temperature. (1mk)
c) Outline three roles of active
transport in the human body.
(3mks)
2. An experiment was carried out to
investigate haemolysis of human red
blood cells. The red blood cells were
placed in different concentrations
of sodium chloride solution. The
percentage of haemolysed cells was
determined. The results were as
shown in the table below.

KCSE Score More Biology 20
Salt
concentration
g/100 cm3 (%)
0.300.330.360.390.420.450.48
Red blood cells
Haemolysed (%)
100 91 82 69 30 15 0
Epidermis
In solution X
In solution Y
a) Account for the appearance of the pieces in solutions X

and Y.
i) In solution X (4mks)
ii) In solution Y.
(4mks)
6. The diagrams below show a red blood cell that was subjected to a certain
treatment.
At startAt the end of experiment

Account for the shape of the cell at
the end of the experiment. (3mks)
7. Explain what would happen to
onion epidermal cells if they were
placed in distilled water. (5mks)
8. The diagram below represents a set-up
used to investigate a certain biological
process in plants. After several hours
a) Account for the results obtained
at:
i) 0.30 % salt concentration
(3mks)
ii) 0.48 % salt concentration.
(3mks)
b) What would happen to the red
blood cells if they were placed in
0.50 % salt solution? (1mk)
3. State the importance of osmosis in
plants. (3mks)
4. An experiment was set up as shown in
the diagram below.
Sucrose solution
Visking tubing
Distilled water
The set up was left for 30 minutes.
a) State the expected results. (1mk)
b) Explain your answer in (a) above. (3mks)
5. A freshly obtained dandelion stem
measuring 5 cm long was split
lengthwise to obtain two similar
pieces. The pieces were placed in
solution of different concentration in
petri dishes for 20 minutes.
The appearance after 20 minutes is as
shown below.

KCSE Score More Biology 21
the wooden bar was found to be tilting
downward at point A.
Raw potato
cylinders
Wooden bar
5cm 5cm
Solution X Solution Y
Point A Point B
a) Name the physiological process
under investigation. (1mk)
b) i) State the biological term
used to describe solution Y in
relation to solution X. (1mk)
ii) Give an explanation of the
tilting of the wooden bar
downwards at point A. (4
marks)
c) State and explain the difference
in the results of the above
experiment if the potato cylinder
used had been boiled. (2mks)
d) Give three roles of the process
under investigation in the above
investigation in a plant. (3mks)
9. A student set up an experiment as
shown below.
Beaker
Liquid L
(5%sucrose)
Liquid K
(30%sucrose)
Visking
tubing
After one hourAt the start
a) What is the physiological process
being investigated? (1mk)
b) Account for the observations
made after one hour. (4mks)
10. Cylinders cut from a potato tuber,
change mass when placed in solutions
each of different concentrations.
A student weighed four potato
cylinders. He placed one cylinder in
0% sodium solution (distilled water)
and the other three in different
solutions of sodium chloride. After
one hour, he weighed the cylinders
again.
His results are as shown in the table
below.
Solution Original
mass/g
Final
mass/g
Change in
mass/g
0% sodium solution2.80 2.87
1% sodium chloride2.75 2.80
10 sodium chloride2.82 2.81
25% sodium chloride2.71 2.63
a) Complete the last column of the table by calculating the change in for the potato
cylinders in each of the solution. (4mks)
b) Calculate the change in mass in the 0% sodium solution as a percentage of the
original mass. (2mks)
c) Explain the observation for:
i) 1% sodium chloride (4 marks)
ii) 25% sodium chloride 4 marks)

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d) What concentration of sodium
chloride is most similar to the
concentration of the cell sap in the
potato cells? Explain your answer.
(3 marks)
e) Name three roles of that process
under investigation in this
experiment plays in plants. (3
marks)
11. A student prepared a temporary slide
of an onion leaf epidermis. During
preparation, she placed the leaf
epidermis on a drop of liquid L, and
then added a drop of iodine solution
before placing the cover slip. She
waited for ten minutes before blotting
out excess liquid and then mounted
under the medium power of a light
microscope.
Beside is the photomicrograph of the
appearance of the prepared slide.
a) Explain why iodine solution was
added to the preparation? (2mks)
b) Name the parts labelled N and M.
(2mks)
c) i) From the appearance of the
cells in the photomicrograph,
describe and explain the effect
of liquid L on the onion tissue.
(5mks)
ii) Name the process that has
occurred in the onion tissue.
(1mk)
12. The table below shows concentrations of some minerals inside the cells of a water
plant and in the surrounding water.
Concentration of minerals/ arbitrary units
Mineral Sodium Magnesium Calcium
Cell sap _______ 200 380
Surrounding water 28 260 26
a) Sodium is 70 times more concentrated in the cell sap than in the surrounding water. Complete the table by calculating the concentration of sodium in the cell sap. (1mk)
b) i) Name the process by which each of the following mineral is taken up by the
plant. (2mks)
1. Sodium.
2. Magnesium
ii) Explain why plants take up some minerals quicker in a well aerated fast-
flowing stream than in a slow-flowing stream. (3mks)

KCSE Score More Biology 23
13. An investigation was carried out into
the effect of temperature on the uptake
of potassium ions in barley roots.
Pieces of barley roots were placed in
solutions containing potassium ions,
and kept at a range of temperatures.
The initial concentration of potassium
ions in the solutions was 8 parts per
million (ppm).
After 10 hours, the concentrations of
potassium ions in the root cells were
determined. The results are as shown
in the table below.
Temperature
(oC)
Potassium
concentration in
root cells/ppm
5 32
10 38
15 57
20 80
25 100
a) Describe the relationship between
temperature and concentration of
potassium ions in the root cells.
(1mk)
b) Name the mechanism by which
the potassium ions are absorbed.
Give an explanation for your
answer. (3mks)
c) Explain the relationship between
the temperature and potassium
ions uptake. (2mks)
14. The diagrams below shown an
experimental set-up to investigate a
certain process in a plant tissue.
Peeled potato
Water
Saturated
sugar
solution
Beaker
Set-up at the start Set-up after 30 minutes
a) Name the process being investigated.(1mk)
b) State the observable results after
30 minutes.(2mks)
c) i) State the expected results if
the experiment was repeated
using boiled potato tissue
instead of the unboiled potato
tissue.
(1mk)
ii) Explain your answer in (c) (i)
above. (2mks)
15. An experiment was set up in a
laboratory as shown below.
Visking tubing
Glass rod
Starch suspension
Iodine solution
Beaker
Starch suspension is white in colour
while iodine solution is brown
in colour. When iodine particles
combine with starch suspension, a
blue-black colour is produced.
a) State the expected observation in
the set-up after 30 minutes.
i) In the visking tubing. (1mk)
ii) In the beaker. (1mk)
b) Explain your observations in (a)
(i) above.
i) In the visking tubing.(3mks)
ii) In the beaker.(2mks)
c) State the factors that affect the
rate at which the experiment
above proceeds.(3mks)

KCSE Score More Biology 24
Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which living
organisms obtain nutrients and utilise
them in their bodies.
Importance of nutrition
• Provide substances that are broken
down in respiration to release energy.
This energy is used for various activities
such as growth and active transport.
• Provide materials used for synthesis of
new cells and cellular materials. This
enables growth and repair of worn out
tissues.
Modes of nutrition
There are two modes:
i) Autotrophism – This is synthesis of
own complex food substances by an
organism from simple substances using
energy. Such organisms are called
autotrophs.
ii) Heterotrophism - This is the mode
of nutrition in which an organism takes
in readymade complex food materials
from another organism. Such organisms
are called heterotrophs.
Autotrophism
There are two types of autotrophism
depending on the nature of energy used:-
a) Chemosynthesis
This is the synthesis of complex food
substances from simple inorganic
substances using energy from chemical
processes. It carried out by certain bacteria.
b) Photosynthesis
This is the synthesis of complex food
substances from carbons (IV) oxide and
water using light energy. Oxygen is given
out as a by-product. It carried out by
green plants, algae and certain bacteria.
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll
molecules.
Importance of photosynthesis
in nature
1. The complex organic substances formed
are sources of food to the plant and
other living organisms.
2. Removes carbon (IV) oxide released
by living organism during respiration
from the atmosphere. This prevents
the accumulation of this gas in the
atmosphere which may lead to global
warming.
3. It replenishes the oxygen used by living
organisms during respiration.
Adaptation of leaf to
photosynthesis
The leaf is the main site of photosynthesis
in most plants. It has several adaptive
features to enable carry out photosynthesis
effectively.
Petiole
Leaf veins
Mid rib
Lamina
Apex
CHAPTER 5
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
AND ANIMALS

KCSE Score More Biology 25
External adaptive features
i) It is green in colour due to the presence
of chlorophyll. This enables it to trap
light energy.
ii) It is thin to reduce the distance for light
penetration and diffusion of carbon (IV)
oxide.
iii) It is broad to increase the surface area
for absorption of light and carbon (IV)
oxide from the atmosphere.
iv) It has veins which provide support. The
veins also contain vascular tissues that
conduct water to the leaves and carry
out away products of photosynthesis.
v) Has a petiole which provides support by
attaching it to the stem. The petiole at an
angle perpendicular to the sun to expose
maximum area for light absorption.
Internal adaptive features of the leaf
Cuticle
Upper epidermis
}
Palisade mesophyll
Xylem
Phloem
}
Vascular
bundle
}
Spongy mesophyll
Lower epidermis
Stoma
Guard cells
The cuticle
It is a transparent, non-cellular, waxy and waterproof layer on the epidermis. The transparency allows penetration of light to the photosynthetic tissues. It reduces excessive loss of water by evaporation. It also protects the underlying tissues from mechanical damage and infection.
The epidermis
It is the outermost layer that is one cell thick. The cells lack chloroplasts hence transparent to allow light through to the photosynthetic tissues. In some regions, the epidermal cells are modified into guard cells which open and close the stomata.
The guard cells have chloroplasts hence
are photosynthetic. It through the stomata that carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere diffuses into the leaf, while oxygen diffuses out of the leaf. In most plants, the stomata
are located on the lower epidermis to minimise water loss.
The mesophyll layer
This is the middle layer consisting of two types of tissues:-
Palisade mesophyll
Consists of cells that are packed with numerous chloroplasts. The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll molecules which absorb light energy used in photosynthesis. The cells are located beneath the upper epidermis to receive maximum light. The cells are arranged with their long axes perpendicular to the surface to receive maximum light. They are tightly packed to trap most of the incoming light. In some plants this layer is more than one cell thick to promote light absorption.

KCSE Score More Biology 26
Spongy mesophyll
Consists of cells that are irregularly
shaped and loosely arranged thus creating
large intercellular spaces. The air spaces
promote diffusion of gases through the
leaf. The spongy mesophyll cells also have
chloroplasts but not as numerous as in the
palisade cells.
Vascular bundle
Consists of xylem and phloem tissues.
The xylem conducts water and mineral
salts from the roots to the leaf where they
are used in photosynthesis. The phloem
conducts products of photosynthesis such
as sugar, away from the leaf to the rest of
the plant.
Adaptation of the plant to
absorb maximum sunlight
1. Leaves are arranged in a mosaic pattern,
i.e. they are arranged in such a way that
minimises overlapping and so reduces
the degree of shading of one leaf by
anither.
2. The shoots of most plants tend to grow
towards light in order to expose the
leaves for photosynthesis.
Structure and function of
chloroplast
Grana
Stroma
}
This is the organelle that carries out
photosynthesis
Adaptations
1. Contains the photosynthetic
pigments chlorophyll molecules. The
chlorophyll traps light energy used in
photosynthesis.
2. Has the grana provide a large surface
area for accommodating chlorophyll
molecules.
3. Has an aqueous matrix called stroma.
This contains enzymes which speed up
photosynthesis and also provide the
medium for photosynthetic reactions.
4. The stroma is colourless to allow light
reach the grana/chlorophyll molecules.
5. The stroma has enzymes that catalyse
carbon (IV) fixation process.
Requirements for
photosynthesis
• Light – photosynthesis is an energy
consuming process, thus light provides
the required energy.
• Water – it is split to provide hydrogen
used in the formation of sugar.
• Carbon (IV) oxide – combines with
hydrogen obtained from water to form
glucose.
• Chlorophyll – the green pigment in
the chloroplast which is used to trap
light energy.
The process of
photosynthesis
The process is summarised in the equation
below.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
Glucose/Sugar + Oxygen
6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O
Light energy
Chlorophyll
C
6
H
12
O
6

+ 6 O
2

KCSE Score More Biology 27
The process of photosynthesis involves a
series of chemical reactions that can be
divided into two stages:
Light stage
It requires the presence of light. Occurs
in the grana of the chloroplasts where the
chlorophyll molecules trap light energy
used to drive two processes:-
Photolysis of water molecules
This is the splitting of water molecules
using light energy into hydrogen atoms and
oxygen.
Water

Light energy
Chlorophyll
Hydrogen atoms +
Oxygen
The hydrogen atoms pass out into the
stroma where they used in the dark stage
reactions. The oxygen diffuses out of the
leaf through the stomata as a by-product.
Synthesis of ATP molecules
Light energy is converted into chemical
energy which is then used to form
Adenosine Triphosphate ATP molecules.
The ATP molecules diffuse out of the grana
into the stroma where they provide energy
for the light independent stage.
Dark stage
This stage occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplasts and takes place whether or
not light is present. It involves combination
with hydrogen atoms from the light stage
to form a simple carbohydrate such as
glucose. This process is called carbon (IV)
oxide fixation. It requires energy which
is supplied by the ATP molecules from the
light stage reaction. The reaction catalysed
by enzymes.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Hydrogen atoms
Simple carbohydrate + Water
12 water molecules are used up in the
light stage compared to the 6 molecules
produced in the light-independent stage for
every glucose molecule produced.
The simple carbohydrate such as glucose
may be directly used by the cells in
respiration to provide energy. Some of
the glucose is converted into sucrose and
translocated out of the cell, while the
rest of the glucose is converted to starch
and stored. Other products of the light-
independent stage include amino acids and
fatty acids.
Factors influencing
photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by
a number of factors. The level of each of
these factors determines the rate at which
photosynthesis will take place. The main
factors are light intensity, carbon (IV) oxide
concentration, water and temperature.
All of these factors must be present at
their optimum levels for photosynthesis to
proceed at the fastest rate. Should any of
these factors be at their lowest point, the
rate of photosynthesis will low regardless
of the level of the other factors. The factor
at its lowest level is called limiting factor.
For example, under low light intensity the
rate of photosynthesis will be low regardless
of how high the levels of carbon (IV) oxide,
optimum temperature and water. The light
is the limiting factor and the rate can only
increase if the light intensity is increased.
Light intensity
As the light intensity increases, rate of
photosynthesis also increases up to a
point and then levels off. The relationship
between light intensity and the rate of
photosynthesis.

KCSE Score More Biology 28
}Rate of photosynthesis
Optimum range of light
Light
The light provides the energy for photolysis
of water and carbon (IV) oxide fixation
process. The rate levels off beyond the
optimum range because the other factors
such as carbon (IV) oxide and temperature
are not increasing thus they become
limiting.
Carbon (iv) oxide concentration
At its normal concentration, the amount
of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is
about 0.04%. Despite occasional small
fluctuations, the level in the atmosphere
remains remarkably constant. This
normally low atmospheric carbon (IV)
oxide concentration of 0.04% is a major
limiting factor to photosynthesis.
However under experimental conditions,
an increase in carbon (IV) oxide results in
an increase in the rate of photosynthesis up
to a certain level when it slows down and
finally levels off.
The relationship between carbon (IV) oxide
and the rate of photosynthesis.
}Rate of photosynthesis
Optimum range of carbon
(IV) concentration
Carbon (IV) concentration
A further increase in carbon (IV) oxide
beyond the optimum concentration has no
further effect on the rate since other factors
such as light and temperature are now
limiting the rate of photosynthesis.
Temperature
The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis
is not affected by temperature, but the
light-independent stage is temperature
dependent. Hence an increase in
temperature leads to an increase in the
rate of photosynthesis until the optimum
temperature of about 40
o
C. A further
increase in temperature beyond 40
o
C
decreases the rate drastically and eventually
stops.
The relationship between temperature and
the rate of photosynthesis.
}Rate of photosynthesis
Optimum range of
temperature
Temperature/o C
This is because the carbon fixation process
is enzyme-controlled and enzymes
activities are affected by temperature.
At low temperature the enzymes are
inactive. As the temperature increases the
enzymes become more active and hence the
increase in the rate. Beyond the optimum
temperature the enzymes are destroyed
thus stopping the reactions.
Water
Water is involved in the process of
photosynthesis in a number of ways. As a
raw material, its deficiency reduces the rate
of photosynthesis. Water makes the cells
turgid thus providing support for the leaves

KCSE Score More Biology 29
to be spread out and absorb light. The
turgidity also makes the stomata to open to
allow carbon (IV) oxide to diffuse in. Since
water has so many functions in a plant, it is
impossible to directly relate its availability
and the rate of photosynthesis.
Revision questions
1. a) List two adaptations of
chloroplasts in carrying out its
function. (2mks)
b) What is carbon (IV) oxide fixation
in photosynthesis? (1mk)
2. The graph below shows the results
of an experiment to measure the rate
of photosynthesis in a pond plant at
different light intensities and 25o C.
x
What are the limiting factors at point
X? (2mks)
3. Explain the role of each of the
following in photosynthesis.
a) Water. (1mk)
b) Light. (1mk)
4. In a certain investigation, a leaf of a
potted plant was treated as shown
below.
Aluminium foil
Paper clip
The potted plant was kept in the dark
for about 48 hours, then transferred
to light for 5 hours.
a) What was the aim of the
investigation? (1mk)
b) Why was the plant kept in the
dark for 48 hours? (1mk)
c) What is the advantage of using a
potted plant instead of one rooted
in the ground? (1 mk)
5. Name three structures found in a
plant cell such as palisade cell but
which are absent in a typical animal
cell. (3mks)
6. Name the products of light stage of
photosynthesis. (2mks)
7. The diagram below represents the
process of photosynthesis.
Water
{
HYDROGEN
Gas W
{
CARBOHYDRATE
Carbon (IV)
oxide
Process V
Process X
a) Identify the:
i) process V (1mk)
ii) process X (1mk)
iii) gas W. (1mk)
b) In which part of the chloroplast
does each of the following
processes occur? (2 marks)
i) Process V.
ii) Process X.

KCSE Score More Biology 30
b) Briefly explain each of the
following biological phenomenon.
i) In experiments to investigate
the factors that affect the rate
of
photosynthesis, aquatic
plants e.g. Elodea sp is
used.
(1mk)
ii) Under normal field
conditions, carbon (IV)
oxide is the main limiting
factor of photosynthesis.
(1mk)
iii) Plants with variegated
leaves accumulate less
food than those with non-
variegated leaves under
similar conditions. (1mk)
8. The set up below is commonly used
to demonstrate some aspects of
photosynthesis in the laboratory.
Electric bulb
Colourless gas
Water with
sodium
bicarbonate
Glass funnel
Aquatic plant
a) State the two aspects of
photosynthesis that may be
investigated using the above set
up. (2mks)
b) What is the role of the electric
bulb? (1mk)
c) What is the role of light in the
photosynthesis? (1mk)
d) Name the colourless gas. (1mk)
e) Why was the water enriched with
sodium hydrogen bicarbonate?
(1mk)
9. The carbohydrate synthesized in
photosynthesis is converted into
many other substances. Complete the
table below about these substances
and their functions. (5 mks)
Substance Function
Fat and oil
To build cell wall.
For storage.
Lignin
Protein synthesis.
10. The diagram below shows a plant cell
organelle.
starch
D
E
}
a) Identify the parts labelled D and E. (2 marks)
b) Light was shone on a suspension
of these organelles while it was
kept in an atmosphere of pure
nitrogen. During this time the
organelle released large amounts
of three different substances.
Name the three substances
released. (3mks)
c) The membranes around the
outside of the organelle were then
broken, and the parts labelled D
and E were separated from each
other. In the dark, part E was
supplied with a substance which
it converted into a carbohydrate.
What is the name of the substance
converted into a carbohydrate?
(1mk)
d) i) Name the part of the organelle
where the enzymes of the
light-independent reactions
are located. (1mk)
ii) Describe what happens to the
starch grains. (1mk)

KCSE Score More Biology 31
11. The diagram below shows a section of
a leaf.
A
B
C
E D
a) i) Name the parts labelled A, B, C, D and E. (5mks)
ii) In which of the cells would most photosynthesis take place? Give one reason to support your answer.
1. Cell (1mk)
2. Reason (1mk)
b) With the help of the diagram above,
describe the process and pathway
taken by a molecule of carbon (IV)
oxide from the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. (5mks)
c) Describe three ways in which
the leaf is adapted to absorb the
maximum amount of light for
photosynthesis. (3mks)
12. An investigation was carried out to
study the effects of various factors on
the rate of photosynthesis. The results
were as shown in the graph below.
Rate of photosynthesis
Light intensity
S
T
U
0.1% CO
2
at 15
o
C
0.01% CO
2
at 25
o
C

0.1% CO
2
at 25
o
C
a) State the limiting factors at each
of the following points:
i) S (2mks)
ii) T (1mk)
iii) U (1mk)
b) Explain how the factor at point T
limits the rate of photosynthesis.
(2mks)
c) Give two roles played by light in
photosynthesis. (2mks)
13. The diagram below shows a set up
that was used to investigate an aspect
of photosynthesis. The set up was
exposed to light for three hours.
Cotton wool soaked in
soda lime
Soda lime
a) Suggest the aim of the experiment.
(1mk)
b) Describe the procedure used to
test for starch in a leaf. (6mks)
14. A student picked the leaf pictured
below from a plant that had been
detached then exposed to sunlight for
three hours.
Cream region
Green region
He then tested the leaf for starch by:
• dipping it in boiling water
• heating in ethanol
• flooding it with iodine solution.
a) Suggest why each of the following
processes was performed on the
leaf.
i) Dipped in boiling water. (1mk)
ii) Heated in ethanol. (1mk)
iii) Flooded with iodine solution.
(1mk)

KCSE Score More Biology 32
b) Make a large, labelled drawing of
the leaf above to show the colours
distribution as it would appear after
testing for starch. (3mks)
c) State the objective of the above
experiment. (1mk)
15. An experiment was carried
out to investigate an aspect of
photosynthesis using an aquatic plant
Elodea. The experiment set-up was as
in the diagram below.
Gas bubbles
Heat filter
Gas
Water
Elodea Wooden blocks
Source of
light
2g of sodium hydrogen carbonate was
added to the water and the water was
well aerated for an hour before the
experiment. The distance between
the light source and the elodea was
gradually increased and the number
of bubbles given off per minute
counted and recorded in the table
below.
Distance
between light
source and
elodea (cm)
Number of bubbles
released per
minute
20 32
40 32
60 32
80 26
100 10
120 4
a) Describe the relationship between
the rate of bubbles production
and the distance between light
source and Elodea. (2mks)
b) Account for your answer in (a)
above. (5mks)
c) What is the reason for adding 2g
of sodium hydrogen carbonate to
the water? (1mk)
d) Why is it advisable to aerate
the water before beginning the
experiment? (2mks)
e) Explain the importance of
including the heat filter in the set-
up. (1mk)
f) The gas collected was analysed
and found not to be pure oxygen.
Name three gases expected to be
present in the test tube. (3mks)
g) What is the role of the wooden
blocks? (1mk)
h) Name two products of the light
stage reaction other than oxygen.
(2mks)
16. State four observable features that
adapt the leaf to photosynthesis.
(4mks)
17. Below is photomicrograph of an
organelle found in plant cells.
T
R
a) Name the organelle. (1mk)
b) Name the parts labelled R and T. (2mks)
c) Give one structural similarity and two differences between the organelle above and rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
i) Similarity (1mk)
ii) Differences (2mks)
18. Describe how the leaf of a green plant
such as bean plant, Phaseolus vulgaris,
is adapted for photosynthesis.
(10mks)

KCSE Score More Biology 33
Chemical compounds
which constitute living
organisms
The living cells are made up inorganic
and organic chemicals. The inorganic
substances include water and salts. Organic
substances include carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and vitamins.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a large group of organic
compounds which contain the elements
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio
of 1: 2: 1 respectively. Carbohydrates have
the general formula (CH
2
O)
n
, where n
represents the number of carbon atoms in
the formula.
Carbohydrates are divided into three
groups:
a) monosaccharides (single-sugar)
b) disaccharides (double-sugars)
c) polysaccharides (many-sugars)
Monosaccharides
These are the simplest carbohydrates. They
have the general formula (CH
2
O)
n ,
where
n = 3, the sugar is triose, n = 5, the sugar
is pentose, and n = 6, the sugar is hexose.
The commonest monosaccharides are
the hexose sugars. Glucose, fructose and
galactose are hexose sugars.
Glucose is found in both plant and animal
cells. It is the main respiratory substrate.
Fructose is found in fruits and other plant
tissues. Galactose is found in mammalian
milk.
Properties of monosaccharides
1. Have a sweet taste
2. They are crystallisable.
3. Are soluble in water.
4. Are reducing sugars. When mixed with
Benedict’s solution and heated, they
reduce blue copper (II) sulphate to red
copper (I) oxide.
Functions of Monosaccharides
1. They are oxidised during respiration to
release energy.
2. They form the building blocks of
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides may combine in pairs to
form a disaccharide. The process involves
the loss of a single water molecules and is
therefore called condensation. The bond
linking the two monosaccharides is called a
glycosidic bond.
Monosaccharide + monosaccharide
Condensation
disaccharide + water
There are three common types of disaccharides:- Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose. Each is formed from the condensation of different pairs of monosaccharides.
i) Glucose + fructose
Condensation
sucrose + water
ii) Glucose + glucose
Condensationmaltose + water
iii) Glucose + galactose
Condensationlactose + water
Properties of disaccharides
1. They have a sweet taste.
2. They are crystallisable.
3. They are soluble in water.
4. Maltose and Lactose are reducing
sugars, while Sucrose is a non-reducing
sugar.

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Disaccharides can be readily broken into
their constituent monosaccharides in a
process called hydrolysis. This process
involves splitting of a large molecule
into smaller constituents by the addition
of water. In the laboratory hydrolysis
is achieved by heating them with dilute
hydrochloric acid. In the body of organisms,
hydrolysis is catalysed by hydrolytic
enzymes.
Disaccharide + water
Hydrolysis
2
monosaccharides.
In fact, hydrolysis is the reverse of
condensation.
When sucrose which is a non-reducing
sugar is hydrolysed, the products will
reduce Benedict’s solution since they are
reducing sugars.
Sucrose + water
Hydrolysis
glucose +
fructose.
Functions of disaccharides
1. Sucrose is the main transport
carbohydrate in plants.
2. A source of respiratory substrate when
hydrolysed.
Polysaccharides
Many monosaccharides may combine
by condensation reactions to give
a polysaccharide. The number of
monosaccharides that combine varies and
the chain produced may be branched or
unbranched. The chemical bond between
the monosaccharides is called glycosidic
bond. Polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen and cellulose.
Properties of polysaccharides
1. Are insoluble in water. This makes them
ideal as storage material as they do not
exert osmotic pressure and do not easily
diffuse out of the cell.
2. Are not sweet tasting.
3. Are non-reducing sugars.
Functions of the polysaccharides
This depends on the type.
1. Starch is the stored carbohydrate in
plant cells.
2. Glycogen is the stored carbohydrate in
animal and fungal cells.
3. Cellulose is the structural carbohydrate
that gives strength and support to plant
cell walls.
4. When hydrolysed they provide
monosaccharides that are used as
respiratory substrate.
Lipids
Lipids are a large group of organic
compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, although the proportion of
oxygen is much smaller in lipids than in
carbohydrates.
There are two types of lipids: oils and fats.
Oil is liquid at room temperature while fat
is solid at room temperature.
All lipid molecules called triglycerides
are formed by condensation involving three
fatty acids and one glycerol.
3 Fatty acids + 1 Glycerol
Condensation

Triglyceride (lipid) + 3 Water molecules.
Lipids contain the same type of glycerol. It
is the nature of the fatty acids that varies
and thus determine the nature of any
particular lipid. Examples of lipids include,
phospholipids, waxes, and cholesterol.
Cholesterol is found in animal cells where
it used to synthesize steroid hormones such
as oestrogen and testosterone.

KCSE Score More Biology 35
Properties of lipids
1. They are insoluble in water. However
they are soluble in organic solvents such
as alcohol in which they form emulsions.
2. They are chemically inert. This makes
them suitable for storage functions.
Functions of lipids
1. An energy source – when oxidised
they yield energy. Upon breakdown 1
g of lipid yields 38 KJ, whereas 1g of
glucose yields 17 KJ.
2. As storage of energy – being insoluble
and chemically inert, lipids are suited
for storage functions. When hydrolysed
they yield respiratory substrates.
3. Insulation – lipids are poor conductors
of heat. In mammals, fat is stored
beneath the skin where it helps to retain
body heat.
4. Protection – fat surrounds delicate
organs such kidneys where they protect
them from physical damage.
5. Source of metabolic water – when
oxidised, lipids release not only more
energy per unit weight compared to
glucose but also more water. This
is a very important source of water
especially in animals that live in areas
where there is water scarcity.
6. Waterproofing – being water
repellent, oil secretions from animal
skins help to repel water which would
other be lost through evaporation.
Insects and plants have waxy cuticles on
their surfaces which reduce water loss.
7. Structural compounds –
phospholipids are lipids in which one
fatty acid is replaced by phosphoric
acid. They form component of the cell
and organelle membranes.
Proteins
Proteins are organic compounds of large
molecular mass. They contain the elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Some proteins contain sulphur and
phosphorus. Proteins consist of polypeptide.
Some simple proteins consist of just one or
two polypeptides. Others consists of many
polypeptides. Each polypeptide is made
of many building units called amino acids
joined together by condensation reactions.
Amino acid + Amino acid + Amino acid
+ Amino acid
Condensation
Protein +
Water
The bond formed between amino acids is
called peptide bond.
Many proteins incorporate other chemicals
within their structure. These proteins are
called conjugated proteins. The non-
protein part is called prosthetic group.
Examples include haemoglobin which
contains haem (contains iron) and mucus
which contains carbohydrate.
Amino acids
There are 20 different types of amino acids
that occur naturally. Amino acids have both
acidic and basic properties and are thus
amphoteric.
The nature of a particular protein depends
on the type, number and sequence of amino
acids in its polypeptides.
Properties of proteins
1. Are not truly soluble in water. They
form colloidal suspensions
2. They are amphoteric.
3. Are denatured by high temperature
4. Are denatured by extreme pH.
Functions of proteins
1. As structural material – proteins
form part of the cell membrane. Fibrous

KCSE Score More Biology 36
proteins in which the polypeptide
chains are long and parallel have great
physical strength. They form connective
tissue, muscle fibres, nails and hooves
in animals.
2. As source of energy – amino acids
cannot be stored in the body. Excess
amino acids are broken down and the
products used as respiratory substrate.
Under extreme starvation, fibrous
proteins are used as a source of energy.
3. As metabolic regulators – globular
proteins in which the polypeptide chains
are rolled into a spherical structure form
hormones and enzymes. Hormones
control many processes in the body
such as osmoregulation, growth and
blood sugar regulation.
Enzymes
These are organic catalysts that speed
up or slow down the rate of chemical
reactions. All enzymes are produced in
living cells. Enzymes that work within the
cells where they are produced are known
as intracellular enzymes whereas those
that work outside the cells extracellular
enzymes.
Properties of enzymes
1. They are substrate specific. All enzymes
operate only on specific substrates. This
is because each enzyme has an active
site in which only a specific substrate
can fit.
2. They catalyse reactions reversibly.
Enzymes catalyse reactions in either
direction, i.e. either from left to eight or
right to left.
3. Are efficient in small amount. This is
because the active site can be used again
and again
4. They are not used up by the reactions
they catalyse.
5. Are sensitive to temperature.
6. Are sensitive to pH.
Factors which affect enzyme
controlled reactions
Temperature
An increase in temperature leads to an
increase in the rate of reaction until a
certain point beyond which a further
increase results in a sharp decrease.
}Rate of enzyme reaction
Optimum
temperature
Temperature/°C
0 10 20 30 40 50
The point at which the reaction proceeds
fastest is the optimum temperature .
As the temperature increases the enzymes
become activated. Beyond the optimum
temperature the enzymes become
denatured.
1. pH
Each enzymes functions best at a specific
pH. An increase above or decrease below
the optimum pH leads to the enzymes
getting denatured hence a decrease in the
rate.
}Rate of enzyme reaction
Optimum pHpH

KCSE Score More Biology 37
2. Enzyme concentration
The higher the concentration the more
the active sites hence the faster the rate as
long as the substrate concentration is not
limiting.
3. Enzyme cofactors and
coenzymes
Cofactors activate certain enzymes. They
are mainly ions in nature. Coenzymes are
non-protein organic compounds such
as vitamins which are essential for the
functioning of certain enzymes. Without the
cofactors and coenzymes, the enzymes that
are dependent on them cannot function.
4. Enzyme inhibitors
An enzyme inhibitor is a substance that
slows down or prevent the enzyme from
working on the substrate to form a product.
The presence of the inhibitor will therefore
affect rate of the reaction. There are two
types of enzyme inhibitors:
i) Competitive inhibitors
Competitive inhibitors have a shape similar
to that of the substrate. It therefore competes
with substrate for enzyme’s active site. If
the substrate concentration is increased,
the rate of reaction increases. Competitive
inhibitor combines temporarily to the
active site of the enzyme.
ii) Non-competitive inhibitors
The non-competitive inhibitors do not
have the same shape as the substrate but
combines with the enzyme at a point other
than the active site. This prevents the
enzyme from combining with the substrate.
The rate of enzyme reaction decreases with
increasing inhibitor concentration. Non-
competitive enzyme inhibitor combines
permanently on the active site of the
enzyme.
REVISION EXERCISE
1. Substance A is being investigated
to see if it is an enzyme. When the
substance A is mixed with substance
B a reaction takes place. A control
experiment is conducted using a
sample of A which has been boiled.
a) Why is boiling used as a control?
(2mks)
b) If the reaction still occurred after
substance A had been boiled,
what might be your interpretation
regarding the substance? (2mks)
2. The graph below shows the rate of
an enzyme react
ion at different pH
levels.
Rate of enzyme reaction
pH
2 4 6 8
a) Giving a reason, state the optimum
pH for this enzyme. (2mks)
b) Explain why the enzyme’s rate
of reaction reduces outside the
optimum pH. (2mks)
3. List four functions of proteins in
the human body. (4mks)
4. In an experiment to investigate an
aspect of digestion, two test tubes
A and B were set up as shown in
the diagram below

KCSE Score More Biology 38
Water bath
at 37o C
Starch + non-boiled saliva
Starch + boiled saliva
The test tubes were left in the water
bath for 30 minutes. The content of
each test tube was then tested for
starch using iodine solution.
a) What was the aim of the
experiment? (1mk)
b) What results were expected in test
tubes A and B (2mks)
Set-up A
Set-up B
c) Why was the set-up maintained at
370C? (1mk)
5. The graph below shows the rate of
digestion of protein by two different
enzymes A and B found in the human
alimentary canal, over a range of pH.
Rate of enzyme reaction
pH
2 4 6 8 1012
Enzyme A Enzyme B
Name the region of the alimentary
canal in which each of the enzymes A
and B will be most active.
a) Enzyme A (1mk)
b) Enzyme B (1mk)
6. Name the building blocks of:
a) Proteins (1mk)
b) Lipid (2mks)
c) Starch (1mk)
7. Distinguish between competitive and
non-competitive enzyme inhibitors.
(2mks)
8. The carbohydrate synthesized in
photosynthesis is converted into
many other substances. Complete the
table below about these substances
and their functions. (5mks)
Substance Function
Fat and oil
To build cell wall
For storage
Lignin
Protein synthesis
9. Give four uses of lipids in the human
body. (4mks)
10. Name four types of simple sugars
present in leaves of a green plant.
(4mks)
11. Describe the uses of proteins in a
human body. (10mks)
12. Describe a test to find out if a
substance in a test tube contains
proteins. (3mks)
13. Liver contains the enzyme catalase. A
piece of liver was added to hydrogen
peroxide in a test tube, and foam was
produced as shown below.
Liver
Liver
10 cm3
hydrogen
peroxide

KCSE Score More Biology 39
a) Name the gas produced in the
foam. (1mk)
b) Which other product was formed
during the reaction. (1mk)
c) Explain the significance of this
reaction in the liver. (2mks)
d) Describe a control which would be
used to show that active catalase is
needed for this experiment.(1mk)
e)
i) How could the rate of catalase
action be determined? (1mk)
ii) Name three factors in the
experiment that influence the
rate of catalase action. (3mks)
14. Study the reactions below involving
carbohydrates.

Molecule R Molecule S
Process P
Process Q Process Q
Process P
a) Identify:- (4mks)
i) Process P
ii) Process Q
iii) Molecule R
iv) Molecule S
b) Give three properties of molecule
R. (3mks)
15. Study the equation below
.
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ C
6
H
12
O
6
A
B

C
12
H
22
O
11
+ C
Identify:
i) Process A (forward reaction)
(1mk)
ii) Process B (reverse reaction)
(1mk)
iii) Substance C (1mk)
16. Name two factors that denature
enzymes. (2mks)
17. In an experiment to study the rate of
the:
K + L
M
It was noticed that the addition of
substance X at 25o C was essential
for the formation of the products
M. however, on addition of
another substance Y in increasing
concentration the reaction slowed
down and finally stopped completely.
a) What was the nature of substance
X? (1mk)
b) What was the nature of substance
Y? (1mk)
c) List three ways by which one
could reduce the formation
of substance M other than
addition of substance Y. (3mks)
18. Martin investigates the digestion of
fats by the enzyme lipase in a test tube.
He finds that when lipase digests fat,
it lowers the pH of the solution.
a) Explain how the digestion of fat
lowers the pH of the solution.
(2mks)
He sets up three test tubes containing
various contents as shown in the
table.
Test
tube
Liquids present
Time taken for pH to be
lowered
A Lipase + fat + pH indicator + water5 minutes
B Lipase + fat + pH indicator + bile salts1 minute
C Boiled lipase + fat + pH indicator +
bile salts
No change after 30 minutes

KCSE Score More Biology 40
a) Account for the observation made
in each test tube.
i) Tube A (2mks)
ii) Tube B (2mks)
iii) Tube C (2mks)
19. The graph below shows the rate
of reaction of an enzyme against
temperature.
Rate of reaction
Temperature /o C
10203040506070
S
T
R
a) i) What is the optimum
temperature of this enzyme?
(1mk)
ii) Explain the answer in (a) (i)
above. (1mk)
Explain the rates of reaction at:
i) S (2mks)
ii) T (2mks)
20. Describe the uses of proteins in
human body. (10mks)

41
Heterotrophism
Heterotrophs consume complex organic
food material from the bodies of other
organisms. There are four major forms of
heterotrophic nutrition:
1. Holozoic nutrition – involves the
consumption of solid substances taken
into the body where they are broken
into simple molecules that are then
absorbed.
2. Saprophytic nutrition – involves the
consumption of organic food from dead
organic matter thereby bringing about
decay. The food is either already in a
soluble form or it is digested externally
into simple molecules which then
diffuse into the saprophyte’s body.
3. Parasitic nutrition – involves feeding
on food substances derived from other
living organisms.
4. Symbiotic nutrition – is a close
association between two different
species in which each member derives
nutrients from the other.
Holozoic nutrition
Involves most, if not all, of the following
stages:
1. Ingestion – Intake of food into the
body.
2. Digestion – Breakdown of the food
substance. There two forms of digestion:
i) Physical digestion – by means of
structures such as teeth.
ii) Chemical digestion – by hydrolytic
enzyme activity.
3. Absorption – The uptake of simple
soluble materials into the body tissues.
4. Assimilation – The utilisation of the
food materials/nutrients in the living
cells.
5. Egestion – the elimination of
undigested, indigestible unabsorbed
materials from the body.
Organisms that exhibit holozoic nutrition
are known as holozoic organisms. They
are classified according to the type of food
they ingest. Thus:
a) Herbivores – feed on plant material.
Their mode of feeding is said to be
herbivorous.
b) Carnivores – feed on flesh of other
animals. Their mode of feeding is
carnivorous.
c) Omnivores – feed on both plant
material and animal tissues. There
mode of feeding is omnivorous.
Holozoic organisms include arthropods,
molluscs, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
and mammals.
Nutrition in mammals
Mammals feed on a variety food. They
have four different types of teeth, namely
incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
Mammals are said to be heterodont.
Animals such as some reptiles have same
type of teeth and are said to be homodont .
Mammals such as humans have two sets of
teeth; milk teeth – the first set produced in
the early stages which are then replaced by
the permanent teeth in the later stages.
Each type of tooth is adapted for different
functions.
CHAPTER 6
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

KCSE Score More Biology 42
a) Incisors – Have chisel shape for cutting
and biting food. Occupy the front part of
the mouth.
Crown
Neck
Root
b) Canines – Are conical with pointed tips. Located in the front part behind the
incisors.
Crown
Neck
Root
c) Premolars and molars – Have broad
surfaces with cusps or ridges for
crushing and grinding food. Located
toward the back of the mouth along the
cheeks. Their roots are divided into two.
Upper molars have three roots
Crown
Neck
Root
Premolar
Molar
Dentition
This is a description of the type of teeth
and their arrangement. Each dentition is
adapted to a particular mode of feeding.
Dental formula
This is a description of the number, type
and position of teeth in jaws of mammals.
It shows the number of each type of teeth
in each half of the upper and lower jaws.
The names of the types are represented by
abbreviations: incisors as i, canines as c,
premolars as pm and molars as m.
For example the dental formula of a dog is
i
3
3
c
1
1
pm
4
4
m
2
3
= 42
Adaptation of dentition to
diet
In herbivores
Diastema
Horny pad
Incisors
Canine{
Premolars
{
Molars
Herbivores that feed on grass are called
grazers while those that feed on herbs
and small trees are called browsers. They
possess specialised dentition which may
include the following features:
Dentition of a sheep
Dental formula: i
1
1
c
0
1
pm
3
2
m
3
3

• A horny pad which replaces the front
teeth – incisors and in some also the
canines. The pad provides a surface
upon which the lower incisors cut plant
materials.
• A diastema – A gap between the
canines and the premolars. It provides
a space in which the newly taken in food
is kept separate from that being ground
at the back of the mouth. The diastema
also gives space for the long tongue to
turn and move the food for effective
grinding.
• The premolars and molars have ridged
surfaces for effective grinding of

KCSE Score More Biology 43
tough plant materials. The teeth grow
continuously throughout the herbivore’s
life. This is important as the grinding
action wears them away.
• The jaws easily move from side to side
to allow for the grinding action. Their
alimentary canal is relatively long
because of the difficulty in digesting
plant material.
In carnivores
Incisors
Canine
Premolars
Molars
Carnassial teeth
Dentition of a dog
Dental formula: i
3
3
c
1
1
pm
4
4
m
2
3
= 42
• The incisor teeth are sharp and fit closely
for gripping, biting and stripping flesh
from bone.
• The canines are long curved and pointed.
They are used for piercing, killing prey
and tearing flesh from the body.
• The molars and premolars have a
number of sharp pointed cusps. The
last upper premolar and the first lower
molar on each side of the mouth are
particularly large and are known as
carnassial teeth. They are used
to crush bones. Their smooth sides
and sharp edges enable them to slice
through flesh.
• The teeth of the upper haw overlap
those of the lower jaw. This enables
the carnassial teeth to slide past one
another, like scissor blades in order to
slice the meat into pieces. The muscles
of the jaw are well developed and
powerful to enable them grip the prey
firmly and crush bones.
In omnivores
They include human beings. Feed on both
plants and animals.
Molars
Premolars
Canine}
Incisors
Dentition of an adult human
Dental formula: i
2
2
c
1
1
pm
2
2
m
3
3
= 32
• The incisors are chisel-shaped with
sharp edges for cutting.
• Canines are poorly developed.
• Premolars and molars have cusps for
chewing and grinding food.
Structure of teeth
i) External structure
A mammalian tooth has three distinct
regions, the crown that projects above the
gum, the root which is attached to the jaw
bone and the neck which is the narrow part
between the crown and the root.

KCSE Score More Biology 44
ii) Internal structure
Enamel
Dentine
Pulp
Cement
Gum
Jaw bone
Internal parts of the tooth
1. Enamel – Non-living layer made up
of calcium phosphate and carbonate. It
protects the tooth and provides a hard
surface for cutting and grinding of food.
2. Dentine – Living part with cells that
secrete enamel. Also contains calcium
salts but not as much as the enamel
hence softer.
3. Pulp cavity – Contains blood vessels
and nerves. The blood vessels provide
nutrients the dentine and carry away
wastes. The nerves make the tooth
sensitive to pain, heat and cold.
4. Cement - A spongy calcareous
substance that fixes the tooth to the
socket in the jaw.
5. Periodontal membrane - A tough
membrane made up of collagen fibres
between the cement and jaw bone. It
holds the tooth securely in the socket.
Common dental diseases
1. Tooth decay/Dental caries –
Occurs when teeth become covered
with a deposit of plaque consisting of
bacteria and food residues. The sugars
are broken down into acids by bacteria.
The acid corrodes and demineralises
the enamel causing the caries.
2. Gum/periodontal disease - Arise
when plaque builds up around the edge
of the gum leading to:
i) Pyorrhoea – The teeth becoming loose
due to infection of the fibres holding
them in the sockets.
ii) Gingivitis – The bleeding of the gum
and pus formation.
Treatment and control
i) Cleaning and filling of any cavities with
special dental cement.
ii) Root canal treatment.
iii) Removal of plaque will reduce chances
of cavity formation.
iv) Feeding on food reach in vitamins A and
C.
Dental hygiene
1. Avoid intake of too much sugary foods.
2. Brush teeth frequently after every meal.
3. Eating of food rich in calcium phosphates
and carbonates.
4. Use of fluoride tooth paste to reduce
dental caries.
5. Have a regular dental check-ups and
treatment.
Human digestive system
• The digestive system consists of a long
muscular tube called the alimentary
canal or the gut and associated
secretory organs and glands.
• Some glands are embedded in the wall of
the alimentary canal, while others such
as salivary gland, liver and pancreas are
separate from it but connected to it by
ducts.
• The main functions of the alimentary
canal are digestion and absorption of
food.
• The alimentary canal consists of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small

KCSE Score More Biology 45
intestines (duodenum and ileum)
and large intestines (colon, caecum,
appendix and rectum). Each region is
adapted to carry out specific functions.
Tongue
Parotid salivary gland
Sublingual salivary gland
Sub-mandibular
salivary gland
Oesophagus
Liver
Gall Bladder
Duodenum
Caecum
Appendix
Anus
Rectum
Colon
Stomach
Pancreas
Illeum
Digestion in the mouth
Mechanical digestion begins hear. The
teeth break down the food into smaller
pieces through chewing and grinding.
The tongue manipulates the food during
chewing to ensure it is well mixed with
saliva produced from three pairs of salivary
glands: parotid gland and sub-mandibular
gland, sublingual gland.
Saliva from the parotid gland and sub-
mandibular is released into the mouth
through the parotid duct and the sub-
mandibular duct respectively. The saliva
from sublingual glands enter the mouth
through very many smaller ducts.
Saliva contains:
a) water – water make up over 90% of the
content of saliva. This helps to soften
the food. Also provides a medium for
enzyme action
b) salivary amylase – this is a digestive
enzyme which hydrolyses starch to
maltose
c) mineral salts e.g. sodium hydrogen
carbonate – help to maintain a pH of
around 6.5 – 7.5, which is the optimum
for the action of salivary amylase
d) mucin (mucus) – this is a sticky
substance which helps to bind food
particles together and lubricate them to
assist swallowing
After chewing, the tongue rolls the food
into small round masses called boluses
which are pushed to the back of the mouth
for swallowing.
Swallowing and peristalsis
Once the bolus is in the pharynx (where
the oesophagus meets the trachea), the
swallowing reflex ensures that food passes
down the oesophagus and not into the
trachea. This comes about when the glottis
is covered by the epiglottis, and nasal cavity
is closed by the soft palate. Once in the
oesophagus, the bolus pushed toward the
stomach by a wave of muscle contraction
called peristalsis. Peristalsis is continuous
throughout the alimentary canal.
Digestion in the stomach
It is roughly J-shaped. It has a thick muscular
wall lined with a folded inner layer called
the gastric mucosa.. Embedded in the
mucosa is a series of gastric pits which are
lined with secretory cells/gastric glands.
These glands secrete gastric juice. The
presence of food in the stomach stimulates
the secretion of the hormone gastrin from
the walls. Gastrin stimulates the secretion
of the gastric juice. Gastric juice contains:
i) Water – this dissolves other
constituents.
ii) Pepsinogen – inactive form of the
enzyme pepsin produced by the
chief cells. It is activated to pepsin by
hydrochloric acid. Pepsin breaks down
proteins into polypeptides. Its release of

KCSE Score More Biology 46
the inactive form prevents digestion of
the proteins lining the stomach.
iii) Prorennin – produced by chief cells. It
is the inactive form of rennin, an enzyme
which coagulates milk by converting
the soluble protein caseinogens into
the insoluble casein. Casein is then
hydrolysed by pepsin It is important in
young mammals whose diet is mainly
milk.
iv) Hydrochloric acid – produced by the
oxyntic cells. It gives the gastric juice
a pH of around 2, which provides the
optimum medium for gastric enzymes. It
also kills some bacteria brought in with
the food. It also activates pepsinogen
and prorennin.
v) Mucus – produced by goblet cells
and forms protective layer on the
stomach wall, thus preventing pepsin
and hydrochloric acid from breaking
down the gastric mucosa. Mucus also
lubricates the food for easier movement.
The stomach muscular wall contracts and
relaxes periodically to thoroughly churn
and mix the gastric juice with the food. The
churning action also further breaks down
the food into smaller pieces. This action
result in the formation of a creamy fluid
called chyme.
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter and
contraction of the stomach allow the
chyme to enter the duodenum. The chyme
is released gradually over a period of 3 –
4 hours to enable the duodenum to work
on a little material at a time and provides
continuous supply of food for absorption
throughout the period between meals.
Digestion in the small
intestines
It consists of two main parts: the much
shorter duodenum and the longer ileum.
In the duodenum
• This is the first part of the small intestine
and is about 25 cm long.
• The duodenum receives pancreatic juice
from the pancreas and bile juice from
the gall bladder. Bile is made in the liver
and is temporarily stored in the gall
bladder.
• The arrival of the acidic chyme stimulates
secretion of hormone Secretin from
the pancreas, and cholecystokinin
(CCK) from the duodenal wall.
• Secretin stimulates the pancreas to
secrete pancreatic juice at the same
time inhibits secretion of the gastric
juice. CCK stimulates the gall bladder to
secrete bile. Pancreatic juice is alkaline
due to the sodium hydrogen carbonate
present which neutralises the acidic
chyme thus provides optimum pH for
the pancreatic enzymes.
• There are three pancreatic enzymes:
i) Pancreatic amylase
Converts Starch
Maltose
ii) Pancreatic lipase Converts Lipids
Fatty
acids and glycerol.
iii) Trypsin
Converts Proteins Peptides.
iv) Chymotrypsin Converts Proteins
Peptides.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are secreted in
their inactive precursor forms, and are then
activated by the enzyme enterokinase from
the duodenal wall.
Trypsinogen
Trypsin.
Chymotrypsinogen
chymotrypsin.

KCSE Score More Biology 47
Bile juice
Contains a mixture of salts including
sodium glycocholate and sodium
taurocholate. These salts breakdown fats
into tiny fat droplets in a process called
emulsification
Emulsification
Large fat piece
Tiny droplets
This increases the surface area for enzyme lipase chemical digestion.
Also present in the bile is sodium hydrogen
carbonate that neutralises acidic chyme and
provides optimum pH for lipase enzyme.
Digestion in the ileum
This is the second portion the longest part
of the small intestine. It carries out two
functions:
i) Chemical digestion.
ii) Absorption.
Chemical digestion
This is where chemical digestion is
completed. The enzymes responsible are
present in the alkaline intestinal juice/
succus entericus secreted from glands in the
walls called crypts of Lieberkuhn. There
are also Brunner’s glands which secrete
mucus-rich alkaline fluid. The secretions
are stimulated by the arrival of the chyme.
The intestinal juice contains five main
enzymes:
i) Lipase – breaks down lipids into fatty
acids and glycerols.
ii) Maltase – breaks down maltose into
glucose.
iii) Sucrase/invertase – breaks down
sucrose into fructose and glucose.
iv) Peptidase – breaks down peptides
into amino acids.
v) Lactase – breaks down lactose into
galactose and glucose.
The walls of the ileum have goblet cells
which secrete mucus. The mucus lubricates
the food for smooth movement and also
protects the walls from being digested by
enzymes.
The resulting watery emulsion is called
chyle and contains simple and soluble
products of digestion. These products are
then absorbed into the ileum.
Adaptation of the ileum to
digestion and absorption
1. It is long (6metres). This provides a
large surface area for digestion and
absorption.
2. It is narrow. This brings the digested
food and the walls into close contact for
faster digestion and easier absorption.
3. It is highly coiled. This:-
i) Slows down the movement of food
to allow more time for digestion and
absorption. Ii) Increases the surface
area.
4. The epithelium is thin (one cell thick).
Reduces the distance across which
absorbed materials move hence faster
absorption.
5. It has a dense network of blood
capillaries (highly vascularised). This
ensures rapid absorption and efficient
transport of food to the rest of the body.
6. Presence of lacteals for the absorption
of fatty acids and glycerol.

KCSE Score More Biology 48
7. The inner surface of the ileum has
numerous finger-like projections called
villi.
These increase the surface area for
absorption. The cells lining the villi have
tiny hair-like projections called microvilli
which further increase the surface area for
absorption.
Microvilli
Goblet cell
Villus
One cell
thick
epithelium
Absorption of digestion
products
Glucose, fructose, galactose and amino
acids are absorbed by diffusion and active
transport into the blood capillaries. The
blood capillaries merge to form hepatic
portal vein which transports them to the
liver.
Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into
the epithelial cells of the lacteals, where
they react to form lipids. The lipids diffuse
into the lacteals where they transported as
droplets. It is these lipid droplets that give
the lacteals the milky appearance hence the
name lacteal. The lacteals merge into lymph
vessels that transport the lipids to the rest
of the body.
Some substances such as water, alcohol,
water soluble vitamins B and C, salts
and some medicines are absorbed in the
stomach wall and duodenum.
The substances that are not absorbed are
passed on to the large intestines.
The role of the large intestines
The Colon
• Absorption of water from the
undigested and indigestible matter. The
indigestible material includes roughage
(plant fibre), dead bacteria, dead cells
from alimentary canal and mucus.
They together constitute the semi-
solid matter called faeces. The faeces is
passed unto the rectum by peristalsis.
• Epithelial cells secrete mucus that
lubricates solidifying faeces for easier
movement.
• It hosts symbiotic bacteria that
synthesize vitamins B1, B2, B12 and K.
Caecum and Appendix
• Caecum and appendix have no specific
functions in humans. However in
herbivores especially non-ruminants
such as rodents, the caecum is large and
well developed.
• Caecum and appendix contain a large
number of symbiotic bacteria that
secrete enzyme cellulase which digests
cellulose in plant cells to glucose. In
ruminants, the bacteria are present in
the rumen.
Rectum
This is where faeces is temporarily stored
before removal by egestion/ defecation.
Egestion
This is the expulsion of faeces from the
alimentary canal through the anus after
relaxation of anal sphincter muscles.
Assimilation
This is the incorporation of products of
digestion into the cell metabolism. The
products are assimilated as follows:

KCSE Score More Biology 49
Glucose
• Is transported to the liver where excess
glucose is converted to glycogen and
stored.
• Some glucose is circulated to all
body cells where it is oxidised during
respiration to release energy
• Some glucose is used as raw material
for synthesis of other compounds such
as glycoproteins for mucus.
• The excess glucose in the body tissues is
converted to fats and stored under the
skin or around internal organs such as
the heart and kidneys.
• The other monosaccharides, fructose
and galactose are converted into glucose
in the liver.
Amino acids
• Are used in the synthesis of proteins
which in turn are used for growth,
repair, and structural components like
keratin in hair, nails and hooves.
• Used in the formation of enzymes.
• Used as a source of energy in the absence
of glucose and lipids.
• Excess amino acids are deaminated in
the liver and used to provide energy.
Deamination is the process by which
amino acids are broken down due to
excessive intake of protein. The amino
group from the amino acids is converted
to ammonia.
Fatty acids and glycerol
• Oxidised to provide energy.
• They combine to form body fats. The fat
forms adipose tissue which acts as heat
insulator and shock absorber.
• Used to synthesize phospholipids that
make up cell membranes.
Role of water in the body
Water makes up about 65-70% of the total
body weight. Water plays a number of roles
which include:
1. Facilitates chemical digestion through
hydrolysis.
2. Facilitates mechanical digestion by
softening food.
3. Acts as a solvent thus:
i) providing the medium in which
biochemical reactions take place
ii) acting as a medium of transport.
4. Acting as a coolant in the cells and
organism as whole. This is due to its
high specific heat capacity.
Role of roughage
It is composed of indigestible cellulose and
plant fibres. Mammals lack the enzymes
necessary for their digestion. Herbivores
rely on micro-organisms in their alimentary
canal which secrete the enzymes cellulase
and ligninase for digestion of plant
materials. In humans there are such micro-
organisms and as such humans cannot
digest roughage. However roughage plays
very important roles in the diet:
1. adds bulk to the food thus promotes
peristalsis. In this it prevents
constipation
2. absorbs toxins in the body which are
then egested.
Importance of vitamins
A vitamin is an organic compound
required by an organism as a vital nutrient
in limited amounts.
These are organic chemical compounds that
are essential for a healthy body. Some act
as co-enzymes in enzyme activities. Others
influence intake of certain substances

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It would not be in accordance with the objects of my reminiscences
to advocate or condemn the political opinions or proceedings of any
portion of the community, unless they involved direct incitements to,
or the actual adoption of, open violence. In noticing O'Connell as a
remarkable public character, I may express my conviction that he
had a decided repugnance, even in the hottest times of political
excitement, to the application of actual force. It may be said that he
could "speak daggers," but he was disposed to "use none."
Whenever I had an opportunity to hear him, whether on legal or
political occasions, I availed myself of it, in the anticipation of being
highly amused, and I was scarcely ever disappointed. I am tempted
to detail two or three of my recollections, which have not been
noticed by any of his biographers. I am aware that my expressions
must be far inferior to his diction, but my readers will not, I hope, be
too severe in criticising my inefficiency.
I was present at the trial of a very beautiful young lady who, with
her mother and two other persons, was indicted for conspiring to
take away a minor from his parents, and have him married to the
young lady in Scotland. The prosecution was conducted with
considerable acrimony, and the Gretna-Green bride was described as
a person of very tarnished reputation, whose favorite paramour had
been a blacksmith. No proofs were adduced of the imputed
immorality, and O'Connell, in a speech for the defence, denounced it
as a fabrication "which had not even the merit of originality, but was
borrowed from the mythological assignment of Vulcan to Venus."
At the commencement of the first viceroyalty of the Marquis
Wellesley, a newspaper was started in Parliament Street by a Mr.
Hayden. It was called The Morning Star, and its editorial articles
were almost exclusively devoted to the most disparaging and
insulting productions in reference to the Lord Lieutenant or
O'Connell. The latter was never forgotten; and every term of
obloquy was put in requisition for his diurnal vilification. Firebrand,
Rebel, Arch-mendicant, Liar, Impostor, Schemer, were liberally
appropriated to him, and even the shape of his hat, and the mode of

carrying his umbrella, became subjects of offensive observation. The
attention of the Attorney-General was attracted to an article in The
Morning Star, headed "The profligate Lord Wharton," the writer of
which stated that the history of the Wharton viceroyalty had never
been fully published, because a true description of such a character
would be considered as an incredible exaggeration, but that it might
now be produced without any apprehension of such an opinion
prevailing, inasmuch as its worst details would be found fully
equalled in Dublin Castle under the auspices of its present occupant.
A criminal information was filed against Mr. Hayden for a libel on the
Lord Lieutenant; and he became extremely apprehensive of a severe
punishment, resulting from his very offensive comparison of Lord
Wellesley with Lord Wharton. He immediately engaged William Ford
as his attorney, and the next step was to retain O'Connell as his
principal counsel. The latter agreed to act, but required that he
should be left completely free to adopt whatever line of defence he
preferred, and to manage the case at his own discretion. The trial
was held in the King's Bench before Bushe, the Chief Justice, and
the opening statement for the prosecution was delivered by the
Attorney-General, Plunket. Sir Charles Vernon, who held the
appointment of register of newspapers, was the first witness; and he
produced the official copy of the paper containing the alleged libel,
and it was read by him for the court and jury. O'Connell was then at
the outer bar, and occupied a seat on its front row. He submitted to
the judge, that when a document was given in evidence, either party
could insist on the entire of it being read. To this proposition the
Chief Justice acceded, expressing a hope, however, that his time
would not be wasted in listening to irrelevant matter. O'Connell then
required Sir Charles to read sundry portions of the paper in which "a
person named O'Connell" was made the subject of the most
defamatory animadversions. The entire auditory were convulsed with
laughter, as he gravely proceeded to elicit ardent wishes for the
speedy hanging or transportation of the arch-agitator, the apostle of
mischief, the disseminator of disaffection, the mendicant patriot, the
disgrace to his profession, and the curse of his country. When the
case for the prosecution closed, he proceeded to address the jury,

and his speech was replete with the highest encomiums on the
Marquis Wellesley, to whose Indian government and diplomatic
services he referred as exhibiting all the qualities of perfect
statesmanship. He then expressed his surprise at the Attorney-
General condescending to notice the publication of a mere
newspaper squib, which could not possibly affect the illustrious
viceroy. In the paper produced there were several unwarrantable
attacks upon some person named O'Connell, who had instituted no
proceedings against their publisher, although, perhaps, he was very
likely to be affected injuriously by them, especially if his livelihood
depended upon his character and reputation. Bitterly as he had been
assailed, he had remained quiescent, and so regardless of the
invectives directed against him, that it was very probable he had no
desire whatever to mulct or incarcerate his assailant, but would
rather aid in terminating his anxieties, and sending him home to his
wife and five children.
At the conclusion of his speech O'Connell left the court. I had been
sitting very near him, and went out at the same time. Ford was in
the vestibule, and when they met, O'Connell said, "Ford, I hope that
I did not make a wrong cast in my closing sentence; is the fellow
married?"
Hayden was not convicted, the jury disagreed, and the prosecution
was not renewed. The publication of "The Morning Star" was almost
immediately discontinued.
In 1834, the question of Repeal of the Union was introduced by
O'Connell to the House of Commons, and negatived by an
overwhelming majority. The principal opponent of the motion was
Thomas Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) who was then one
of the members for Limerick city, and a very general opinion was
immediately entertained that he would never be elected there on
any future occasion. In the autumn of 1834, I was appointed a
revising barrister in reference to tithes, and in that capacity I visited
Limerick. I had finished my business, and was preparing for my
departure, when about two o'clock in the afternoon, O'Connell

arrived at the hotel (which was, I think, Cruise's), and the street was
immediately thronged to excess by an enthusiastic multitude. He
was on his way to Dublin; but whether he wished to address the
people or not, it was manifest that a speech from the balcony was
unavoidable. I got as near to him as the crowded state of the
apartment permitted, and was enabled to hear his oration fully; but
of course I cannot do more than give its general import, and
endeavour to describe its effect. He commenced by stating that a
report had been circulated that he intended to interfere with the
people of Limerick, and to direct, and even to dictate, the choice of
their Parliamentary representatives. This rumour he denounced as a
scandalous, infamous lie. He had no wish to curb or trammel them in
the exercise of their rights, and he was not such a fool as to attempt
dictation to a community too independent and intelligent to yield to
any influence except dispassionate arguments suggested by
patriotism and conducive to the welfare of their beloved country.
Frequent and rapturous cheers from listening thousands evinced
their appreciation of his address, especially when he referred to the
valorous defence of their city by their forefathers. At length he said
that his topics were exhausted, and that he had nothing to add
unless they wished him to tell them a little story. Shouts were
immediately raised for "the story, the story," and he proceeded to
narrate that about the beginning of the present century an opinion
was very prevalent that the French intended to invade Ireland, and it
was considered probable that their fleet would enter the Shannon,
and land the troops on the left side of that splendid river, in the
vicinity of Limerick. The French had exacted such heavy
contributions from the continental states which they had occupied,
that very great apprehensions were entertained that their invasion of
Ireland would be attended with similar results, and that the
industrial resources of the country and the savings of the people
would be speedily spoliated. There then lived near Foynes a farmer
named Maurice Sullivan, a man of excellent character, religious,
sober, thrifty, industrious, and intelligent. He had a loved and loving
wife, comely and amiable, who made his home happy by the
observance of every domestic duty. On a Sunday morning, they were

returning from Mass, and were chatting as to the probability of the
French coming over. He said that they would ruin thousands who
were then comfortable and contented, and that they would help
themselves to everything they fancied. "I have now," he added, "to
tell you, my dear Jenny, that I have more money than you knew of. I
have had good crops, and the cattle and sheep have thriven well
and fetched high prices, and I have laid by close on eight hundred
pounds. If a Frenchman came across my savings, he would not ask
leave or licence, but plunder me at once."
"Maurice," replied his wife, "I must acknowledge to you that I have
put by more than one hundred pounds that I made from time to
time by the poultry and eggs and early vegetables. Now that we
have made a clear breast to each other, what course shall we take to
keep the money safe?"
"Well," said he, "I was down, a few evenings ago, in the old
churchyard, and noticed a hole at the corner of the big monument
belonging to the Rice family. I think if I got a strong canister or jar,
and packed the money in it, and hid it under the monument, closing
up the hole completely, nobody would ever think of ransacking such
a place as that, or suppose that it contained anything valuable."
"Maurice," replied Jenny, "it was a cute notion of yours, and I am
sure that no Frenchman would ever go to root out your canister, but
still with my consent not even a farthing shall ever be put there."
"Why, what is your objection?" said her husband.
"My objection is very simple," answered Jenny; "do anything else
that you please, but not that, for I wouldn't trust a Rice living or
dead."
The "little story" was vehemently cheered, and its concluding words
became a political maxim amongst the repealers of Limerick. Rice
had no longer a chance of election there, but he was returned at the
next dissolution for an English borough, I believe for Cambridge. The

"little story" appeared to me rather an extraordinary sequel to the
disavowal of any desire to interfere, to direct, or to dictate.
In some recent publications I have seen it stated that O'Connell
achieved a complete triumph over an inveterate termagant named
Biddy Moriarty, whose quickness and copiousness of abusive diction
deterred all others from engaging her in any wordy warfare. His
success was ascribed to the application of mathematical terms to his
vituperative antagonist, who became completely bewildered at
finding herself designated a detested parallelogram, a notorious
hypothenuse, an octagonal diagram, of rectangular habits and
rhomboidal practices. I do not believe that he ever came in collision
with the redoubtable Biddy, for the tale of her discomfiture was very
rife before O'Connell had attained to great eminence, either
politically or professionally, and I have heard it told in the year 1817
in the presence of Curran, who was mentioned as her successful
antagonist, and complimented on the effective means he adopted to
overcome the incorrigible scold; and I recollect hearing him state
that the encounter took place at Rathcormack, in the County Cork.
He added, that having declared, towards the conclusion of the
verbose strife, that he could never condescend again to notice such
"an individual," the exasperated woman replied that he had a power
of impudence to say the like, for that she was no more an andyvigal
than he was himself.
In reference to O'Connell, I have a very distinct recollection that in
1837-38 he took a prominent part in opposing combinations
amongst the working tradesmen of Dublin. He attended public
meetings, and spoke of the evils arising from combinations or trade-
strikes in the strongest terms. Hostility, amounting to threats of
personal violence, was displayed towards him by some of those to
whose opinions and proceedings he was adverse. I have heard
Joseph Denis Mullen state that he suggested to O'Connell that the
course adopted by him might endanger his popularity, to which he
replied:—

"When my popularity depends on the surrender or compromise of
my conscientious convictions, I shall not seek to retain it." It was in
reference to his conduct at that time that the late Lord Charlemont,
when presiding at a public banquet to the metropolitan members, of
whom O'Connell was one, and proposing the toast of the evening,
applied a very appropriate quotation, derived from classic knowledge
and suggested by classic taste—
"Justum, et tenacem propositi virum
Non civium ardor prava jubentium;
Non vultus instantis tyranni
Mente quatit solida."—[8]
In April, 1835, I had occasion to visit London, and, during a sojourn
of about three weeks, I spent several evenings in the gallery of the
House of Commons. There had been a recent change of ministry,
and the Melbourne cabinet was formed. In the preceding
Government Lord Ashley had been a Lord of the Admiralty, and at
the time to which I refer, a sergeant-at-law, named Spankey, had
been returned, on the liberal interest, for a metropolitan
constituency, I believe Finsbury. I happened to be in the gallery one
evening when there was not a member of the administration
present, and the opposition benches were also unoccupied by any of
the leading conservatives. There was no probability of any
interesting discussion arising, and the secretary of the admiralty was
engaged in moving the navy estimates to which he did not appear to
apprehend any objection, as they had been framed at a considerable
reduction of the preceding amounts. I was about to retire from the
gallery, when Lord Ashley arose, and denounced the proposed votes
as having originated in a spirit of parsimony, and as tending to
impair the most important element of our national strength. Having
delivered a speech, in which the greatest ignorance of their duties,
and a most culpable neglect of our naval requirements were imputed
to the Government; he was followed by Sergeant Spankey, who
manifested the utmost hostility to the administration, and declared it

to be unworthy of public confidence or respect. To the surprise of all
present, O'Connell arose and expressed his opinion that the
estimates had been judiciously framed, and that the Government
had evinced a laudable desire to economize the national expenses.
He proceeded to say that he was not astonished at the hostility of
the noble lord towards an administration by which he had been
deprived of power and the sweets concomitant to power; but he was
unable to comprehend the motives, or even to imagine the reasons,
for the asperity and unmitigated hostility of the honorable and
learned member, from whom the Government had not taken any
power or official advantages, and to whom, it was believed, that
they had offered his full value.
"Sir," exclaimed Spankey, "they offered me nothing."
"Mr. Speaker," said O'Connell, "that is exactly what I surmised."
Laughter, loud and of long continuance, followed this
uncomplimentary explanation of the Sergeant's worth, and I believe
that "Spankey's price" was for some time adapted as a term to
signify a total deficiency of value.
Having detailed these few personal recollections, which I hope may
not be considered too discursive, I have to approach the incidents of
1848, when the "Young Ireland" or "Confederate" movement
occurred. It is not my intention to laud or censure those engaged in
its furtherance or its repression, my only object being to state such
facts as came under my personal observations, or of which I had
official cognizance, leaving to the reader to derive amusement from
some circumstances and useful information from others. I think it
was on the 21st day of March that the crown-solicitor preferred
charges of sedition against Smith O'Brien and Meagher, and required
me to make them amenable. When the informations were sworn, I
asked him if he had any objection to an intimation from me to the
accused, that such proceedings had been instituted, in order that
they might appear and give bail to stand their trial without
subjecting them to the indignity of arrest. To this course Mr. Kemmis

at once acceded; and I called on Smith O'Brien at his lodgings in
Westland Row that evening, and found Meagher and several other
persons along with him. When I stated the object of my visit, one of
the company exclaimed, "Give no promise or undertaking to appear.
Accept no courtesy from your prosecutors, but let the Government
incur the odium of arresting you." Both of them, however, declined
to follow such advice, and assured me that they would attend at the
Head Office, at noon, on the next day. They thanked me for the
inclination I had exhibited to save them, as much as possible, from
personal annoyance; and as I was leaving, O'Brien laughingly
exclaimed, "Your urbanity, Mr. Porter, shall not be forgotten; and
when the government of Ireland comes into our hands; your official
position shall not be disturbed." At the appointed time they gave the
required bail, and I returned the informations for trial. They were
indicted for sedition, and, unfortunately for themselves, were
acquitted. I say "unfortunately," because if they had then been
convicted, and imprisoned for three or four months, they would have
been unable to engage in the proceedings which eventuated in their
conviction for high treason, at Clonmel, in the following September. I
think it worth remarking, that when they had utterly failed in their
insurrectionary designs, and had been banished to a distant region, I
occasionally heard great culpability and folly imputed to them; but in
reference to their conduct, the most severe censures were uttered
by the lips of him who had urged them to reject the slight courtesy
and the forbearance of arrest, to which I have alluded above.
In all the cases of treason-felony which were tried in Dublin, the
informations were sworn before me. I had also to issue warrants for
the apprehension of the principal organizers of Confederate clubs,
and search-warrants for concealed arms. Such transactions were
numerous, and the period was one of very fervid excitement. I am
therefore proud of being able to declare that no imputation of
partiality, precipitance, or undue severity was preferred or suggested
in reference to my magisterial conduct. There were several instances
in which I refrained from issuing warrants on the evidence of
constables or of private informers; but in all such cases the higher

authorities were made acquainted with the peculiar circumstances
under which further proceedings appeared to be unnecessary or
inadvisable, and approved of the forbearance. If a person was
known to have joined a Confederate club, or to have made seditious
speeches, or to have subscribed to a fund for the purchase of arms,
or to have attended meetings for drilling and training; and if it was
also known that he had relinquished such associations and practices,
and especially if he was desirous of leaving the country, there was
no anxiety to prosecute him or delay his departure.
JOHN MITCHELL.
The most important case tried in Dublin was that of John Mitchell,
for treason-felony, grounded on his publications in The United
Irishman newspaper. He had been committed by me, and on the
27th May he was convicted and sentenced to transportation for
fourteen years. The only relic of the period in my possession is his
"pattern pike," which was found in his house when the police seized
the premises. On the day of his condemnation, I was passing along
Capel Street on an outside hackney jaunting-car. At Mary's Abbey
corner I was recognized by a crowd of roughs, and saluted with a
volley of stones. Not one of the missiles struck me, but the carman
received a blow on the point of his left elbow which caused intense
pain, and elicited copious maledictions. Police were close at hand,
and protected me from further aggression. I suggested to the driver
that the stone was not intended for him, to which he replied—"It
hurt me all the same. Them vagabonds shouldn't throw stones
without knowing who they'd hit."
INFORMERS.
No more offensive epithet can be applied in this country, in the
warmest spirit of invective, than that of an "informer." I have
repeatedly heard it asserted as a popular maxim, that all informers
should be shot. I can truly and deliberately declare it to be my firm

conviction, that if all the informers of 1848 were so disposed of, the
Confederate clubs and revolutionary associations of Dublin would
have been decimated. There were in one great commercial
establishment forty Confederates, of whom ten were in
communication with the police. I resided at Roundtown, and I would
often have preferred walking into town or strolling homeward, when
I had to take a seat on a hackney car or in an omnibus to avoid a
request to step into Blackberry Lane or turn up the Barrack Avenue,
and listen to details of proceedings of which it is highly probable I
had been already fully apprised.
A smith, in a town between thirty and forty miles from Dublin, was
engaged to manufacture pikes. He made two hundred and eighty
pike-heads, and brought them, according to directions which he had
received, to a place, the designation of which was peculiarly
appropriate for the reception of such articles, for it was the
slaughter-house of a butcher. They were of the best quality, in
respect of materials and workmanship. The industrious tradesman
delivered the "goods" to his customer, and was paid fully and
promptly. He then made me acquainted with the transaction, and I
referred him to the Commissioners of Police. They entrusted its
management, or perhaps I might more correctly say its
mismanagement, to a superintendent who, instead of having the
premises closely watched, proceeded precipitately to seize the
weapons. They were packed in strong deal cases, of the contents of
which the butcher and his assistants declared that they had no
knowledge. Before the Executive came to any conclusion as to what
course was to be adopted, the hopes of the revolutionists had been
extinguished at Ballingarry. No prosecution was instituted, and the
pike-heads were sent to England where, I believe, they were
transferred to the naval department.
THE CLOSE OF 1848.

On the 18th July, 1848, Dublin was proclaimed under the Crime and
Outrage Act, and a bill was introduced about the same time for
suspending the Habeas Corpus Act. When the Government adopted
these measures, several of the clubs came to the conclusion that it
would be advisable to dissolve. In almost every instance the police
authorities were fully informed of such proceedings, and some of the
persons, to whom the books and transactions were entrusted, made
us acquainted with their contents. The Government was extremely
anxious to prevent the formation of revolutionary associations in the
provinces; but as soon as the insurrectionary attempt of Smith
O'Brien collapsed, the executive became less desirous of exercising
severity. It was considered necessary to offer £500 reward for the
apprehension of O'Brien, and £300 for the capture of each of his
principal associates; but I know that the news of their arrival in a
foreign land would have been more welcome in Dublin Castle than
the intelligence of their arrest.
The authorities were aware that at a certain place in Sandymount, a
suburb of Dublin, nightly meetings were held by some young men
who had been engaged in the Confederate movement, for the
purpose of consulting on the most feasible mode of leaving the
country, and providing the requisite expenses for their departure.
There was not the slightest inclination to balk their wishes or impede
their progress. Some of them have attained wealthy and important
positions in distant lands, and some have returned home, where
they may spend their remaining days, undisturbed and undisturbing.
During the first six or seven months of 1848, the superior officers of
regiments in Dublin made frequent communications respecting the
assiduous exertions of the disaffected to sap the loyalty of the
soldiery, and effect an introduction of the military element to their
fraternity. Much time and money were applied to this purpose; but,
although the sobriety of the soldier was frequently impaired, his
loyalty remained intact, and his usual apology for an unsteady step,
or for returning late to his quarters, ascribed the fault to "the bloody
rebels." "They had made him drink a great lot of bad toasts, and he

wouldn't have done so for them, if the whiskey had not been very
good." The only instance of disaffection found to exist in a military
body was amongst the Royal Artillery at Portobello barrack. An
Irishman who had enlisted in London, in 1846, under a false name,
induced thirteen of his comrades to join him in forming a
Confederate association. Their usual place of meeting was very near
to my residence at Roundtown; and the first information which I
received concerning them arose from the resentment of a woman. I
had some communication with Colonel Gordon, the Adjutant-general
of the Ordnance, and we were both inclined to disbelieve the
statement which I had received. Eventually, however, we became
satisfied of its truth, and acquired such additional evidence as to
render the case sufficiently strong to procure a conviction of all the
delinquents by a court-martial. I earnestly advised Colonel Gordon to
leave them unprosecuted, but to disperse them. He adopted my
views, and in a few days not one of the fourteen was in Ireland,
neither were any two sent to the same station. In 1861, I saw the
principal offender at Gibraltar. He was then a sergeant.
The abortive attempt at revolution in 1848 was decidedly obstructive
to the progress of all the industrial pursuits which conduce to the
prosperity of a country and the comforts of a community. It also
involved the expenditure of vast sums in maintaining military forces,
augmented police and constabulary, and defraying the expenses of
special commissions. There is only one agreeable recollection
afforded by it. Neither side shed blood. Popular violence inflicted no
mortal injury, and no victim was demanded by the ultimate
restoration of Law and Order. I am now disposed to lay before my
readers a short extract from a French author (Le Comte de Melun),
in reference to insurrectionary movements. It is from his "Life of
Sister Rosalie, the Superioress of the Order of Charity." A work
crowned by the French Academy.
"In the ranks of society against which they appear to be more
specially directed, insurrections and revolutions suspend profit,
diminish revenue, compel a restriction of outlay, and introduce

disquietude and torment where security and abundance previously
prevailed. But their consequences are far more afflicting and
grievous upon those who live with great difficulty upon the labor of
each day. The least commotion in the street stops the work, and of
course the wages. It changes the difficulties of life into the deepest
misery.
"Whatever may be the issue of the movements for which their aid is
bespoken, the people are always the dupes and victims of these
sanguinary comedies. Whilst many of those who speak in their
name, who push them on to the conflict, who breathe into their ears
the sentiments of revolution, conceal themselves during the combat,
escape the consequences of defeat, and are always foremost to
adjudge to themselves the advantages of success; the wretched
people are exposed to blows on the field of battle, to prison or exile
in case of defeat, to the diminution of employment, and thereby to
an abridgment of their resources if they are conquerors—for it
requires much time, after a successful revolution, to restore security
to capital, activity to commerce, its proper balance to society; and
the workman has not, as an inducement to patience, like the heads
of parties, portfolios, important situations, and a share in the
budget. Then, after having suffered much, and waited long for the
day of compensation, the mere individual does not see it arrive, and
remains as he was previously—a workman, when he does not
become a pauper."
FOOTNOTE:
[8]
The man of firm and righteous will,
No rabble clamorous for the wrong,
No tyrant's brow, whose frown may kill,
Can shake the strength that makes him strong.

CHAPTER XXI.
CHOLERA: AN IMPATIENT PATIENT; GOOD
NEWS! ONLY TYPHUS FEVER—ROYAL VISITS—
SCOTCH SUPERIORITY STRONGLY ASSERTED
—A POLICE BILL STIGMATISED—LEAVE OF
ABSENCE—THE RHINE—THE RHINELAND.
Leaving to my readers, without any comment from myself, the
consideration of the statements and sentiments contained in the
extracts from the French author, I pass to the year 1849, which
certainly afforded a most agreeable contrast to its immediate
predecessor in the almost total cessation of political agitations and
asperities. The only regrettable circumstance to which my
recollections of the latter year can revert being the appearance of
cholera in Dublin, early in April, and its continuance, with
intermitting violence, until October. It was far less prevalent than it
had been in 1832, and, in almost every instance, the disease was
ascribed to the use of fish, fruit, acid drinks, or habitual
intemperance. In the great majority of cases ardent spirits were
administered; and the police were frequently complained to by
officers of health and other sanitary officials who had been called on
to relieve pretended sufferings, in the expectation of brandy or
whisky being promptly afforded. Occasionally, on being refused the
coveted dram, the mock sufferer became at once invigorated, and
addressed abusive language and threats of personal violence to "the
cholera fellow." Some instances of opprobrious and menacing
expressions were brought by summons under my cognizance, and
for such I prescribed a month's sojourn in the Richmond Bridewell,
unless the delinquent found two good and substantial sureties for his
good behaviour. One of these summonses was reported, I believe by
Mr. Dunphy, in the Freeman's Journal. It was described as "an affair

in which a patient became impatient, because he was not stimulated
when he simulated."
My residence at Roundtown was not far from a range of small
cottages occupied by the laboring class. One of our female servants
alarmed my family by stating that the cholera was very nigh, for that
she had seen five poor people taken off to hospital from the
cottages near the quarry. I mentioned her statement to a police
sergeant, and requested him to enquire if it was correct. In about
half an hour, he returned and said, "Your worship, I have good news
for you. The cholera has not come near you: it is only the typhus
fever."
ROYAL VISITS.
In 1849, Dublin had the honor of a Royal visit, which was regarded
by all classes as a most gratifying event. On the 5th of August, her
Majesty Queen Victoria arrived in Kingstown Harbour, accompanied
by Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, the Princess Royal, Prince
Alfred, and the Princess Alice. The Victoria and Albert yacht was
escorted by ten war steamers, and the squadron anchored about
eight o'clock in the evening. The Queen made a public entry into
Dublin on the following day, and remained in Ireland until the 10th.
Having a perfect recollection of George the Fourth's visit in 1821, I
presume to say that the reception of Victoria was most respectful
and cordial, and did not indicate the slightest approach to
sycophantic adulation. I would not apply the same terms in
describing the popular demonstrations which her uncle's visit
produced; for if ever a community manifested unanimous servility
and insane enthusiasm, it was when his Irish subjects accorded to
George the Fourth a homage almost idolatrous. Both visits occurred
in the same month, but with an interval of twenty-eight years. I
hope that I shall not be deemed too discursive in mentioning that
the King was received by the municipal authorities, with the usual
ceremonies, at the northern end of Upper Sackville Street, where a

gate had been constructed for his admission; and over the external
side there appeared a very conspicuous inscription, derived from the
sixth book of Virgil's Æneid—
"Hic vir, hic est, tibi quem promitti sæpius audis,
Augustus."[9]
The meaning of this quotation did not seem a difficult attainment,
even to those who had never previously seen a Latin word. It was
generally construed by such persons, "Here he is; it is all right; he
has come, as he promised, in August."
It was during the King's sojourn at the Viceregal Lodge in the
Phœnix Park, that an anecdote became current of a question having
been addressed by him to an Irish footman as to whether there was
any person in the establishment who understood German? to which
the interrogated domestic replied, "Please your Majesty, I don't know
anyone who spakes Jarman, but I have a brother who plays the
Jarman flate."
In 1849, when it became known that Queen Victoria would visit
Dublin, a great influx of the nobility and gentry was reasonably
expected. The city became also very attractive to persons of a
different and objectionable description. Great numbers of
mendicants arrived, and the increase of beggars on our streets
became most disagreeably apparent. The Commissioners of Police
immediately told off constables in plain clothes on the special duty of
repressing the nuisance, and so vigilant and active were they, that
our thoroughfares were less infested by beggars during the Royal
visit than I ever knew them to be at any other period. The
committals were generally for ten or fourteen days; and many of the
vagrants were by no means slow in attributing their confinement to
special orders from the Queen herself to have the beggars locked up
while she was in Dublin. A woman, who was committed by me for a
fortnight on a conviction for mendicancy, exclaimed, as she was

leaving the police-court, "Mr. Porter is sending us to jail in hopes of
getting himself made Sir Frank."
During the Queen's progress through the city on the 6th of August,
the whole line of the procession was densely crowded, the windows
were occupied, and banners, emblematic of respect and welcome,
abundantly displayed; and she was universally hailed with
enthusiastic shouts of applause. In the evening there was a general
and most brilliant illumination. The whole day passed without the
slightest tumult or accident, until about eleven o'clock at night, when
the vast crowds were dispersed by the heaviest rain that I ever
witnessed in Ireland. The shower lasted about an hour. During the
succeeding four days, Her Majesty visited the principal public
institutions, and held a levee in Dublin Castle, the most numerous
and influential that had ever been assembled there, and a drawing-
room which exhibited an unprecedented display of rank, fashion, and
beauty. On the 10th of August, she embarked at Kingstown, amidst
the acclamations of assembled thousands, and sailed for England.
She afforded signal acknowledgments of her appreciation of the
reception she had experienced from her Irish subjects, for on leaving
the pier at Kingstown, she ordered the Royal standard to be lowered
and raised again on board the Royal yacht, a mark of honor never
before employed except for a Royal personage. In a short time after
her visit of 1849, she created her eldest son Earl of Dublin.
SCOTCH SUPERIORITY STRONGLY ASSERTED.
Several months elapsed after the exciting and gratifying
demonstrations to which I have last adverted, during which time we
had profound quietude, and a total cessation of political turmoils. I
cannot recollect any incident, public or official, which I would
consider worth a reader's notice. I shall mention, however, that
there was then here an individual character with whom I had
occasional communication, and from whom I derived considerable
amusement almost every time we met. He was a man of high

military rank, holding an important garrison appointment. Kind,
courteous, and affable, he had, nevertheless, some extraordinary
prejudices, which I took every opportunity to induce him to express.
He was a Scotchman, who insisted that his country and its people
were superior to every other region and race, and who did not
hesitate to disparage any attempt to assign even an equality with
the Scotch to the natives of any other kingdom. His greatest
explosions of indignation seemed specially reserved for a
comparison, if at all favourable, of the Irish with the Scotch.
Consequently, I boldly ascribed a manifest superiority to my
countrymen over his in intelligence, integrity, diligence, neatness,
promptitude of action, and all other estimable qualities which could
be evinced in either peaceful or martial avocations; so that I was
sure to produce a denial of all my statements, and a suggestion that
I should never repeat them without blushing. Still I persevered, and
enjoyed the excitement which my expressions elicited. A few days
before he left Dublin we had a conference, and, as usual, I boasted
of Burke, Grattan, Curran, Goldsmith, Moore, Sheridan, Wellington,
Gough, &c. He insisted that Scotland could produce equal or perhaps
superior characters, if she had the opportunity. I remarked that even
when Irishmen engaged in nefarious criminal pursuits, they evinced
superior dexterity, and that our thieves were peculiarly knowing and
adroit. "Your thieves!" he exclaimed, "I'll be d——d if we haven't
thieves in Edinburgh or Glasgow that your Dublin fellows couldn't
hold a candle to."
A POLICE BILL STIGMATISED.
In the session of Parliament of 1850, a bill was brought in by the
Government for the revision and consolidation of the acts regulating
the Dublin Metropolitan Police. It was printed, and a considerable
number of copies were circulated in Dublin. We regarded it as a
most desirable measure, for it would, if passed, have substituted, a
simplified code for an involved and complicated hotch-potch of seven
statutes containing about four hundred sections. The police

authorities were extremely anxious for the success of the proposed
bill, but it was objected to by others, delayed, and ultimately, at the
close of the session, became one of the sufferers in the "Massacre of
the Innocents." Whilst it was pending, an alderman made it the
subject, at a meeting of the Corporation, of a most condemnatory
speech. He stigmatised it as unconstitutional and tyrannical, and
dwelt at considerable length on a section which would impart power
to a divisional magistrate, in case dealers in certain commodities
neglected or refused to comply with a notice to produce any article
in their possession, alleged to have been stolen, to inflict on the
person so neglecting or refusing, a penalty of twenty pounds, and in
default of payment of such penalty, to commit the offender for two
months. He indignantly demanded from what region of despotism
had such a tyrannical proposition been imported, and declared that it
would disgrace any legislature to enact, or any executive to enforce,
such unconstitutional severity. He was spared the mortification of
seeing such power imparted to a police magistrate. The obnoxious
bill was not passed, and the law remained unaltered. By it the
tyrannical penalty is only fifty pounds, with an alternative
imprisonment of merely six months. I do not believe, however, that
there has ever been an instance of such a penalty being exacted or
such imprisonment inflicted.
LEAVE OF ABSENCE.
In the year 1851 my magisterial duties, which did not indeed afford
any incident worthy of being particularized, were interrupted by a
severe attack of gastric fever; on my recovery from which, I was
directed by my medical attendant to proceed to Wiesbaden, and
take such baths and drink such mineral waters as should be
prescribed by a certain English physician residing there, Dr. Lewis. I
waited on the Chief Secretary, Sir William Somerville, who
subsequently became Lord Athlumney, and requested leave of
absence for a month or six weeks. He took a printed form of reply,
directed it to me, and signed it. By this document I was granted

"leave of absence for ——." On remarking to him that he had not
specified the duration of the indulgence, the worthy gentleman was
pleased to compliment me by saying, "I have left a blank for the
time. Go, and stay until your health and strength are completely
renovated, and fill up the blank at your return. You are deserving of
the most favourable treatment." I record with gratitude and pride
such an acknowledgment of my anxious endeavours to discharge my
official duties with efficiency; but I must also say that kindness and
benignity were amongst his prominent characteristics. I left Dublin at
the latter end of May, and proceeded through London to Ostend,
and from thence by railway to Bonn, where I commenced ascending
"the wide and winding Rhine." Whilst waiting at the wharf for the
steamer, and contemplating "The castled crag of Drachenfels," I
thought of Byron's lines, in which he describes the scenery which
appeared so enchanting to Childe Harold, and also how
"Peasant girls with deep blue eyes,
And hands which offer early flowers,
Walk smiling o'er this paradise;"
and I felt that the landscape before me transcended even his
description. I had, however, the greatest contrast offered to my view
so far as regarded eyes, hands, or smiles. Four females approached
with flowers, which they desired to sell. They were all old women,
and they constituted, in their features and figures, the most
complete realization of hideous ugliness. It is not my intention to
attempt any description of the scenes which successively astonished
and delighted me whilst proceeding up the Rhine from Bonn to
Mentz. I would fully adopt the unexaggerated truth contained in four
short lines—

"The river nobly foams and flows,
The charm of this enchanted ground,
And all its thousand turns disclose
Some fresher beauties varying round."
I found the steamer extremely convenient and most agreeable,
especially for a person debilitated by severe and recent indisposition.
I do not recollect the charges for conveyance or refreshments, but I
considered them moderate, and relished my repasts greatly, whether
as regarded their materials, culinary preparation, or table
attendance. The few hotels at which I stopped were very
comfortable in every respect. At the Giant Hotel, Coblentz, I
observed that the delicious wine, sparkling Moselle, was given for a
Rhenish florin and a half, (two shillings and sixpence,) per bottle,
and that Guinness's Dublin Porter was precisely the same price
there. I have heard some Germans, who understood English, remark
on the designation almost universally given to the Rhenish wines by
us. The vineyards are nearly all on places considerably elevated, and
the names of the wines have generally the prefix of "High." The
German word is "Hoch," and they give it a guttural pronunciation
which the Irish and Scotch can utter perfectly, but which an
Englishman cannot accomplish. He hardens "hoch" into "hock," and
adopts the prefix alone as the name of the exhilarating fluid, and we
follow his example. The mistake, however, is perfectly harmless, for
the abbreviation has not lessened the production, or deteriorated the
flavor of the liquor.
At Coblentz, I saw in a square before a church, the name of which I
do not remember, a monument with two inscriptions, the first of
which I considered indicative of silly and premature pride, whilst the
second formed an instance of a complete junction of wit and
wisdom. In 1812, when the French had occupied Moscow, the
prefect of Coblentz erected the monument and inscribed it thus—

AN. MDCCCXII.
Memorable éar la Caméagne
Contre les Russes,
Sous la érefecture de Jules Doazan.[10]
In 1814 the fortunes of war had necessitated the retreat of the
French before the allied forces, and Coblentz was occupied by the
Russians. Instead of demolishing the memorable record of the
previous campaign, the Russian commander of the force, by which
the town was captured, caused a supplementary statement to be
added, which clearly showed the complete change of affairs. The
addition was as follows:—
Vu et aéérouve éar nous, Commandant Russe de la ville
de Coblentz . 1 Jan. 1814.[11]
The people of Coblentz appeared to enjoy drawing a stranger's
notice to these inscriptions, and it was easy to perceive that they
considered the annexation of the Rhenish provinces to France, by
the first Napoleon, as not merely objectionable, but detestable and
insufferable. I believe that the same sentiments pervaded every part
of Germany, which had been under the rule or in the occupation of
the French. As far as my sojourn in Germany enabled me to form an
opinion, I thought that the people liked the English very much, and
thoroughly disliked the French. I found them most friendly, and on
several occasions when I have wished to procure fruit, and produced
money, pointing at the same time to apple, pear, or plum trees, in
the unfenced gardens and orchards near Wiesbaden, the tree would
be shaken, and signs made to me to pick up the fallen fruits, and
money would be declined. This kindness was accorded to me
because I was deemed an Englishman. I do not believe that an
apple would have been gratuitously tendered to a Frenchman. In the
places of public amusement, I repeatedly heard a certain lively tune
played. It seemed to be decidedly popular, and I was informed that
it owed its popularity to the fact of having been the quick-step to
which the Prussians advanced upon the flank of the French army at
the close of the battle of Waterloo.

In the preceding paragraph, I have mentioned unfenced gardens
and orchards. I have passed along roads in the Rhenish land where,
for five or six miles, there were no fences whatever between the
highway and grounds appropriated to the culture of choice fruits and
vegetables, and where no hedge, wall, or ditch intervened to
distinguish or separate one holding from another. The bounds were
marked by poles, on the tops of which bits of straw or dried rushes
were placed; but even such marks were not considered necessary at
the edges of the public thoroughfare. Of course, in those districts
grazing was impracticable. No sheep or goats were to be seen, no
horses, unless such as were yoked or saddled; and the food for the
cows was usually conveyed, in the morning and evening, from the
place of its production, in a cart drawn by one of themselves. The
summer feeding for the cattle consisted of clover, Italian rye-grass,
Lucern, American cow-grass, or vetches. I observed that the fodder
was cut and left lying sufficiently long to become flagged before it
was given to the animals. The tillage in those districts presented a
great contrast to the generality of Irish crops. Neatness and
cleanliness characterized the German culture, and the weeds were
excluded from the partnership which is so liberally accorded to them
here. Near Wiesbaden, I saw a very flourishing crop, which
occupied, in my opinion, about two acres, and I was informed by Dr.
Greiss, that the elevation of the place above sea-level was 2400 ft.
The growth was tobacco, for the production of which our soil and
climate are as well suited as those in which the Germans cultivate it.
There it is taxed, or, as I believe, taken by the Government at a
valuation, and made an Imperial monopoly. Here it is prohibited, to
form, perhaps, a very apt and forcible illustration of the principle of
Free Trade.
The springs at Wiesbaden are not numerous, but they constitute
great natural curiosities. There is one which, if I remember rightly, is
called the Kochbrunnen. It is intensely hot; and I was told that even
in winter, the water is used for scalding the hair off slaughtered pigs.
It gushes up profusely; and yet, within fifty yards of it, there is a
spring extremely cold and effervescent, precisely similar to the

Seltzer water. Whilst the Roman empire continued, almost all the
Rhineland was appurtenant to it, and Wiesbaden was then
designated "Mattiacæ aquæ." It is believed that Nero visited it for
the benefit of his health; and there is a locality close to the town,
where he is said to have sojourned, and which is named Nerothal,
(Nero's valley.) Some ancient edifices have Latin inscriptions
denoting their former use or the names of their pristine occupants.
The Germans take special care of such antique remains; and instead
of destroying relics of heathenism, they show them as indicating a
state of darkness and degradation to which Christianity offers the
greatest and most glorious contrast. In reference to the gratitude of
their votaries to Pagan deities for benefits attributed to the exercise
of their peculiar powers, I only recollect one mythological inscription,
which I was prevented from forgetting by a ludicrous comment on it,
made by a Manchester visitant at Wiesbaden. In the Ræmerbad,
(Roman bath,) there was a mural tablet in perfect preservation,
every letter on the stone being as distinct as when cut many
centuries ago. It was as follows:—
"Æsculaéio sanatori, milites quatuordecimæ legionis , ob
valetudinem restaurtam, hanc tabulam votivam.
D.D.D."
The Manchester gent and I had become acquainted at the table
d'hôte of the "Four Seasons," and we happened to stroll into the
Ræmerbad at the same time. Pointing to the mural tablet, he said—
"Mr. Porter, they say that is Latin."
"Yes," I replied, "you have been rightly informed."
"Could you untwist it, and tell us what it is about?"
"I shall try. To Æsculapius the healer, the soldiers of the fourteenth
legion, in consequence of their health being restored, give, inscribe,
and dedicate this votive tablet."

"Good heavens!" he exclaimed, "those chaps were wide awake; and
they knew how to pay a nice compliment, for of course this
Skewlaypius was their regimental doctor."
I regretted that there was not another tablet extant declaratory of
their veneration and devotion to Mars, for it would have elicited the
interesting suggestion that his military rank was, at least, that of a
colonel.
I recollect seeing on an ancient tower of octagonal form, near
Andernach, an inscription, in reference to which I heard many
conjectures, and some of them extremely absurd. It was as follows:
—
"Siste éaululum , ambula éaululum , sedere vetitum est, et
dormire est mori."[12]
The conclusion at which I arrived was, that immediately beneath this
direction a sentinel's station had been established, and that whether
he stood, or walked "his lonely round," he was to bear in mind that
to slumber on his post was inexcusable, and subjected him to the
forfeiture of life.
One day I sat, in the large dining-room of the Four Seasons, near a
noble lord who, with his lady, had been there for some weeks. She
was a native of Germany, and he was an Irishman who possessed
extensive estates in a southern county. I heard him say to a
gentleman, who was recommending him to visit Frankfort-on-the-
Maine, that he could not adopt his suggestion, as he was obliged to
start for home on the next day but one. That evening I was speaking
to the landlord, and mentioned that I had heard my noble
countryman tell his friend that he was about to leave. The landlord
replied, "I am delighted to hear that they are going, for her other
husband is to be here next week, and their meeting would be rather
unpleasant, especially as he is bringing his other wife."
At a short distance from Wiesbaden, the road to Schlangenbad (the
serpent's bath) passes through a portion of a very extensive forest.

In one of my rambles, I left the highway, and walked into the dense
wood, and when I thought that I had gone far enough, and that it
was time to return, I became suddenly aware that I had lost my
way. In a state of extreme uneasiness I walked for more than an
hour, frequently shouting, but without hearing any responsive voice.
Dismal ideas arose in my mind as to the probability of having to
meet dangers and privations beyond my power of resistance or
endurance. At length I found that there was a hill before me, on
which the trees were rather sparse; and having attained the
elevation, I was relieved from my apprehensions by a glimpse of the
Rhine, and immediately directed my steps towards the river, and
soon emerged from the forest. If any of my readers should
contemplate a visit to any place in the vicinity of extensive woods,
they will avoid all liability to such annoyance as I suffered, by
refraining from solitary forest rambles, and by taking such excursions
with a guide, or with companions acquainted with the localities.
Before I left Wiesbaden, a young gentleman named Vernon was
found dead in the Taunus forest. His death was attributed to the bite
of an adder or viper.
In the Kursahl, at Wiesbaden, there was a Roulette table, and also
one for Rouge et Noir. The gambling was not considered at all
comparable to the play at Baden-Baden; nevertheless, I have seen
many instances of serious, perhaps of ruinous losses. On one
occasion I observed an Englishman who sat down at the Rouge et
Noir table. He had a large leathern purse full of gold, and certainly
more than one thousand pounds in Bank of England notes of fifty
pounds each. In less than an hour, all his money was absorbed, and
some exclamations, garnished with imprecations, as he retired,
impressed me with the opinion that he was reduced to destitution.
Whilst I express the warmest approval of the abolition of those
gambling establishments, and their recent suppression in the
German towns, I must admit having tried my luck occasionally to the
extent of four florins (about six shillings and eightpence.) In almost
every instance the remorseless rake added my stake to the
accumulations of "the bank." On the last evening that I was at the

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Kcse Score More Biology Charles Oluoch Jackson Muraya

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