Motivation in Psychological Perspective.pdf

This reading material is meant for the students of undergraduate students of psychology, education, and management.

1. Motivation in Psychological
Perspective
By
KhemrajSubedi
Associate Professor
TikapurMultiple Campus
Far Western University

2. "The only way to do
great work is to love
what you do." -Steve
Jobs
This quote by the co-founder of
Apple Inc., Steve Jobs,
emphasizes the importance of
passion and enjoyment in the
pursuit of excellence. It suggests
that genuine love for one's work is
a key ingredient for achieving
remarkable and fulfilling
outcomes. This sentiment has
inspired many individuals to find
joy and purpose in their
endeavors, ultimately driving
them toward success and personal
satisfaction.

3. Content Outline
*Concepts and Importance
*Theories of Motivation –Drive,arousal, expectancy
and goal settingtheory; Maslow’s need Hierarchy
Theory;
*Regulation of hunger, thirst sex and anger –
delineating the biological and psychosocial factors.
*Achievement Motivation;
*Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

4. Concept of Motivation
In psychology, motivation refers to the process that
initiates, guides and sustains goal-directed behaviors. It
involves the internal and external factors that stimulate
individuals to take action, persist in their efforts, and
achieve specific goals. Motivation is a crucial concept in
understanding why people behave the way they do and
what drives them to pursue certain objectives.
Therefore, motivation refers toa process of inducing and
stimulating an individual to act in a certain manner. In the
context of an organization, motivation implies
encouraging and urging the employees to perform to the
best of their capabilities to achieve the desired goals of
the organization.

5. Definitions of Motivation
According to American Psychological
Association(APA),”Motivation refers to a
person’s willingness to exert physical or mental
effort in pursuit of a goal or outcome.”
According to Encyclopediaof Management:
“Motivation refers to degree of readiness of an
organism to pursue some designated goal and
implies the determination of the nature and locus
of the forces, including the degree of readiness.”

7. Theories of Motivation
Drive Theory of Motivation
The Drive Theory of motivation was developed by
Clark Hull in the early 1940s. It proposes that
motivation arises from the desire to reduce internal
physiological and psychological tension caused by
biological needs. According to this theory, when an
individual experiences a lack or deficiency in some
aspect of their well-being (e.g., hunger, thirst, sleep),
it creates a state of tension or drive.

8. The main components of the Drive Theory of motivation are:
Drives: Drives are the internal states of tension or arousal that push individuals to
take action in order to fulfill their unmet needs. For example, the need for food
creates the drive of hunger, and the need for water creates the drive of thirst.
Drive Reduction: The primary goal of an individual, according to this theory, is to
reduce or eliminate the internal drives by satisfying the corresponding needs. When a
person successfully meets a need, the drive diminishes, and they experience a sense
of satisfaction or homeostasis(Homeostasis is defined asa self-regulating process by
which a living organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing
external conditions.).
Habit Formation: The Drive Theory suggests that when an individual repeatedly
satisfies a specific need (e.g., eating when hungry), it forms a habit. As habits
become more ingrained, the motivation to fulfill that need becomes automatic and
requires less conscious effort.
Incentive Value: In addition to biological needs, the Drive Theory also considers the
influence of external stimuli and rewards on motivation. An external stimulus, such
as a reward or positive outcome, can increase the incentive value of a particular
behavior, thereby strengthening the drive to engage in that behavior.

9. Process of Drive Reduction
Figure 1

10. Figure 2

11. Figure 3

12. Arousal Theory of Motivation
This theory was developed by psychologists Robert M.
Yerkes and John D. Dodson in 1908.
This theory is also known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law, is
a psychological concept that proposes a relationship
between arousal levels and performance.
The central idea of the Arousal Theory is that there is an
optimal level of arousal for performing any task. Arousal
refers to the state of physiological and psychological
activation or alertness of an individual. According to this
theory, performance on a task improves with increased
arousal, but only up to a certain point. Beyond that point,
further increases in arousal can lead to a decline in
performance.

13. The main components of the Arousal Theory of Motivation
are:
Optimal Arousal: The theory suggests that there is an ideal or optimal level of
arousal for each task. This optimal level varies depending on the complexity
and difficulty of the task. Simple tasks generally require higher arousal levels to
perform well, while complex tasks may require lower arousal levels.
Under-arousal and Over-arousal: When individuals are under-aroused, meaning
they lack sufficient activation, their performance on a task may be poor because
they lack the necessary energy or focus. On the other hand, when individuals
are over-aroused, meaning they have excessive activation, their performance
may suffer due to anxiety, stress, or decreased ability to concentrate.
Arousal and Performance Curve: The relationship between arousal and
performance can be visualized using an inverted U-shaped curve. At low levels
of arousal, performance is low, but as arousal increases, so does performance,
up to the optimal point. Once the optimal arousal level is reached, further
increases in arousal lead to a decline in performance.
Individual Differences: Different individuals may have different optimal arousal
levels for the same task. Factors such as personality traits, experience, and skill
levels can influence an individual's ideal level of arousal.

14. Arousal and Performance Curve
Figure 4

15. Figure 5

16. Practical implications of the Arousal Theory
include:
For simple tasks that require alertness and quick responses, higher
levels of arousal can be beneficial.
For complex tasks that require concentration and problem-solving,
lower levels of arousal may be more conducive to optimal
performance.
Techniques such as relaxation or stress reduction strategies can be
employed to bring arousal levels back to the optimal range for
specific tasks.
Overall, the Arousal Theory of Motivation provides valuable
insights into understanding the relationship between arousal and
performance, and it emphasizes the importance of finding the right
balance of arousal to achieve optimal results in different activities.

17. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The expectancy theory of motivation was
developed by Victor Vroom in the 1960s.
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation is a
psychological framework that explains how
individuals make decisions regarding their
behaviorsbased on the anticipated outcomes of
those behaviors.
This theory suggests that people are motivated to
act in a certain way when they believe that their
efforts will lead to a desired outcome and that this
outcome is personally valuable.

18. Figure 6

19. The Expectancy Theory consists of three key
components:
Expectancy (E1):This refers to the individual's belief that their
effort will result in successful performance. It assesses the
perceived likelihood that their actions will lead to the desired level
of performance.
Instrumentality (E2):Instrumentality is the belief that successful
performance will be followed by a specific outcome or reward. It
evaluates the perceived connection between performance and the
attainment of a desired outcome.
Valence (V):Valence represents the value or desirability an
individual places on the anticipated outcome or reward. Different
individuals may have varying levels of motivation based on their
personal preferences and values regarding the rewards.

20. The Expectancy Theory introduces the idea that motivation is not
solely determined by the expected outcome but also by the
perceived likelihood of success (Expectancy=E1, Instrumentality
E2) and the desirability of the outcome (Valence). The overall
motivation (M) is calculated using the following formula:
M=E1×E2×V
In practical terms, this theory implies that individuals will be
motivated to engage in a particular behaviorif they believe their
efforts will lead to successful performance, that successful
performance will result in desired outcomes, and that these
outcomes are personally valuable.
The Expectancy Theory has been widely applied in various fields,
including business and management, to understand and enhance
employee motivation by aligning organizational goals with
individual expectations and rewards.

21. Expectancy Theory Cont…
In practical terms, this theory implies that individuals
will be motivated to engage in a particular behaviorif
they believe their efforts will lead to successful
performance, that successful performance will result in
desired outcomes, and that these outcomes are
personally valuable.
The Expectancy Theory has been widely applied in
various fields, including business and management, to
understand and enhance employee motivation by
aligning organizational goals with individual
expectations and rewards.

22. Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation
The Goal-Setting Theory of motivation was
developed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham in
the 1960s.
The Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation is a
psychological framework that emphasizes the
importance of setting specific and challenging
goals to enhance motivation and performance.
This theory posits that setting clear and
achievable objectives can significantly influence
an individual's behavior, leading to higher levels
of effort and persistence.

23. Key components of the Goal-Setting Theory include:
Goals:Goals are the targets or objectives that individuals aim to achieve.
According to the theory, goals should be specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Clear goals provide a direction for
action and help individuals focus their efforts.
Goal Difficulty:The theory suggests that challenging goals, as opposed
to easy or overly difficult ones, lead to higher performance. Challenging
goals encourage individuals to exert more effort, enhance their problem-
solving skills, and increase their commitment to achieving the objectives.
Goal Acceptance:For goal-setting to be effective, individuals must
accept and commit to the goals. When people are involved in the goal-
setting process or perceive the goals as personally meaningful, they are
more likely to be motivated to work towards them.
Feedback:Regular feedback on progress toward goals is crucial.
Feedback helps individuals assess their performance, adjust their
strategies, and stay motivated. Positive feedback reinforces the
commitment to the goals, while negative feedback can lead to adjustments
in behavioror approach.

24. Figure 7

25. Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation
cont…
The Goal-Setting Theory suggests that setting specific and
challenging goals can enhance performance through several
psychological mechanisms, including directing attention,
mobilizing effort, encouraging persistence, and fostering the
development of task-specific strategies.
This theory has found application in various fields, including
business, education, and sports. It has been used to guide
management practices, employee performance evaluations, and
personal development plans. Additionally, the Goal-Setting
Theory emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive
environment that encourages individuals to set and pursue
challenging goals.

26. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory of
Motivation
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory
that explains human motivation based on a hierarchical
arrangement of fundamental needs.
It was developed by Abraham Maslow in the mid-20th
century.
The theory suggests that people are motivated to fulfilla
set of needs in a specific order, moving from basic
survival needs to higher-order psychological and self-
fulfillmentneeds.
The hierarchy is typically represented as a pyramid with
five levels, often depicted as follows from the base to the
top:

27. Physiological Needs:These are the basic, fundamental needs required for
survival, such as air, water, food, shelter, and sleep. Until these physiological
needs are satisfied, individuals are primarily motivated by them.
Safety Needs:Once physiological needs are met, individuals seek a sense of
safety and security. This includes protection from physical harm, a stable
environment, financial security, and health and well-being.
Social Needs (Love and Belonging):With safety needs satisfied, individuals
are motivated to fulfillsocial needs, including the desire for interpersonal
relationships, love, friendship, and a sense of belonging within a community or
social group.
Esteem Needs:Once social needs are addressed, individuals strive for self-
esteem and the recognition of their abilities and accomplishments. This can
include gaining respect from others, achieving personal goals, and developing a
sense of competence and confidence.
Self-Actualization:At the top of the hierarchy, self-actualization represents
the realization of one's full potential and the pursuit of personal growth,
creativity, and fulfillment. Individuals at this stage are motivated by a desire
for self-improvement and the realization of their unique capabilities.

28. Figure 8

29. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Motivation
cont…
It's important to note that Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
is a general framework, and individuals may not strictly
follow this sequence. Moreover, cultural and individual
differences can influence the prioritization of needs.
Maslow's theory has been influential in various fields,
including psychology, business management, and
education, as it provides insights into understanding and
addressing the diverse motivations that drive human
behavior. However, it has also faced criticism for its
lack of empirical evidence and its limited applicability
across different cultures and contexts.

30. Regulation of hunger, thirst, Sex, and Anger –
delineating the biological and psychosocial factors.
Regulation of hunger, thirst, sex, and anger
involves complex interactions between
biological and psychosocial factors. These
basic physiological and emotional needs are
crucial for the survival and well-being of
individuals. Let's explore the regulation of
each of these aspects, considering both
biological and psychosocial influences:

31. Hunger
Biological Factors:Hunger is primarily regulated by
physiological signals related to the body's energy needs. The
hypothalamus(The hypothalamus isan area of the brain that
produces hormones that control:body temperature, heart
rate, hunger, and mood.), a key brain region, plays a central
role in monitoring blood glucose levels and releasing
hormones that influence hunger and satiety. Leptin and
ghrelin are hormones that signal hunger and fullness.
Psychosocial Factors:Environmental cues, cultural norms,
social situations, and emotional states can significantly
impact eating behavior. For example, social gatherings,
stress, and emotional factors may influence when and what
individuals eat, even in the absence of physiological hunger.

32. Thirst
Biological Factors:The sensation of thirst is triggered
by the body's need for water to maintain hydration. The
hypothalamus and specific receptors in the body monitor
changes in blood osmolality and fluid levels, influencing
the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and the
sensation of thirst.
Psychosocial Factors:Social and cultural factors, as
well as individual habits, can influence water
consumption. Environmental conditions, such as hot
weather or physical activity, can also play a role in
regulating thirst.

33. Sex:
Biological Factors:Biological factors related to sex drive
involve hormonal influences, primarily testosterone and
estrogen. The endocrine system, particularly the gonads (testes
in males and ovaries in females), plays a key role in regulating
sexual motivation and behavior.
Psychosocial Factors:Social, cultural, and psychological
factors, such as societal norms, values, personal experiences,
and relationship dynamics, contribute significantly to the
regulation of sexual behavior. Emotional intimacy,
communication, and interpersonal factors play crucial roles in
shaping sexual expression.

34. Anger:
Biological Factors:The amygdala(The amygdala isan
almond-shaped structure that lies in the temporal lobe,
lying just beneath the uncus in the brain.) and other
brain regions are involved in the processing of emotions,
including anger. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and
norepinephrine play a role in modulating mood and
emotional responses.
Psychosocial Factors:External stressors, personal
experiences, social norms, and individual coping
mechanisms influence the expression and regulation of
anger. Cultural expectations and learned behaviorsalso
shape how individuals manage and express their anger
in various social contexts.

35. Figure 9

36. Achievement motivation
Achievement motivation refers to the
psychological drive that compels individuals to
strive for success, accomplishment, and the
attainment of goals.
People with high levels of achievement
motivation are typically characterized by a
strong desire to excel, set challenging goals,
and persist in the face of difficulties. This
motivation can manifest in various areas of
life, including academics, career, sports, and
personal development.

37. Key features and components of achievement motivation
include:
1. Desire for Success:Individuals with high achievement
motivation have a strong desire to succeed and perform well.
Success is often defined by reaching challenging goals, surpassing
expectations, or achieving excellence in a particular area.
2. Goal Setting:Setting specific, measurable, and challenging
goals is a central aspect of achievement motivation. These goals
serve as benchmarks and sources of motivation, providing a clear
direction for efforts and accomplishments.
3. Persistence and Effort:Achievers tend to exhibit a high level
of persistence and effort in pursuing their goals. They are willing to
work hard, overcome obstacles, and maintain focus over an
extended period to achieve the desired outcomes.

38. Key features and components of achievement
motivation cont…
4.Intrinsic Motivation:While external rewards and recognition
may play a role, achievement motivation is often characterized
by intrinsic motivation. Individuals are driven by a personal
sense of accomplishment, satisfaction, or the joy derived from
mastering a skill or achieving a goal.
5.Feedback and Evaluation:Achievement-oriented individuals
actively seek feedback on their performance. Constructive
feedback helps them assess their progress, identify areas for
improvement, and adjust their strategies to enhance future
performance.
6.Risk-Taking:Achievement motivation is often associated with
a willingness to take calculated risks. Individuals may step out of
their comfort zones to pursue ambitious goals and accept
challenges that offer opportunities for growth and achievement.

39. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are two distinct
types of motivation that drive human behavior.
They refer to different sources and reasons that
prompt individuals to engage in activities or
pursue goals.

40. Figure 10

41. Intrinsic Motivation:
Intrinsic motivation is defined asthe doing of an activity for its inherent
satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically
motivated, a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather
than because of external products, pressures, or rewards.
Intrinsic motivation arises from within an individual and is driven by
internal factors, such as personal interest, enjoyment, or a sense of
satisfaction derived from the activity itself.
Characteristics:
Individuals engage in the activity for its inherent rewards.
The activity is personally fulfilling, and the motivation comes from the
pleasure of doing the task.
Intrinsic motivation often leads to a higher level of engagement,
creativity, and persistence.
Examples include pursuing a hobby for the joy of it, learning for the
sake of knowledge, or solving a puzzle because it is intellectually
stimulating.

42. Extrinsic Motivation:
Extrinsic motivation comes from external factors, such as rewards,
punishments, or social approval. In this case, individuals engage in an
activity to obtain a separate outcome or consequence.
According to APA ,” External motivation is an external incentive to engage
in a specific activity, especially motivation arising from the expectation of
punishment or reward(e.g., completing a disliked chore in exchange for
payment.”
Characteristics:
The motivation is driven by external rewards or consequences rather
than inherent enjoyment.
Examples of extrinsic motivators include money, grades, praise, or
avoiding punishment.
Extrinsic motivation may be effective in initiating behavior, but it
might not lead to sustained engagement or long-term commitment.
The emphasis is on achieving a goal or outcome external to the activity
itself.

43. IntrinsicMotivation(Inspired) ExtrinsicMotivation(Motivated)
Drivenfromwithin Drivenexternally
Deeperpurposeandfulfilment Surfacelevel
Doingitfortherightreason More“Likes”onsocial
Lovingtheprocess Focusedontheendresult
Understandinghowitalignsyourvalues Focusedpresenttangiblebenefits
Havingviewforthefuture Onlyseeinghowitaffectsyourpresent
Intrnsicmotivation VS Extrinsic
Motivation

44. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation cont…
In conclusion, intrinsic motivation stems from
internal factors and personal enjoyment, while
extrinsic motivation is driven by external
rewards or consequences. Both types of
motivation play essential roles in shaping
human behaviorand can influence the level of
engagement, persistence, and satisfaction
individuals experience in different activities.

45. Apply Motivation Theory in Business
Management
Set Clear and Challenging Goals:
Recognize and Reward Achievements:
Provide Intrinsic Motivators:
Offer Career Development Opportunities:
Provide Regular and Constructive Feedback:
Create a Positive Work Environment:
Encourage Employee Involvement:
Promote a Culture of Open Communication:
In conclusion, by integrating these motivational strategies into
business management practices, organizations can create an
environment that nurtures employee motivation, satisfaction, and
overall performance.

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