LECT 4. LEARNING.BEHAVIORAL SCINCES AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
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Sep 14, 2025
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About This Presentation
All these are about behavioral sciences and communication skills which can help both patient and health care provider when managing the cases
Slide Content
LEARNING
and LEARNING THEORIES
MRS TAFADZWA
and LEARNING THEORIES
MRS TAFADZWA
UNIT OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Define learning
2. Explain the forms of learning
3. Describe the problems of learning
4.Identify factors that promote learn
5. Describe the theories of learning
6.Discuss the concept of memory
7.Explain the concepts of remembering and forgetting
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. Define learning
2. Explain the forms of learning
3. Describe the problems of learning
4.Identify factors that promote learn
5. Describe the theories of learning
6.Discuss the concept of memory
7.Explain the concepts of remembering and forgetting
DEFINING LEARNING
Learning is acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience or
being taught or through study which should lead to a relative
permanent change in behaviour. It takes place in different settings and
it is a continuous process
Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of acquisition of
knowledge, habits and attitudes.
H.J. Klausmeir (2009) described Learning as a process which leads to
some behavioural change as a result of some experience, training,
observation, activity, etc.
Different ways in which learning can take place have been identified
These include: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social
cognition, cognitive .and habituation
Learning is acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience or
being taught or through study which should lead to a relative
permanent change in behaviour. It takes place in different settings and
it is a continuous process
Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of acquisition of
knowledge, habits and attitudes.
H.J. Klausmeir (2009) described Learning as a process which leads to
some behavioural change as a result of some experience, training,
observation, activity, etc.
Different ways in which learning can take place have been identified
These include: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social
cognition, cognitive .and habituation
The key characteristics of the learning
process are
The process of learning is concerned about experience
acquisition, retention of experiences, and experience
development in a step by step manner, synthesis of both
old and new experiences for creating a new pattern.
Learning is concerned about cognitive, conative and
affective aspects. Knowledge acquisition process is
cognitive, any change in the emotions is affective and
conative is acquisition of new habits or skills
process are
The process of learning is concerned about experience
acquisition, retention of experiences, and experience
development in a step by step manner, synthesis of both
old and new experiences for creating a new pattern.
Learning is concerned about cognitive, conative and
affective aspects. Knowledge acquisition process is
cognitive, any change in the emotions is affective and
conative is acquisition of new habits or skills
Leaning theories /approaches
1.Classical conditioning
2.Operant conditioning
3.Cognitive learning
4.Social learning theory
1.Classical conditioning
2.Operant conditioning
3.Cognitive learning
4.Social learning theory
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
This is a form of learning that involves forming of associations
between two events by repeatedly having them occur
together
This theory was demonstrated by a Russian physiologist by the
name of Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate in
response to a stimulus such as a bell if it paired repeatedly
with serving of food
If the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without
being paired with food, the strength of the response will
weaken.
This is a form of learning that involves forming of associations
between two events by repeatedly having them occur
together
This theory was demonstrated by a Russian physiologist by the
name of Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate in
response to a stimulus such as a bell if it paired repeatedly
with serving of food
If the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without
being paired with food, the strength of the response will
weaken.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
The food in this context is the unconditioned stimulus and
the bell the conditioned stimulus
For the learned behaviour to persist, the association
should be reinforced. Human beings can learn using this
theory by forming associations.
The food in this context is the unconditioned stimulus and
the bell the conditioned stimulus
For the learned behaviour to persist, the association
should be reinforced. Human beings can learn using this
theory by forming associations.
Process of Classical Conditioning
Components of
Classical Conditioning
US -Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a response
without training
CS-Conditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a response because
it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
UR- Unconditioned response: An innate response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus; usually either a reflex or an emotional response
CR-Conditioned response: Term used to refer to a reflex response
after learning has occurred to elicit the response by a conditioned
stimulus
Classical Conditioning
US -Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a response
without training
CS-Conditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a response because
it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
UR- Unconditioned response: An innate response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus; usually either a reflex or an emotional response
CR-Conditioned response: Term used to refer to a reflex response
after learning has occurred to elicit the response by a conditioned
stimulus
Stimulus and responses
There are two different stimuli:
• the unconditioned stimulus, which elicits the response reflexively,
without an training [the smell of food]
• the conditioned stimulus, which can only elicit the response after
training [the sound of the bell]
There is only one response [salivation]. What the response is called
depends on which stimulus elicited it:
• It is the unconditioned response when elicited by the unconditioned
stimulus [the smell of food]
• It is the conditioned response when elicited by the conditioned
stimulus [the sound of the bell]
There are two different stimuli:
• the unconditioned stimulus, which elicits the response reflexively,
without an training [the smell of food]
• the conditioned stimulus, which can only elicit the response after
training [the sound of the bell]
There is only one response [salivation]. What the response is called
depends on which stimulus elicited it:
• It is the unconditioned response when elicited by the unconditioned
stimulus [the smell of food]
• It is the conditioned response when elicited by the conditioned
stimulus [the sound of the bell]
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Acquisition: A neutral stimulus through association acquires ability to
elicit the conditioned response.
Extinction: If you establish a conditioned response for a long time, the
conditioned response will stop or will go into extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery: The return of the previously extinct
conditioned response.
Stimulus Generalization: Occurs when a conditioned response that
has been associated with a particular stimulus is generalized to other
stimulus, for instance, a different bell.
Stimulus discrimination: The opposite of stimulus generalization. The
animal is able to differentiate the bell.
CONDITIONING
Acquisition: A neutral stimulus through association acquires ability to
elicit the conditioned response.
Extinction: If you establish a conditioned response for a long time, the
conditioned response will stop or will go into extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery: The return of the previously extinct
conditioned response.
Stimulus Generalization: Occurs when a conditioned response that
has been associated with a particular stimulus is generalized to other
stimulus, for instance, a different bell.
Stimulus discrimination: The opposite of stimulus generalization. The
animal is able to differentiate the bell.
Application Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning plays a role in emotional reactions
like fear. Some of these include;
Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific
situation or object (e.g., arachnophobia (fear of spiders; see
the movie!))
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Learned
emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus
Desensitization: Exposing phobic people gradually to
feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed
Classical conditioning plays a role in emotional reactions
like fear. Some of these include;
Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific
situation or object (e.g., arachnophobia (fear of spiders; see
the movie!))
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Learned
emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus
Desensitization: Exposing phobic people gradually to
feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed
Application Classical Conditioning
This theory can be used in treating human beings with
unwanted behaviour e.g. excessive drinking.
Conditioning can be used to treat individual with behavioural
disorders e.g. an individual who smokes excessively and
expresses desire to stop can be helped by the principle of
forming associations
A cigarette can be given to the smoker and an electric shock is
used every time a cigarette is given. Pairing cigarette smoking
and electric shock will result in forming associations.
Even when a cigarette is given without introducing an electric
shock, a smoker will feel as though an electric shock will
accompany and will quit smoking.
This theory can be used in treating human beings with
unwanted behaviour e.g. excessive drinking.
Conditioning can be used to treat individual with behavioural
disorders e.g. an individual who smokes excessively and
expresses desire to stop can be helped by the principle of
forming associations
A cigarette can be given to the smoker and an electric shock is
used every time a cigarette is given. Pairing cigarette smoking
and electric shock will result in forming associations.
Even when a cigarette is given without introducing an electric
shock, a smoker will feel as though an electric shock will
accompany and will quit smoking.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
(INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING)
It is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or
controlled by its consequences.
Behaviour is reinforced or diminished by reward
For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the
candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove
This type of learning is also called Instrumental
Conditioning;
It is called operant conditioning because the organism has
to operate on the environment before the reward.
(INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING)
It is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or
controlled by its consequences.
Behaviour is reinforced or diminished by reward
For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the
candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove
This type of learning is also called Instrumental
Conditioning;
It is called operant conditioning because the organism has
to operate on the environment before the reward.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
(INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING)
It is learning based on the consequences of responding; we
associate responses with their consequences
The concept of operant conditioning was first developed by E.L.
Thorndike and improved by B.F. Skinner
However, Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant
Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of
effect.
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect-
Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated
(i.e. strengthened);
(INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING)
It is learning based on the consequences of responding; we
associate responses with their consequences
The concept of operant conditioning was first developed by E.L.
Thorndike and improved by B.F. Skinner
However, Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant
Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of
effect.
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect-
Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated
(i.e. strengthened);
OPERANT CONDITIONING
(INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING)
Behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
extinguished (i.e. weakened).
Skinner believed that the best way to understand
behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences.
He called this approach operant conditioning.
it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of
reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
(INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING)
Behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
extinguished (i.e. weakened).
Skinner believed that the best way to understand
behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences.
He called this approach operant conditioning.
it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of
reinforcement which is given after the desired response.
Components of operant conditioning
Reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement
It is a consequence that increases the probability that a
response will occur again (strengthens the behavior)
reinforcers can be positive or negative
Positive reinforcement
Positive stimuli that act to reward a behaviour .Positive
reinforcement works by presenting a motivating/reinforcing
stimulus to the person after the desired behavior is
exhibited, making the behavior more likely to happen in the
future.
Reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement
It is a consequence that increases the probability that a
response will occur again (strengthens the behavior)
reinforcers can be positive or negative
Positive reinforcement
Positive stimuli that act to reward a behaviour .Positive
reinforcement works by presenting a motivating/reinforcing
stimulus to the person after the desired behavior is
exhibited, making the behavior more likely to happen in the
future.
Components of operant conditioning
The following are some examples of positive
reinforcement:
A mother gives her son praise (positive stimulus) for doing
homework (behavior).
The little boy receives K100 (positive stimulus) for every A
grade he earns on his report card (behavior).
A father gives his daughter candy (positive stimulus) for
cleaning up toys (behavior).
The following are some examples of positive
reinforcement:
A mother gives her son praise (positive stimulus) for doing
homework (behavior).
The little boy receives K100 (positive stimulus) for every A
grade he earns on his report card (behavior).
A father gives his daughter candy (positive stimulus) for
cleaning up toys (behavior).
Components of operant conditioning
2. Negative Reinforcers
Removal of an unpleasant stimuli
When a certain stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) is removed
after a particular behavior is exhibited, the likelihood of the
particular behavior occurring again in the future is increased
because of removing/avoiding the negative consequence.
The word “negative” is incorporated to this because it is done by
subtracting something
2. Negative Reinforcers
Removal of an unpleasant stimuli
When a certain stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) is removed
after a particular behavior is exhibited, the likelihood of the
particular behavior occurring again in the future is increased
because of removing/avoiding the negative consequence.
The word “negative” is incorporated to this because it is done by
subtracting something
Components of operant Conditioning
The following are some examples of negative
reinforcement:
1. Mary washes the dishes (behavior) in order to avoid his
mother nagging (negative stimulus).
2. The teacher can eliminate early mental mathematics if
students are performing well in class.
Negative reinforcement should not be thought of as a
punishment procedure. With negative reinforcement, you
are increasing a behavior, whereas with punishment, you
are decreasing a behavior.
The following are some examples of negative
reinforcement:
1. Mary washes the dishes (behavior) in order to avoid his
mother nagging (negative stimulus).
2. The teacher can eliminate early mental mathematics if
students are performing well in class.
Negative reinforcement should not be thought of as a
punishment procedure. With negative reinforcement, you
are increasing a behavior, whereas with punishment, you
are decreasing a behavior.
3. Schedules of Reinforcement
Components of Operant conditioning
4. Punishment
Punishment is defined as “the authoritative imposition of something
undesirable or unpleasant on, or the removal of something desirable
or pleasant from, a person, animal, organization or entity in response
to behavior deemed unacceptable by an individual, group or other
entity”.
There are 2 types of punishment
Positive punishment and negative punishment
Positive punishment is when you apply an unfavourable event or
action to weaken behaviour
Negative punishment is withdrawal of favourable event or outcome
4. Punishment
Punishment is defined as “the authoritative imposition of something
undesirable or unpleasant on, or the removal of something desirable
or pleasant from, a person, animal, organization or entity in response
to behavior deemed unacceptable by an individual, group or other
entity”.
There are 2 types of punishment
Positive punishment and negative punishment
Positive punishment is when you apply an unfavourable event or
action to weaken behaviour
Negative punishment is withdrawal of favourable event or outcome
Components of Operant conditioning
PUNISHERS: Response from the environment that decrease the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been
affected by reinforces and punishers.
As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and
learnt from their consequences.
PUNISHERS: Response from the environment that decrease the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been
affected by reinforces and punishers.
As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and
learnt from their consequences.
Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior
Shaping An operant conditioning process in which successive
approximations of a behavior are reinforced until the desired
behavior pattern emerges.
Reinforcements
Primary reinforcers -an innately satisfying reinforcing
stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
(food,water, pain relief)
Conditioned or secondary reinforcer- a stimulus that gains its
reinforcing power through its association with a primary
reinforcer. (MONEY)
Delay and size of reinforcement Operant conditioning is
strongest when the delay in receiving a reinforcer is short and
the reinforcer is large
Shaping An operant conditioning process in which successive
approximations of a behavior are reinforced until the desired
behavior pattern emerges.
Reinforcements
Primary reinforcers -an innately satisfying reinforcing
stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
(food,water, pain relief)
Conditioned or secondary reinforcer- a stimulus that gains its
reinforcing power through its association with a primary
reinforcer. (MONEY)
Delay and size of reinforcement Operant conditioning is
strongest when the delay in receiving a reinforcer is short and
the reinforcer is large
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
This is the form of learning that is complex and emphasizes
the use of thought processes in learning (Process of
acquiring knowledge through use of thought processes).
This is far more than just stimulus and response or
imitation.
When using the cognitive approach, an individual is able to
learn very complex things that cannot just be learnt by
conditioning.
In this theory learning is achieved through understanding.
It involves perception, organization and knowledge.
This is the form of learning that is complex and emphasizes
the use of thought processes in learning (Process of
acquiring knowledge through use of thought processes).
This is far more than just stimulus and response or
imitation.
When using the cognitive approach, an individual is able to
learn very complex things that cannot just be learnt by
conditioning.
In this theory learning is achieved through understanding.
It involves perception, organization and knowledge.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
Cognitive learning emphasizes on what we cannot observe
such as thinking and memory. One of the earliest theorists of
cognitive learning was Edward Tolman in the 1930s.
He believed that cognitive processes play an important role in
learning. He believed that behaviour is goal directed and can
be modified.
Organism expects particular out-comes to follow specific
behaviours.
Tolman emphasized the fact that organisms learn
relationships between stimuli rather than responses.
Cognitive learning emphasizes on what we cannot observe
such as thinking and memory. One of the earliest theorists of
cognitive learning was Edward Tolman in the 1930s.
He believed that cognitive processes play an important role in
learning. He believed that behaviour is goal directed and can
be modified.
Organism expects particular out-comes to follow specific
behaviours.
Tolman emphasized the fact that organisms learn
relationships between stimuli rather than responses.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
A behaviour is always directed towards a certain goal.
In a typical experiment, he worked on rats to find out how
they would learn using cognition.
He put three groups of rats in a maze.
The first group always found food at the end of the maze,
the 2
nd
group never found food at the end of the maze and
the 3
rd
group never found food for 10 days but on the
eleventh day, Tolman wanted to see if the 3
rd
group would
learn quickly.
A behaviour is always directed towards a certain goal.
In a typical experiment, he worked on rats to find out how
they would learn using cognition.
He put three groups of rats in a maze.
The first group always found food at the end of the maze,
the 2
nd
group never found food at the end of the maze and
the 3
rd
group never found food for 10 days but on the
eleventh day, Tolman wanted to see if the 3
rd
group would
learn quickly.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
He wanted to see if the 3
rd
group had learnt their way
through the maze.
The 1
st
group went straight because they found food always
and the 2
nd
group never went to the maze because it was
of no use, they never found food and later learnt to go
straight to the end of the maze where food was found.
Tolman and Honzik interpreted these data to mean that
learning could take place in the absence of any
reinforcement
He wanted to see if the 3
rd
group had learnt their way
through the maze.
The 1
st
group went straight because they found food always
and the 2
nd
group never went to the maze because it was
of no use, they never found food and later learnt to go
straight to the end of the maze where food was found.
Tolman and Honzik interpreted these data to mean that
learning could take place in the absence of any
reinforcement
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent(visible) until there is
some reason to demonstrate it
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For
example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned
a cognitive map of it. (Tolman)
Over justification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already
likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than the
intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent(visible) until there is
some reason to demonstrate it
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For
example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned
a cognitive map of it. (Tolman)
Over justification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already
likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than the
intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
Other cognitive processes in learning
Learned Helplessness
Occurs when an organism believes that behaviors are not
related to consequences
When people’s past experience leads them to believe
that nothing they can do will change their lives, they
tend to stop trying. eg a child who is always beaten for
wrong doing can stop crying when they being beaten
Insight
The sudden grasp of new relationships that are necessary
to solve a problem and that were not learned in the past.
Kohler’s studies of chimpanzee problem-solving
Learned Helplessness
Occurs when an organism believes that behaviors are not
related to consequences
When people’s past experience leads them to believe
that nothing they can do will change their lives, they
tend to stop trying. eg a child who is always beaten for
wrong doing can stop crying when they being beaten
Insight
The sudden grasp of new relationships that are necessary
to solve a problem and that were not learned in the past.
Kohler’s studies of chimpanzee problem-solving
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY / SOCIAL
COGNITION (LEARNING BY OBSERVATION)
The proponents of social learning theory were Dollard and
Miller in 1950 and later developed by Albert Bandura in
the 1960s
This is a form of learning that is done by imitating what
others are doing. The person who is being imitated may be
a role model in the society or an expert in a given field.
A son can imitate the father and learn a lot through
imitation.
COGNITION (LEARNING BY OBSERVATION)
The proponents of social learning theory were Dollard and
Miller in 1950 and later developed by Albert Bandura in
the 1960s
This is a form of learning that is done by imitating what
others are doing. The person who is being imitated may be
a role model in the society or an expert in a given field.
A son can imitate the father and learn a lot through
imitation.
Social learning theory/social cognition
Observation learning is very important in all daily lives,
you learn from other peoples’ experience and your
behaviour impacts on others.
Bandura said that children learn more when they observe
people they respect like parents and teachers.
These people, he called them models and so this kind of
learning can also be called modeling.
He acknowledges that learning by operant classical
conditioning will not be sufficient for human beings
Observation learning is very important in all daily lives,
you learn from other peoples’ experience and your
behaviour impacts on others.
Bandura said that children learn more when they observe
people they respect like parents and teachers.
These people, he called them models and so this kind of
learning can also be called modeling.
He acknowledges that learning by operant classical
conditioning will not be sufficient for human beings
Principles of social learning
Social cognition
Reciprocal determinism
Observational learning
Self efficacy
Self regulation
Social cognition
Reciprocal determinism
Observational learning
Self efficacy
Self regulation
• Context
• Beliefs
There is a similar relationship between:
• Piaget and Information Processing
• Vygotsky and Social Cognition
Bandura proposed two factors as the major
components of relatively permanent change:
1. Social Cognition
• Beliefs
There is a similar relationship between:
• Piaget and Information Processing
• Vygotsky and Social Cognition
Bandura proposed two factors as the major
components of relatively permanent change:
1. Social Cognition
Bandura developed the concept of reciprocal determinism to
account for human behavior.
OVERT BEHAVIOR
PERSONAL
FACTORS
ENVIRONMENT
2. Reciprocal determinism
account for human behavior.
OVERT BEHAVIOR
PERSONAL
FACTORS
ENVIRONMENT
2. Reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura believes that human beings have
specific abilities and that only reciprocal
determinism can explain their operation and
interaction:
•
Model and imitate
•
Regulate own behavior
• Self-reflect
Bandura believes that human beings have
specific abilities and that only reciprocal
determinism can explain their operation and
interaction:
•
Model and imitate
•
Regulate own behavior
• Self-reflect
Observational Learning
Bandura’s earlier work on observational learning set the stage for his
work in social cognition.
Observational (or social) learning proposed two primary modes of
learning: Modelling and imitation
Modelling it is a way behaviour is learned through imitation
A person who one imitate from is called a model.
Actions presented by a model are called modelling cues
There are 2 types of models
Live models(physical people) and
symbolic models( characters from media, books and stories)
Bandura’s earlier work on observational learning set the stage for his
work in social cognition.
Observational (or social) learning proposed two primary modes of
learning: Modelling and imitation
Modelling it is a way behaviour is learned through imitation
A person who one imitate from is called a model.
Actions presented by a model are called modelling cues
There are 2 types of models
Live models(physical people) and
symbolic models( characters from media, books and stories)
Observational Learning
Imitation
imitation it is the reproduction of an act stimulated by
perceiving a similar act by another.
There are 4 types of imitation
1. Direct imitation: reproducing the actual behaviour of
a model
2. Indirect imitation: Reproducing the same type of
behaviour eg being generous
3. Direct counter imitation: producing behaviour which
is the opposite of the behaviour of the model
4. Indirect counter imitation: behaviour which is
opposing the sense of behaviour of the model
Imitation
imitation it is the reproduction of an act stimulated by
perceiving a similar act by another.
There are 4 types of imitation
1. Direct imitation: reproducing the actual behaviour of
a model
2. Indirect imitation: Reproducing the same type of
behaviour eg being generous
3. Direct counter imitation: producing behaviour which
is the opposite of the behaviour of the model
4. Indirect counter imitation: behaviour which is
opposing the sense of behaviour of the model
Observational Learning
Bandura hypothesized a four-step pattern that combined a cognitive
and operant view of learning.
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Remembers what was noticed
Produces an action that is a copy of what was
noticed
Consequence changes the probability the behavior
will be emitted again
Notices something in the environment
Bandura hypothesized a four-step pattern that combined a cognitive
and operant view of learning.
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Remembers what was noticed
Produces an action that is a copy of what was
noticed
Consequence changes the probability the behavior
will be emitted again
Notices something in the environment
Observational Learning
In a set of well-known experiments, called the "Bobo doll" studies,
Bandura showed that children (ages 3 to 6) would change their
behavior by simply watching others.
He observed three different groups of children:
One group of children saw the child praised for aggressive behavior
A second group saw the child told to go sit down in a corner and was
not allowed to play with the toys A third group saw a film with the
child simply walking out of the room
Bandura and his colleagues also demonstrated that viewing
aggression by cartoon characters produces more aggressive behavior
than viewing live or filmed aggressive behavior by adults.
Additionally, they demonstrated that having children view prosocial
behavior can reduce displays of aggressive behavior
In a set of well-known experiments, called the "Bobo doll" studies,
Bandura showed that children (ages 3 to 6) would change their
behavior by simply watching others.
He observed three different groups of children:
One group of children saw the child praised for aggressive behavior
A second group saw the child told to go sit down in a corner and was
not allowed to play with the toys A third group saw a film with the
child simply walking out of the room
Bandura and his colleagues also demonstrated that viewing
aggression by cartoon characters produces more aggressive behavior
than viewing live or filmed aggressive behavior by adults.
Additionally, they demonstrated that having children view prosocial
behavior can reduce displays of aggressive behavior
Observational Learning
Self-Efficacy
Self efficacy is Self-reflection is a second human quality and is
expressed in the concept of self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the sources of action required to manage prospective
situations.” (Bandura, 1986)
Self-efficacy impacts
1.The choices we make
2. The effort we put
3. long we persist when we confront obstacles (especially in the face of
failure)
4.How we feel about ourselves, others, the task, etc.
Self efficacy is Self-reflection is a second human quality and is
expressed in the concept of self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the sources of action required to manage prospective
situations.” (Bandura, 1986)
Self-efficacy impacts
1.The choices we make
2. The effort we put
3. long we persist when we confront obstacles (especially in the face of
failure)
4.How we feel about ourselves, others, the task, etc.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is influenced by:
•Mastery experiences
• Vicarious experiences
• Social persuasions
• Physiological states
Self-efficacy is influenced by:
•Mastery experiences
• Vicarious experiences
• Social persuasions
• Physiological states
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation is a third human capability and has several
subfunctions:
•Self-observation and monitoring
• Performance judgment and evaluation
• Self-reaction (e.g., self-satisfaction, self-worth, distress)
•Goal-setting
Self-regulation is a third human capability and has several
subfunctions:
•Self-observation and monitoring
• Performance judgment and evaluation
• Self-reaction (e.g., self-satisfaction, self-worth, distress)
•Goal-setting
BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Neural System of Learning
The theory focuses on the changes that occur in the nervous
system of organisms involved in the learning process.
It has been suggested that certain areas of the brain are
involved in language acquisition and memory..
Neural System of Learning
The theory focuses on the changes that occur in the nervous
system of organisms involved in the learning process.
It has been suggested that certain areas of the brain are
involved in language acquisition and memory..
BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Neural System of Learning
Recent research has shown that the N-Methyl-D-Asparate
(NMDA) receptors found in the hippocampus are
responsible for learning
It has also been established that the critical part of the
brain that is involved in learning to be fearful is the
amygdala
Studies have shown that rats whose amygdala have been
removed show fewer signs of fear
Neural System of Learning
Recent research has shown that the N-Methyl-D-Asparate
(NMDA) receptors found in the hippocampus are
responsible for learning
It has also been established that the critical part of the
brain that is involved in learning to be fearful is the
amygdala
Studies have shown that rats whose amygdala have been
removed show fewer signs of fear
BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Neural System of Learning
In humans, patient who had a rare disease (Urbach-
Wiethe) that results in degeneration of the amygdala
when exposed to fear conditioning situations showed no
signs of fear but could clearly recall the conditioning
events
In contrast another patient who had a normal amygdala
but had the part of the brain responsible for factual
information removed expressed fear when exposed to fear
conditioning situations but could not recall the details of
the conditioning events
Neural System of Learning
In humans, patient who had a rare disease (Urbach-
Wiethe) that results in degeneration of the amygdala
when exposed to fear conditioning situations showed no
signs of fear but could clearly recall the conditioning
events
In contrast another patient who had a normal amygdala
but had the part of the brain responsible for factual
information removed expressed fear when exposed to fear
conditioning situations but could not recall the details of
the conditioning events
Other forms of learning
Trial and Error
Habituation
Trial and Error
Habituation
TRIAL AND ERROR
This is the form learning that occurs in a situation where an
individual initially does not know what is to be done to
perform a certain task. A person will for example try to
operate a given gadget by trying different methods.
Eventually, he will discover the right method of operating
the gadget and eventually adopts this method as a way of
operating the gadget.
Trial and error is common in practical skills e.g. a number
of things that we learn in operating a computer may be
through trial and error.
This is the form learning that occurs in a situation where an
individual initially does not know what is to be done to
perform a certain task. A person will for example try to
operate a given gadget by trying different methods.
Eventually, he will discover the right method of operating
the gadget and eventually adopts this method as a way of
operating the gadget.
Trial and error is common in practical skills e.g. a number
of things that we learn in operating a computer may be
through trial and error.
HABITUATION AS WAY OF LEARNING
Habituation is a basic form of respondent learning, in
which there is a decrease in the strength of a given action
after repeated presentation of a stimulus that elicits the
response.
In principle, any elicited response can habituate, but in
practice it most often occurs to autonomic physiological
responses.
E.g., startle responses, sympathetic arousal, orienting
response, etc
Habituation is a basic form of respondent learning, in
which there is a decrease in the strength of a given action
after repeated presentation of a stimulus that elicits the
response.
In principle, any elicited response can habituate, but in
practice it most often occurs to autonomic physiological
responses.
E.g., startle responses, sympathetic arousal, orienting
response, etc
Habituation may explain some of our
thrill-seeking behaviors.
Enjoying activities like roller coaster rides, horror
movies, & the like….
As a society, we keep “upping the ante” on the thrills
we seek from rides, movies, etc., possibly because we
habituate to the ones we have already experienced.
For example, we release dopamine each time we
experience something pleasurable. This is the rush we
feel when we fall in love, ride a coaster, or see a new
scary horror movie. However, with time, less
dopamine is released during these activities & we look
for new ways to get the same dopamine (feeling)
release.
thrill-seeking behaviors.
Enjoying activities like roller coaster rides, horror
movies, & the like….
As a society, we keep “upping the ante” on the thrills
we seek from rides, movies, etc., possibly because we
habituate to the ones we have already experienced.
For example, we release dopamine each time we
experience something pleasurable. This is the rush we
feel when we fall in love, ride a coaster, or see a new
scary horror movie. However, with time, less
dopamine is released during these activities & we look
for new ways to get the same dopamine (feeling)
release.
Habituation is also a positive process in
treating some forms of psychopathology.
Phobias, a type of anxiety disorder, involves the
irrational fear of an object, event, or situation.(e.g.,
fear of snakes, spiders, public speaking).
Flooding therapy—which involves full blown exposure
to the feared stimulus, relies on the principle that
our sympathetic nervous system will habituate over
time, thereby allowing us to “experience” less
autonomic arousal to the feared stimulus. Thus, we
behaviorally treat the disorder using the principle of
habituation.
treating some forms of psychopathology.
Phobias, a type of anxiety disorder, involves the
irrational fear of an object, event, or situation.(e.g.,
fear of snakes, spiders, public speaking).
Flooding therapy—which involves full blown exposure
to the feared stimulus, relies on the principle that
our sympathetic nervous system will habituate over
time, thereby allowing us to “experience” less
autonomic arousal to the feared stimulus. Thus, we
behaviorally treat the disorder using the principle of
habituation.
Habituation is Stimulus specific
If we habituate to gunfire shots, we should still show a startle
response to a door slam.
An infant that stops turning its head towards a speaker playing
the same word (ball), should moves its head when a new word
is presented.
Since we are constantly exposed to a variety of stimuli in our
environments, some of these dangerous, others benign. We
need to distinguish which stimuli are dangerous from others
that are insignificant. Being continually startled or distracted
by the same stimulus would deplete our energy and make it
difficult for us to attend to the “important” stimuli in our
environments.
If we habituate to gunfire shots, we should still show a startle
response to a door slam.
An infant that stops turning its head towards a speaker playing
the same word (ball), should moves its head when a new word
is presented.
Since we are constantly exposed to a variety of stimuli in our
environments, some of these dangerous, others benign. We
need to distinguish which stimuli are dangerous from others
that are insignificant. Being continually startled or distracted
by the same stimulus would deplete our energy and make it
difficult for us to attend to the “important” stimuli in our
environments.
Habituation is Stimulus specific
If we habituate to gunfire shots, we should still show
a startle response to a door slam.
An infant that stops turning its head towards a
speaker playing the same word (ball), should moves
its head when a new word is presented.
Since we are constantly exposed to a variety of
stimuli in our environments, some of these
dangerous, others benign. We need to distinguish
which stimuli are dangerous from others that are
insignificant. Being continually startled or
distracted by the same stimulus would deplete our
energy and make it difficult for us to attend to the
“important” stimuli in our environments.
If we habituate to gunfire shots, we should still show
a startle response to a door slam.
An infant that stops turning its head towards a
speaker playing the same word (ball), should moves
its head when a new word is presented.
Since we are constantly exposed to a variety of
stimuli in our environments, some of these
dangerous, others benign. We need to distinguish
which stimuli are dangerous from others that are
insignificant. Being continually startled or
distracted by the same stimulus would deplete our
energy and make it difficult for us to attend to the
“important” stimuli in our environments.
Why is habituation important in
development?
1. Habituation is an early form of learning that is
adaptive for children to acquire for normal development.
We need to learn to selectively attend to information that
is important and to ignore information that isn’t.
2. Habituation serves as a useful paradigm for
understanding early infant development.
development?
1. Habituation is an early form of learning that is
adaptive for children to acquire for normal development.
We need to learn to selectively attend to information that
is important and to ignore information that isn’t.
2. Habituation serves as a useful paradigm for
understanding early infant development.
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
Reward: A reward is a positive reinforcement which is key
to learning.
Feedback or knowledge of results: If one is provided
with knowledge or feedback, the efficiency is increased.
Distribution of practice. The length of the practice
session and distribution of rest period affect the learning
process to a greater a extent
Whole and part: If one has to learn the entire lesson, it is
easier to learn it in parts than as a whole.
Interest and attitude: Learning is faster if one is
interested in the material or skill to be learnt.
Reward: A reward is a positive reinforcement which is key
to learning.
Feedback or knowledge of results: If one is provided
with knowledge or feedback, the efficiency is increased.
Distribution of practice. The length of the practice
session and distribution of rest period affect the learning
process to a greater a extent
Whole and part: If one has to learn the entire lesson, it is
easier to learn it in parts than as a whole.
Interest and attitude: Learning is faster if one is
interested in the material or skill to be learnt.
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
Attitude
Another important determinant of effective learning is the
learner’s attitude towards the material to be learned
Motivation:
A learner with high motivation tends to make more responses
than a learner with a weak motivation.
Attitude
Another important determinant of effective learning is the
learner’s attitude towards the material to be learned
Motivation:
A learner with high motivation tends to make more responses
than a learner with a weak motivation.
Common Problems Associated With
Learning
DYSLEXIA: These are functional limitation in reading
DYSGRAPHIA: Difficult with physical act of writing
DYSCALCULIA: Difficulties with calculations
LANGUAGE DEFICIT: Difficulties in expressing oneself verbally
AUDITORY DEFICIT: Difficulties in processing information through the sense of
hearing
SPATIAL ORGANIZATION DIFFICULTIES: Difficulties in perceiving dimensions of
space
ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER: Difficulties in concentrating for extended period
of time.
Learning
DYSLEXIA: These are functional limitation in reading
DYSGRAPHIA: Difficult with physical act of writing
DYSCALCULIA: Difficulties with calculations
LANGUAGE DEFICIT: Difficulties in expressing oneself verbally
AUDITORY DEFICIT: Difficulties in processing information through the sense of
hearing
SPATIAL ORGANIZATION DIFFICULTIES: Difficulties in perceiving dimensions of
space
ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER: Difficulties in concentrating for extended period
of time.
Common Problems Associated With
Learning
MEMORY DEFICIT: Trouble with remembering facts or what has
transpired during the learning process
ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVE DISORDER: Difficulties in
concentrating for extended period of time together with high level of
excitability and impulsivity
ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVE DISORDER: Difficulties in
concentrating for extended period of time together with high level of
excitability and impulsivity
SOCIAL SKILLS DEFICIT:
Difficulties in understanding elements of social interaction, eg children
with Autism
Learning
MEMORY DEFICIT: Trouble with remembering facts or what has
transpired during the learning process
ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVE DISORDER: Difficulties in
concentrating for extended period of time together with high level of
excitability and impulsivity
ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVE DISORDER: Difficulties in
concentrating for extended period of time together with high level of
excitability and impulsivity
SOCIAL SKILLS DEFICIT:
Difficulties in understanding elements of social interaction, eg children
with Autism
Application of Learning Approaches
Taste aversion: a classically conditioned dislike for and
avoidance of a particular food that develops when an
individual becomes ill or experiences discomfort after eating
the food
Aversive conditioning- repeatedly pairing aversive stimulus
with behaviour.e.g. therapy for problem drinking, cigarette
smoking
Conditioning of physiological responses (Ader and Cohen-
conditioning of immune response)
Conditioning of emotional responses (Watson’s experiment)
Systematic desensitization- a type of behaviour therapy in
which phobic responses are reduced by pairing relaxation
with a series of mental images or real-life situation that the
person finds more fear- provoking
Taste aversion: a classically conditioned dislike for and
avoidance of a particular food that develops when an
individual becomes ill or experiences discomfort after eating
the food
Aversive conditioning- repeatedly pairing aversive stimulus
with behaviour.e.g. therapy for problem drinking, cigarette
smoking
Conditioning of physiological responses (Ader and Cohen-
conditioning of immune response)
Conditioning of emotional responses (Watson’s experiment)
Systematic desensitization- a type of behaviour therapy in
which phobic responses are reduced by pairing relaxation
with a series of mental images or real-life situation that the
person finds more fear- provoking
Application of Learning Approaches
•Bell and pad treatment -behaviour therapy technique
used to treat nighttime bed wetting by conditioning
arousal from sleep in response to bodily signs of full
bladder
•Token economies- therapeutic environment is structured
to reward desired behaviour with tokens or points that
may later be exchanged for tangible rewards
•Shaping- selectively reinforcing successive closer
approximations to goal behaviour until goal behaviour is
displayed
•Role models- use of models to demonstrate required
behaviour
•Learned helplessness-exposure to inescapable and
uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behaviour
•Bell and pad treatment -behaviour therapy technique
used to treat nighttime bed wetting by conditioning
arousal from sleep in response to bodily signs of full
bladder
•Token economies- therapeutic environment is structured
to reward desired behaviour with tokens or points that
may later be exchanged for tangible rewards
•Shaping- selectively reinforcing successive closer
approximations to goal behaviour until goal behaviour is
displayed
•Role models- use of models to demonstrate required
behaviour
•Learned helplessness-exposure to inescapable and
uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behaviour
Other applications
Improving self control (Application)
Commitment and recommitment
Self-reinforcement
Stimulus-control
Focus on delayed rein forcer
Observe good role models
Improving self control (Application)
Commitment and recommitment
Self-reinforcement
Stimulus-control
Focus on delayed rein forcer
Observe good role models
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