Memory and Cognition Unit PPT AP Psychology.ppt

AP pschology slides on memory and cognitive science

1. Psychology
Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)
Essential Task 2-1:
Describe the information processing model of memory with specific attention to the
following steps:
- Encoding: external stimuli, sensory registers, selective attention, reticular formation,
short-term memory
- Storage: long-term memory, explicit memory (semantic and episodic memories) and
implicit memories (emotional and procedural memories)
- Retrieval

2. A
t
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n
t
i
o
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All the rest
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
gone
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
1. Encoding
3. Retrieval
2. Storage
Information Processing
Model
We are
here

3. Essential Task 2-1:
•Define memory
•Describe the Information Processing Model or
IPM for short
–Encoding:
•external stimuli
•sensory registers
•selective attention
•reticular formation
•short-term memory
–Storage:
•long-term memory,
–explicit memory (semantic and episodic memories)
–implicit memories (emotional and procedural memories)
–Retrieval
Outline

4. Memory
•The ability to remember things we have
experienced, imagined, or learned
•Memory is often seen as steps in an
information-processing model
–Encoding – (The process of putting
information into digital format.)
–Storage – Hard Drive
–Retrieval – Accessing the Hard Drive
Outline

5. Information Processing Model
Step 1: Encoding (Blue)
Step 2: Storage (Green)
Step 3: Retrieval (Red)
Outline
Atkinson and
Shiffren’s Model

6. A
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n
t
i
o
n
All the rest
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
gone
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
1. Encoding
3. Retrieval
2. Storage
Information Processing
Model

7. Write down the names of the
seven dwarves. Write down
everything that comes to you
mind, even if you don’t think it is
correct.
Outline

8. •Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful, Sleepy,
Smiley, Jumpy, Hopeful, Horney, Shy,
Droopy, Dopey, Sniffy, Wishful, Puffy,
Dumpy, Sneezy, Lazy, Pop, Grumpy,
Bashful, Cheerful, Teach, Shorty, Nifty,
Happy, Doc, Wheezy, and Stubby.
Recognition is easier than recall
Outline

9. A
t
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
All the rest
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
gone
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
1. Encoding
3. Retrieval
2. Storage
Information Processing
Model
Outline

10. IPM
•The IPM works really well to describe effortful
processing.
•It falls apart a bit with things we automatically
process.
–Automatic skills (riding a bike)
–Conditioned associations (bell to get you to go to
your next class).
–Time, space, and frequency.
•Parallel Processing – brain can work on both at
the same time.

11. Sensory registers/Sensory memory
•Sensory registers are the first stop for
all sensory information
•The sensory registers are very large,
but information stays for only a very
short time
Outline

12. Visual and Auditory Registers
•Visual register holds images, or icons, that represent
all aspects of a visual image
–Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual
register
–Iconic Memory
•Auditory register holds echoes of sound
–Echoes can last up to several seconds in the
auditory register
–Echoic Memory
•Why do the auditory registers last longer?
Outline

13. Now let us test your visual registers
•I will flash the next picture for just ¼ of
a second.
•DON’T BLINK
•After the image flashes we’ll return to
a white screen and you can tell me
everything you saw.
Outline

14. Outline

15. Did you pay attention to everything?
Outline

16. Here is another image
•DON’T BLINK
Outline

17. Outline

18. Selective Attention
•You select only certain bits of
information for further processing
from your sensory registers.
•We normally pay attention to only a
SMALL
(PLEASE ENJOY THE IRONIC FONT SELECTION) portion
of incoming information
Outline

19. Encoding
•Definition – bringing sensory
information form the outside world
into your memory system.
•Some information is stored visually
•Research has shown that memory for
visually encoded information is better
than phonologically encoded
information
Outline

20. Reticular Formation
Outline

22. Short-term Memory
•Short-term memory holds information
we are aware of or thinking about at
any given moment
•BUT it is much more. It is also working
memory!
•It’s an active desktop where your brain
processes info, makes sense of new
inputs, and links it to LTM.
Outline

23. Capacity of Short-Term Memory
•Research indicates that STM can hold
7+/- 2 bits of information
•Current research has demonstrated
that STM can hold whatever is
rehearsed in 1.5 to 2 seconds
•Larger amounts of information can be
held by using the process of chunking
Outline

24. Let’s see how good your STM is!
Outline

25. Short Term Memory
•9 7 5 4
•6 8 2 5 9
•9 1 3 8 2 5
•5 9 6 3 8 2 7
•8 6 9 5 1 3 7 2
•7 1 9 3 8 4 2 7 3
•9 1 5 2 4 3 8 1 6 2
•1 5 2 8 4 6 7 3 1 8 9
Outline

26. Chunking Helps
•423-19
•267-198
•390-675-2
•573-291-43
•721-354-456
•245-619-832-2
•141-384-515-89
•201-315-426-762
•This is why I assign the concept maps –
creates chunks
Outline

27. Encoding in Short-Term Memory
•Much information is stored in STM
phonologically (according to how it
sounds)
•Some information is stored visually
•Research has shown that memory for
visually encoded information is better
than phonologically encoded
information
Outline

28. Maintaining STM
•Information can be held in STM by
using rote rehearsal, also called
maintenance rehearsal
•Rote rehearsal involves repeating
information over and over
•This technique is not very effective in
creating long term memories
Outline

29. Long-term Memory
•Everything that is learned is stored in
long-term memory
•Capacity of long-term memory
–Vast amounts of information may be
stored for many years
–No known limits to capacity
Outline

30. Encoding in Long-term Memory
•Most information is encoded in terms
of meaning
•Some information is stored verbatim
•Some information is coded in terms of
nonverbal images
–Research has shown that memory for
visually encoded information is better
than phonologically encoded information
CONCEPT MAPS CREATE A VISUAL!!!!
Outline

31. Types of Long Term Memory 10.23
•Explicit memory
–Episodic Memory
–Semantic Memory
•Implicit memory
–Procedural Memory
–Emotional Memory
@#$!&
@#$!&
Outline

32. Types of Long Term Memory
•Explicit memory
–Memory for information we can readily express and are
aware of having
–This information can be intentionally recalled
–Episodic Memories - Memories for personal events in a specific
time and place
–Semantic Memories - Memory for general facts and concepts
not linked to a specific time
•Implicit memory
–Memory for information that we cannot readily express and
may not be aware of having
–Cannot be intentionally retrieved
Outline

33. Types of Long Term Memory
•Implicit memory
–Memory for information that we cannot readily
express and may not be aware of having
–Cannot be intentionally retrieved
–Procedural memories: Motor skills and
habits
–Emotional memories: Learned emotional
responses to various stimuli
Outline

34. Retrieval
–Bringing information from LTM back to
STM
Outline

35. Psychology
Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)
Essential Task 2-2:
Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage:
encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow
processing, and rote rehearsal
storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link
method
retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference

36. A
t
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
All the rest
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
gone
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
1. Encoding
3. Retrieval
2. Storage
Information Processing
Model
We are
here

37. Essential Task 2-2:
•Improving Encoding
–attention
–chunking
–serial positioning effect
–Schemata and Hierarchy
–deep versus shallow processing
•Improving storage
–decay theory
–spacing effect
–Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal
–Mnemonics like method of loci and link method
•Retrieval
–Retrieval Cues and Priming
–Situational factors
–State dependent
–Allow for Parallel Processing
Outline

38. Improving Encoding
Outline

39. Attention? Pay Attention
•You can consciously decide to pay
attention to something.
•If you don’t pay attention it won’t
enter your STM and never get to your
IPM.
Outline

40. Chunking
•The grouping of information into
meaningful units for easier handling by
short term memory.
•M-S-N-N-A-S-A-C-I-A-C-O-M
Or
•MSN NASA CIA COM
Outline

41. Conduct Inclusive
Memory Activity Now

42. Serial Position Effect
•People tend to recall the first items
(primacy effect) and last items (recency
effect) in a list
•Demonstrates how short- and long-term
memory work together
•Primacy effect reflects long-term memory
•Recency effect reflects short-term
memory
Outline

43. Serial Position Effect
Outline

44. Schemata
•A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about
something based on past experience
•Incoming information is fit with existing schemata
–(concept maps)
•Schemata can also influence the amount of
attention paid to a given event
•Reconstruction
–Memories can be altered with each retrieval
–We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our
environment
Outline

45. Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into
broad concepts and further subdivided into
categories and subcategories.

46. Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy

47. Conduct Processing Activity Now
Outline

48. Deep Versus Shallow Processing
Deep Processing analyzes meaning
Shallow processing does not
OutlineOutline

49. Improving Storage
Outline

50. Decay Theory
•The decay theory argues that the
passage of time causes forgetting.
•The longer information is not accessed,
increases the chances of forgetting it.
Outline

51. Distributed Practice
•Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at
once (massed practice). You can memorize a poem a lot easier if you
break it down into 5 parts over 5 days instead of all at once.
•Use the Testing effect – repeated self-testing. Hence the questions at
the end of our readings.

52. Maintaining Long-Term Memory
•Rote rehearsal
–Repetition can result in long-term
memory
–Only effective if there is intent to learn
material
–Example: What does a penny look like?
Outline

53. Maintaining Long-Term Memory
•Elaborative rehearsal
–Process of relating new information to
information already stored in memory
–Meaning is assigned to new information
and then linked to as much existing
knowledge as possible
–Hence Psych Immersions
Outline

54. Link Method
•First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents
the
 
type of list 
you want to remember. Also include in this
image the first item on the list (see below for example).
This image is your header for the list.
•Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first
item on the list to the second item and so on.
Outline

55. Method of Loci
•In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building,
or the arrangement of shops on a street, or any geographical entity
which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to
remember a set of items the subject literally 'walks' through these loci
and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the
item and any distinguishing feature of that locus.
Outline

56. Improving Retrieval
Outline

57. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
Fire Truck
truck
red
fire
heat
smoke
smell
water
hose

58. Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.

59. Where and when matters
•Situational factors
–Recall of information is better if environment is
the same as when information was learned
•State-dependent memory
–Recall of information is better if person is in the
same physiological state as when information
was learned

60. Parallel Processing
•Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you
can almost recall something, but can’t quite
get it.
•If you leave it your brain will continue to
work on this problem eventually surfacing
with the answer.
•Thus you later yell out the name of the
actor and everyone looks at you like you are
odd.

61. Schemata
•A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about
something based on past experience
•Incoming information is fit with existing schemata
•Schemata can also influence the amount of
attention paid to a given event
•Reconstruction
–Memories can be altered with each retrieval
–We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our
environment
Outline

62. Psychology
Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)
Essential Task 2-3:
Describe the physiological systems of memory with specific
attention to long-term potentiation and the brain regions
where memories are stored.

63. A
t
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
All the rest
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
gone
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
1. Encoding
3. Retrieval
2. Storage
Information Processing
Model

64. Essential Task 2-:
•Physiology of Memory
–Process:
•long-term potentiation
•Stress hormones
–Where: Brain Structures
•Hippocampus
•Where the memories are processed
Outline

65. How are the Memories Stored?
Synaptic Changes
Long-Term
Potentiation (LTP) A
long-lasting change in
the structure or
function of a synapse
that increase the
efficiency of neural
transmission.

66. Explicit Memory System
•Hippocampus: turns STM into LTM
•The
 
hippocampus 
(named after its resemblance to
the
 
seahorse, from the Greek
 
hippos 
meaning
"horse" and
 
kampos 
meaning "sea monster")
•It works as the brain’s “SAVE” button. Holding
onto memories and then permentantly storing
them in other brain regions.

67. Explicit Memory System
•Frontal lobe is your working memory
–Left frontal deals with Language and Logic
–Right frontal is your spatial reasoning

68. Implicit Memory System
•Cerebellum – memories created by
classical conditioning.
•Basal Ganglia – procedural memories

69. Emotions and memory
•Stress hormmones provoke the
Amygdala – fear processing center of
the brain
•It create a memory trace in the frontal
lobe and basal ganglia
•Bakes in emotional memories but
blocks neutral ones.

70. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related
or otherwise) make for stronger
memories.
But . . . extreme stress undermines
learning and later recall
How does this apply to an exam?

71. Where Are Memories Stored?

72. Biological Forgetting Factors
•Damage to the Hippocampus
–Difficulty forming new memories
–Diminished in Alzheimer’s patients
•Neurotransmitters play a role
–Acetylcholine
–Alzheimer’s patients show low levels of this
•Decay theory
–Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time
–Distractor Studies – information fades from STM

73. Psychology
Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)
Essential Task 2-4:Describe specific retrieval
problems (anterograde and retrograde
amnesia, decay theory, proactive and
retroactive interference) and memory
construction errors (misinformation effect,
eyewitness testimonies, and source amnesia)

74. Essential Task 2-4:
•Retrieval problems
–Anterograde amnesia
–Retrograde amnesia
–Decay theory
–Proactive and retroactive interference
•Memory construction errors
–misinformation effect
–eyewitness testimonies
–source amnesia
Outline

75. A
t
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
All the rest
External
Stimuli
Sensory
Registers
gone
Short Term
Memory
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
1. Encoding
3. Retrieval
2. Storage
Information Processing
Model

76. Retrieval Problems

77. Amnesia
•Anterograde Amnesia – you can recall the
past but cannot form new memories
–However H.M. and Jimmie could recall things
they’ve learned through automatic processing.
–Most common for a short period with
concussions
•Retrograde Amnesia is when you can’t
recall past memories stored in LTM

78. Decay Theory
•The decay theory argues that the
passage of time causes forgetting.
•The longer information is not accessed,
increases the chances of forgetting it.
Outline

79. Interference
•Retroactive interference
–Occurs when you are being tested on old
information (hint retro means old) and new
information interferes proper retrieval.
•I know this seems reversed. To get this
correct you must first ask yourself. . . “What
is being tested?”
•If the answer is old information the term
you use is RETROactive Interference
Outline

80. Try remembering the following
number
•8132163
•Ok that was easy because nothing
interfered with you.
Outline

81. Now let’s try some interference
•4982631
•First, consistent with cognitive dissonance theories,
we are able to induce optimism or pessimism with the
initial (random) wage assignment. With respect to the
first-stage task, this implies that we can successfully
manipulate one’s ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly,
subjects who received this low piece-rate in stage one
were willing to accept significantly lower offers in a
second-stage ultimatum game. This finding is striking,
demonstrating the presence of both belief
manipulation and spillovers of those beliefs into
behavioral outcomes in an unrelated and distinct
experimental environment.
Outline

82. Try remembering the following
number
•5614982
Outline

83. Retro-active Interference
•The last two were examples of retro-
active interference
•In each one, it was the OLD (retro)
information that was being tested.
•The last trial was the hardest because
it overloaded your modality.
•What type of music should you listen
to when you write an essay?
Outline

84. Retroactive Interference
Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference.
Therefore, it leads to better recall.
Outline

85. Proactive interference
•Occurs when you are being tested on NEW information
(Latin route for pro meaning in front of as in proceed ) and
old information interferes proper retrieval.
•I know this seems reversed. To get this correct you
must first ask yourself. . . “What is being tested?”
•If the answer is NEW information the term you use
is PROactive Interference
•Psychologists have found that recall of later items
can be improved by making them distinctive from
early items. For example, people being fed groups of
numbers to remember did much better when they
were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is
called release from proactive interference
Outline

86. Which is which?
•You are trying to type in your new
password, but instead you accidently
type in the old password.
•You are writing an essay about WWI on
your final exam but all you can
remember is information about WWII.

87. I need a volunteer that knows
their colors.
•Don’t read the words, just say the
colors they’re printed in and as fast
as you can
•This is called the stroop effect
Outline

88. Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Red
Blue
Yellow
Green
Blue
Red

89. Interference
•When you look at the words you
see both its color and meaning.
•When they are in conflict you must
make a choice
•Experience has taught you that word
meaning is more important than color
so you retrieve that information.
•You are not always in complete
control of what you pay attention to.
Outline

90. Childhood Amnesia
•Generally poor memory for events prior to
age 2-3
•May occur because brain is not fully
developed at birth
–Hippocampus not fully formed until age 2
•May be due to a lack of a clear sense-of-self
in young children
•May be the absence of language

91. Memory Construction

92. Memory is a construct!
•When we remember something, we're taking bits
and pieces of experience - sometimes from
different times and places - and bringing it all
together to construct what might feel like a
recollection but is actually a construction. The
process of calling it into conscious awareness can
change it, and now you're storing something that's
different. We all do this, for example, by
inadvertently adopting a story we've heard.” E
Loftus

93. Eyewitness testimony
•Shown to be unreliable
•People’s recall for events may be influenced
by what they heard or constructed after the
incident
•Memory is reconstructed
•Memories are not stored like snapshots, but
are instead like sketches that are altered
and added to every time they are called up

94. Eyewitness testimony cont’d
•Elizabeth Loftus has shown subjects who are given
false information about an event or scene tend to
incorporate it into their memories, and "recall" the
false information as a part of their original memory
even two weeks later.
•Loftus gives the example of the sniper attacks in the
fall of 2002. "Everybody was looking for a white van
even though the bad guys ended up having a dark
Chevy Caprice." That's because some people
reported seeing a white van at the scene of the
crime. "Witnesses overhear each other," says Loftus,
and police may also unintentionally influence
people's memories when they talk about a crime.

96. Misinformation Effect
•Critics protested that Loftus still hadn't proved the
memories were fake. So she raised the ante. She
persuaded 16 percent of a study population that they
had
 
met Bugs Bunny at Disneyland. In a follow-up
experiment, researchers sold the same memory to 36
percent of subjects.
   This was impossible, since
Bugs
 
belonged to Warner Bros., not Disney. When critics
complained that the Bugs memory wasn't abusive, Loftus
obliged them again. Her team convinced 30 percent of
another group of subjects that on a visit to Disneyland,
 
a
drug-addled Pluto character had licked their ears.

97. Eyewitness testimony
•Study after study has shown that there
is no correlation between the
subjective feeling of certainty one has
about a memory, and the memory’s
accuracy

98. Source Amnesia
•When we attribute a memory to the wrong
source.
•Thinking that something happened to you
instead of reading it in a story.
•Thinking that something you imagined really
happened.
•déjà vu – When your temporal lobe identifies
familiarity but our hippocampus and frontal
lobe can’t come up with specific source.

99. Autobiographical memory
•Recollection of events in our life
•More recent events are easier to recall
•Hyperthymesia 
is the condition of
possessing an extremely
detailed
 autobiographical memory.
Hyperthymesiacs remember an
abnormally vast number of their life
experiences.

100. Eidetic Memory
•Pop culture calls this a photographic
memory
•Usually due to well developed memory
techniques

101. Flashbulb Memories
•Flashbulb memories
–Vivid memories of dramatic event
–May occur because of strong emotional
content

102. Recovered memories
•Involved the recall of long-forgotten
dramatic event
•May be the result of suggestion
•Some evidence that memories can be
repressed and recalled later