Learning-20191022085539111111111111.pptx

LEARNING

1. Learning

2. module 6.1 Classical Conditioning

3. The Behaviorist View in Relation to Learning Behaviorists insist that psychologists should study behaviors and not internal states such as intentions or expectations. Previous events led to the internal states, and therefore those events are the real causes of behavior. Behaviorists’ goal is to explain behavior without relying on terms such as “idea” or “understanding.”

4. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning ) – the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli—a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – an event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response Unconditioned response (UCR) – the action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits Conditioned stimulus (CS) – a response that depends on the preceding conditions Conditioned response (CR) – whatever response the conditioned stimulus elicits as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure

5. Figure 6.2 ◄ Figure 6.2 A conditioned stimulus precedes an unconditioned stimulus. At first, the conditioned stimulus elicits no response, and the unconditioned stimulus elicits the unconditioned response. After sufficient pairings, the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response, which can resemble the unconditioned response.

6. More Examples of Classical Conditioning Your alarm clock makes a faint clicking sound a couple of seconds before the alarm goes off. At first, the click by itself does not awaken you, but the alarm does. After a week or so, you awaken when you hear the click. Unconditioned stimulus = alarm → Unconditioned response = awakening Conditioned stimulus = click → Conditioned response = awakening You hear the sound of a dentist’s drill shortly before the unpleasant experience of the drill on your teeth. From then on, the sound of a dentist’s drill arouses anxiety. Unconditioned stimulus = drilling → Unconditioned response = tension Conditioned stimulus = sound of the drill → Conditioned response = tension

7. Additional Phenomena of Classical Conditioning Extinction – the process that weakens a conditioned response by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the conditioned stimulus Spontaneous recovery – a temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay (buzzer and air puff). Stimulus generalization – extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli (buzzing bees) Discrimination – to respond differently to stimuli that predict different outcomes (rattle vs rattlesnake)

8. Drug Tolerance as an Example of Classical Conditioning Drug tolerance – weakened effects of a drug after someone has taken the drug repeatedly Drug tolerance results in part from classical conditioning. The drug administration procedure comes to evoke defensive responses.

9. Explanations of Classical Conditioning Pavlov believed that conditioning occurred because presenting two stimuli close to each other in time developed a connection between their brain representations. Later research showed the following: Animals do not treat the conditioned stimulus as if it were the unconditioned stimulus. Being close in time is not enough. Learning occurs if the first stimulus predicts the second stimulus.

10. module 6.2 Operant Conditioning

11. Thorndike and Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning ) – the process of changing behavior by providing a reinforcer after a response The defining difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning is the procedure. In general, the two kinds of conditioning also affect different behaviors. Classical conditioning applies mainly to visceral responses, such as salivation and digestion. Visceral responses – responses of the internal organs Operant conditioning applies mainly to skeletal responses. Skeletal responses – movements of leg muscles, arm muscles, etc.

12. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforcers (or unconditioned reinforcers) – events that are reinforcing because of their own properties Secondary reinforcers (or conditioned reinforcers) – events that become reinforcing by association with something else

13. Punishment Punishment – an event that decreases the probability of a response Punishment can be either a presentation of something (e.g., receiving pain) or a removal (e.g., withholding food). Punishment is most effective when it is quick and predictable. Punishments are not always effective.

14. Table 6.1 Four Categories of Operant Conditioning Events Such as Food Events Such as Pain Behavior leads to the event Positive Reinforcement Punishment Result: Increase in the behavior, reinforced by presentation of food. Example: “If you clean your room, I’ll get you a pizza tonight.” Result: Decrease in the behavior, and therefore a decrease in pain. Example: “If you insult me, I’ll slap you.” Behavior avoids the event Punishment Negative Reinforcement = Escape or Avoidance Learning Result: Decrease in the behavior, and therefore food continues to be available. Example: “If you hit your little brother again, you’ll get no dessert.” Result: Increase in the behavior, and therefore a decrease in pain. Example: “If you go into the office over there, the doctor will remove the thorn from your leg.”

15. Additional Phenomena of Operant Conditioning Extinction – the result that occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements (boring games) Stimulus generalization – the tendency to respond to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response to the originally reinforced stimulus (play similar games) Discrimination – a response to one stimulus and not the other Discriminative stimulus – item that indicates whether a response is appropriate or inappropriate (talk in class vs outside)

16. Shaping Behavior/Chaining Behavior Shaping – a technique for establishing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to it Chaining – a procedure for reinforcing each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next behavior

17. Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement – rules for the delivery of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – procedure providing reinforcement for every correct response Intermittent reinforcement – procedure providing reinforcement for some responses and not for others

18. Table 6.3 Some Schedules of Reinforcement Type Description Continuous Reinforcement for every response of the correct type Fixed ratio Reinforcement following completion of a specific number of responses Variable ratio Reinforcement for an unpredictable number of responses that varies around a mean value Fixed interval Reinforcement for the first response that follows a given delay since the previous reinforcement Variable interval Reinforcement for the first response that follows an unpredictable delay (varying around a mean value) since the previous reinforcement

19. Applications of Operant Conditioning People have applied operant conditioning to persuasion and applied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis (or behavior modification ) – procedure in which a psychologist removes reinforcement for unwanted behaviors and provides reinforcement for more acceptable behaviors

20. module 6.3 Variations of Learning

21. Preparedness Preparedness – the concept that evolution has prepared us to learn some associations more easily than others

22. Conditioned Taste Aversions Animals, including people, learn to avoid foods, especially unfamiliar ones, if they become ill afterward. Conditioned taste aversion – association of a food with illness This type of learning occurs reliably after a single pairing, even with a long delay between the food and the illness. Illness is associated much more strongly with foods than with other stimuli.

23. Conditioned aversion (1:24 )

24. Social Learning Social-learning approach – view that we learn about many behaviors by observing the behavior of others Social learning is a type of operant conditioning, and the underlying mechanisms are similar.

25. Modeling and Imitation We learn much by observing other people’s actions and their consequences. Reasons for imitation include: Other people’s behavior often provides information. Other people’s behavior establishes a norm or rule. Imitation occurs automatically in some cases.

26. Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment Vicarious reinforcement (or vicarious punishment ) – a response to an observed reinforcement or punishment as if it has happened to yourself Vicarious reinforcement works better than vicarious punishment, largely because most people do not identify with someone who failed or received punishment.

27. Self-Efficacy in Social Learning You imitate someone else’s behavior only if you have a sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy – the belief of being able to perform a task successfully

28. Self-Reinforcement and Self-Punishment Once people have decided to try to imitate a certain behavior, they set goals for themselves and sometimes provide their own reinforcements.