Kingdom plantae

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KINGDOM PLANTAE

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ALGAE
Algaearemostlyaquatic,somebeingterrestrial
also.
Afewalgaegrowonotherplants.
Aquaticalgaegrowinmarinewaterorfreshwater
They may be small, unicellular, microscopic like
Chlorella (non-motile), Chlamydomonas(motile)
or multicellularunbranchedfilamentous like
Spirogyra and Ulothrix,
or branched filamentous like Chara
or colonialforms like Volvox
or huge macro­scopicsuch as
sea weedswhich measure more than 60 meters in
length. e.g. Sargassum

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Thealgalcellwallconsistsoftwolayersi.e.innercellulosicandoutercomposedof
pectin.
Thealgaeconsistofvarioustypesofphotosyntheticpigments.
Chlorophyll-aisan(essentialpigment)
Carotenoids
Phycobilins.
Thereservefoodmaterialisintheformofstarch,laminarin,starch,mannitolor
floridean-starch,etc.

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REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
Reproduction
Vegetative
Sexual
Asexual
Fragmentation(in
filamentous forms)
and
cell division(in
unicellular forms).
Bytheformationof
varioustypesofnon-
motileormotilespores.
Themostcommonbeing
thezoospores.
Theyareflagellated
(motile) and on
germinationgivesriseto
newplants.
formation and fusion
of gametes.
Isogamy: fusing gametes are
same
Anisogamy : fusing gametes
are different
Oogamy : fusing gametes
are totally different,
enough to be called as
male and female gametes

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Atleastahalfofthetotalcarbondioxidefixationonearthiscarriedoutbyalgaethrough
photosynthesis
Beingphotosynthetictheyincreasethelevelofdissolvedoxygenintheirimmediate
environment.
Theyareofparamountimportanceasprimaryproducersofenergy-richcompoundswhich
formthebasisofthefoodcyclesofallaquaticanimals.
ManyspeciesofPorphyra,LaminariaandSargassumareamongthe70speciesofmarine
algaeusedasfood.
Certainmarinebrownandredalgaeproducelargeamountsofhydrocolloids(water
holdingsubstances),e.g.,algin(brownalgae)andcarrageen(redalgae)areused
commercially
Agar,oneofthecommercialproductsobtainedfromGelidiumandGracilariaareusedto
growmicrobesandinpreparationsofice-creamsandjellies.
ChlorellaandSpirullinaareunicellularalgae,richinproteinsandareusedasfood
supplements.

9. ALGAE
Chlorophyceae
(green algae)
Rhodophyceae
(red algae)
Phaeophyceae
(brown algae)
Theyareusuallygrassgreenduetothedominanceofpigmentschlorophyllaandb.
Thepigmentsarelocalisedindefinitechloroplasts.
Thechloroplastsareofdifferentshapes;discoid,plate-like,reticulate,cup-shaped,
spiralorribbon-shapedindifferentspecies.
Mostofthemembershaveoneormorestoragebodiescalledpyrenoidslocatedinthe
chloroplasts.Pyrenoidscontainproteinbesidesstarch.Somealgaemaystorefoodin
theformofoildroplets.
Greenalgaeusuallyhavearigidcellwallmadeofaninnerlayerofcelluloseandan
outerlayerofpectose.
Vegetativereproductionusuallytakesplacebyfragmentationorbyformationof
differenttypesofspores.
Asexualreproductionisbyflagellatedzoosporesproducedinzoosporangia.
Thesexualreproductionshowsconsiderablevariationinthetypeandformationofsex
cellsanditmaybeisogamous,anisogamousoroogamous.
ThecommonformsareEctocarpus,Dictyota,Laminaria,SargassumandFucus.
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10. ALGAE
Chlorophyceae
(green algae)
Rhodophyceae
(red algae)
Phaeophyceae
(brown algae)
The members of phaeophyceaeor brown algaearefound primarily in marine habitats.
They show great variationin size and form.
They range from simple branched, filamentous forms [Ectocarpus] to profusely
branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of 100 metres. They
possess chlorophyll a,c, carotenes and xanthophylls,
They vary in colourfrom olive greento various shades of browndepending upon the
amount of the xanthophyllpigment, fucoxanthinpresent in them.
Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the of laminarinor
mannitol. The vegetative cells have a cellulosic walldually covered on the outside by a
gelatinous coating of algin
Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoosporesthat are pear-
shaped and have two unequal laterally attached flagella.
Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamousor oogamous.
The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, SargassumandFucus.
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11. ALGAE
Chlorophyceae
(green algae)
Rhodophyceae
(red algae)
Phaeophyceae
(brown algae)
The members of rhodophyceaeare commonly called red algaebecauseof the
predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrinin their body.
Majority of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer
areas.
The red thalliof most of the red algae are multicellular.
The food is stored as florideanstarchwhich is very similar to amylopectinand
glycogen in structure.
The red algae usually reproduce vegetativelyby fragmentation.
They reproduce asexually by non-motile sporesand
sexually by non-motile gametes.
Sexual reproduction is oogamousand accompanied by complex post fertilisation
developments.
The common members are: Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracikmaand Gelidium.
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BRYOPHYTA
Mostly terrestrial plantswhichdepend on
external water for fertilization and completion
of their life cycle.
Hence they are called `amphibian plants'
Grow in shadyand moist placessuch as moist
walls, damp rocks, moist soil and on decaying
logs.
They show thalloidplant body which is not
differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
InBryophytestruerootsareabsentbut
rhizoidsarepresent.
Rhizoidsareunicellularinliverworts,while
multicellularinmosses.
Theyabsorbwaterandmineralsandalsohelp
infixationofthallustothesubstratum.

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BRYOPHYTA

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Themainplantbody(thallus)ofthe
bryophyteishaploid.
Itproducesgametes,henceiscalleda
gametophyte
Thesexorgansinbryophytesare
multicellular.
Themalesexorganiscalled
antheridium.Theyproducebiflagellate
antherozoids.
Thefemalesexorgancalled
archegoniumisflask-shapedand
producesasingleegg.
Theantherozoidsarereleasedinto
waterwheretheycomeincontactwith
archegonium.Anantherozoidfuseswith
theeggtoproducethezygote.
Thegametophyteisthedominant,
green,haploidandindependent
phase.
GAMETOPHYTE
The zygote produces a multicellularbody
called a sporophyte.
The sporophyteis not free-livingbut
attached to the photosynthetic
gametophyte and derives nourishment
from it.
Some cells of the sporophyteundergo
reduction division (meiosis) to produce
haploid spores.
These spores germinateto produce
gametophyte.
Thus, the sporophyteis diploid,
recessiveand partially dependenton
gametophyte
SPOROPHYTE

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1.Some mosses provide foodfor herbaceous mammals, birds and other
animals.
2. Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peatthat have long been used as
fuel, and because of their capacity to hold water as packing material for trans-
shipment of living material.
3. Mosses, along with lichens are the first organisms to coloniserocks and
hence, are of great ecological importance. They decompose rocksmaking the
substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants.
4. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling
rain and prevent soil erosion
Economic Importance of Bryophytes

16. Bryophyta
Hepaticopsida
(Liverworts)
Anthoceratopsida
(Hornworts)
Bryopsida
(Mosses)
.Theplantbodyofaliverwortisthalloid,e.g.,Marchantia.The
thallusisdorsiventralandcloselyappressedtothesubstrate.The
leafymembershavetinyleaf-likeappendagesintworowsonthe
stem-likestructures.
Asexualreproductioninliverwortstakesplacebyfragmentationof
thalli,orbytheformationofspecialisedstructurescalledgemmae
(sing,gemma).Gemmaearegreen,multicellular,asexualbuds,
whichdevelopinsmallreceptaclescalledgemmacupslocatedon
thethalli(seediagram).Thegemmaebecomedetachedfromthe
parentbodyandgerminatetoformnewindividuals.
Duringsexualreproduction,maleandfemalesexorgansare
producedeitheronthesameorondifferentthalli.Thesporophyteis
differentiatedintoafoot,setaandcapsule.Aftermeiosis,spores
areproducedwithinthecapsule.Thesesporesgerminatetoform
free-livinggametophytes.

17. Bryophyta
Hepaticopsida
(Liverworts)
Anthoceratopsida
(Hornworts)
Bryopsida
(Mosses)
Thegametophytewhichconsistsoftwostages.
Thefirststageistheprotonemastage,whichdevelopsdirectlyfroma
spore.
Thesecondstageistheleafystage,whichdevelopsfromthesecondary
protonemaasalateralbud.Theyconsistofupright,slenderaxes
bearing
spirallyarrangedleaves.Theyareattachedtothesoilthrough
multicellularandbranchedrhizoids.Thisstagebearsthesexorgans
.
Vegetativereproductioninmossesisbyfragmentationandbudding
inthesecondaryprotonema.
Insexualreproduction,thesexorgansantheridiaandarchegoniaare
producedattheapexoftheleafyshoots.Afterfertilisation,thezygote
developsintoasporophyte,consistingofafoot,setaandcapsule.
Thesporophyteinmossesismoreelaboratethanthatinliverworts.The
capsulecontainsspores.Sporesareformedaftermeiosis.Themosses
haveanelaboratemechanismofsporedispersal.Commonexamplesof
mossesareFunaria,PolytrichumandSphagnum.

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PTERIDOPHYTA
The first vascular plants and the first successful
terrestrial plants with true roots, stem and
leaves but no flowers fruits and seeds
Called as VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS
The Pteridophytesinclude horsetailsand ferns.
The Pteridophytesare terrestrial, small, either
annual or perennial, and grow luxuriantly in
cool, moist and shady places. e.g. ferns.
They may be aquatic(Azolla, Marsilea),
xerophytic(Equisetum)
epiphytic(Lycopodium) i.e.
growing on large trunks of trees

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PTERIDOPHYTA
Plant Body
Theprimaryrootisshort-livedandissoonreplaced
byadventitiousroots
Stemmaybeaerialorunderground.
Theleavesmaybescaly(Equisetum),
simpleandsessile(Lycopodium)
orlargeandpinnatelycompound(Ferns).
Theleavesinpteridophytaaresmall(microphylls)as
inSelaginellaorlarge(macrophylls)asinFerns.
Inpteridophytes,thexylemconsistsofonlytracheids
andphloemconsistsofsievecellsonly.
SecondarygrowthisnotseeninPteridophytes
duetoabsenceofcambium.

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PTERIDOPHYTA HETEROMORPHIC ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

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Thesporophyteshowsasexualreproductionandproducessporesbymeiosisfromwhichthe
gametophytedevelops.
Thegametophyteishaploid,recessivebutindependent,andreproducessexually.
Productofsexualreproduction,i.e.zygoteproducesdiploidsporophyte.
Sporesareproducedinspecialmulticellularstructurescalledsporangia.Thesporangiaare
producedbyleaf-likeappendagescalledsporophylls.
Insomecases,sporophyllsmayformdistinctcompactstructurescalledstrobilior
cones(Selaginella,Equisetum).
Thesporangiaproducesporesbymeiosisinsporemothercells.
Thesporesgerminatetogiverisetoinconspicuous,smallbutmulticellular,free-living,mostly
photosyntheticthalloidgametophytescalledprothallus.
PTERIDOPHYTA
REPRODUCTION

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These gametophytes require cool, damp, shady places to grow.
The gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called
antheridiaand archegonia, respectively.
Wateris required for transfer of antherozoids-the male gametes released from the
antheridia, to the mouth of archegonium.
Fusion of male gametewith the eggpresent in the archegoniumresult in the
formation of zygote.
Zygote thereafter produces a multicellularwell-differentiated sporophytewhich is
the dominantphase of the pteridophytes. In majority of the pteridophytes, all the
spores are of similar kinds; such plants are called homosporous. Genera like
Selaginellaand Salviniawhich produce two kinds of spores, macro (large) and micro
(small) spores, are known as heterosporous. The megasporesand microspores
germinate and give rise to femaleand male gametophytes, respectively. The female
gametophytes in these plants are retained on the parent sporophytesfor variable
periods. The development of the zygotes into young embryostake place within the
female gametophytes.

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ThePteridophytes,apartfromnormalwayofreproduction,alsosometimesshowfollowing
methods:
1.Apogamy-Itisthedevelopmentofthesporophytewithoutthefusionofthemaleand
femalegametes.Itarisesdirectlyfromthegametophyte.Herethesporophyteishaploid.
2.Apospory-Itisthedevelopmentofthegametophytefromanycellofthesporophyte
otherthanthehaploidspores.Suchagametophyteisdiploidinnature.
Pteridophyta
Psilopsida Lycopsida PteropsidaSphenopsida
Psilotum Selaginella
Lycopodium
Equisetum Pteris
Dryopteris
Adiantum

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ANGIOSPERMS
Most advanced division of the flowering plants
The plant body is differentiated into
root, stem andleaves.
It has flowers, fruits andseeds.
Vascular tissues are well developed.
Xylem shows vessels or tracheaewhile
phloem has sieve tubes and companion cells.
Highly evolved plants, primarily adapted to
terrestrial habitat.
Wolffiais the smallestangiosperm, l mm in size and
Eucalyptusgrowsto over 100 meters.

26. ANGIOSPERMS HETEROMORPHIC ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
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Diploid
Autotrophic
Dominant
Haploid
Dependant
Recessive

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ANGIOSPERMS
MALE FEMALE

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ANGIOSPERMS
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

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DICOTYLEDONAE MONOCOTYLEDONAE
2 cotyledons in the Embryo 1 cotyledon in the Embryo
Tap root system Adventitious root system
Stem is profuselybranched Stem is unbranched
Reticulate Venation Parallel Venation
Flowers showtetramerous or
pentameroussymmetry
Flowers show trimeroussymmetry
Vascular Bundle is Conjoint, Collateral and
open
Vascular Bundle is Conjoint, Collateral and
closed
Secondary growth is found Secondary growth is absent

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GYMNOSPERMS
Most of the Gymnosperms are evergreen,
perennial woody trees or shrubs.
The gymnosperms are plants in which the
ovulesare not enclosed by any ovary walland
remain exposed, both before and after
fertilisation.
They are non-floweringplants producing
naked seeds (fruits are not produced).
Xylem has tracheidsand
phloem with sieve cells.

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The plant body i.e. sporophyte is differentiated into
root, stem and leaves
ROOTS :
Specialized Coralloid roots of Cycasshow association with N
2-
fixingblue-green algaeand
Pinusshow association with endophyticfungi called
mycorrhizae
STEM :
The gymnospermicstemis mostly erect, aerial, solid and
cylindrical.
In Cycas, it is unbranched, while in
Pinus, Cedrusand conifersit is branched
LEAVES :
The leavesare dimorphic.
The foliage leavesare simple, needle like or pinnately
compound
Scale leavesare small, membranous and brown.
GYMNOSPERMS

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Thegymnospermsareheterosporous;they
producehaploidmicrosporesandmegaspores.
Thetwokindsofsporesareproducedwithin
sporangiathatareborneonleafystructures
calledsporophyllswhicharearrangedspirally
alonganaxistoformlaxorcompactstrobilior
cones.
Thestrobilibearingmicrosporophyllsand
microsporangiaarecalledmalestrobiliormale
cone
Themicrosporesdevelopintoamale
gametophyticgenerationwhichisreducedand
isconfinedtoonlyalimitednumberofcells.
Thisreducedgametophyteiscalledapollen
grain.Thedevelopmentofpollengrainstake
placewithinthemicrosporangia.

34. The cones bearing megasporophylls
with ovulesare called female strobilior
female cone
The male or female strobilimay be
borne on the same tree (Pinus).
However in Cycas, male cones and
megasporophyllsare borne on different
trees. The megaspore mother cellis
differentiated from one of the cells of
the nucellus(nutritive tissue of the
ovule).

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GYMNOSPERMS HETEROMORPHIC ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
SPOROPHYTE
Diploid
Dominant
Independent
GAMETOPHYTE
Haploid
Recessive
Dependent

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The nucellus(megasporangia) is protected by envelopes and the composite
structure is called an ovule. The megaspore mother celldivides meioticallyto form
four megaspores. Oneof the megaspores develops into a multicellular female
gametophytethat bears two or more archegonia or female sex organs. The
multicellular female gametophyte is also retained within megasporangium

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The pollen grainis released from the microsporangium. The pollination in Gymnosperm is
anemophilous(wind pollination). The pollen grains come in contact with the opening of the
ovulesborne on megasporophylls.
The pollen tubecarrying the male gametesgrows towards archegoniain the ovules and
discharge their contents near the mouth of the archegonia. Following fertilization, zygote
develops into an embryoand the ovulesinto seeds. These seeds are not covered.
The fertilization is direct as the pollengrainsarereceived directly in the pollen chamberof
theovule. Fertilization is achieved through a pollen tube. This process is called
siphonogamy.

39. Gymnospermae
Cycadopsida
e.g.Cycas
Zamia
Coniferopsida
e.g. Pinus
Sequoia
Gnetopsida
e.g. Gnetum
Ephedra
Angiosperms Gymnosperms
1. Ovules are enclosed in the ovary1. Ovules are naked
2. Pollen chamber and pollination drop are
absent
2. Pollen chamber and pollination drop are
present
3. Archegoniaare absent 3. 2-8 archegonia are present
4. Eachovule has only 1 female gamete4. 1 ovule has 2-8 female gametes
5. Double fertilization 5. No double fertilization
6. Endosperm is triplodand formed after
fertilization
6. Endosperm is haploid and formed before
fertilization
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40. LIFE CYCLES
Haplo-diplontic
Diplontic
Haplontic
The dominant,
photosyntheticphasein
suchplantsisthefree-
living haploid
gametophyte.
Thiskindoflifecycle
istermedasHaplontic.
•Manyalgaesuchas
Volvox,Spirogyra
diploid sporophyteis
the dominant,
photosynthetic,
independent phase of the
plant.
This kind of life cycle is
called as Diplontic
Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms
Bryophytesand
pteridophytes,
interestingly, exhibit an
intermediatecondition
(Haplo-diplontic); both
phases are
multicellular.
However, they differ in
their dominant phases
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