NGM_Gender Inequality: A Case of HE.pptx

Inequality

1. Dr. Virendra R. Nagarale Professor in Geography Department of Geography S.N.D.T. Women’s University Pune Campus, Pune INDIA 411038 [email protected] Gender Inequality: A Crisis of Enrolment in Indian Higher Education

2. The study is divided into following four parts

3. “ Educate your women first and leave them to themselves: then they will tell you what reforms are necessary for them”…………. Swami Vivekananda. Mahatma Jyotirao Phule along with his wife Savitribai Phule opened the first school for girls in 1848 at Bhidewada, Pune. They are pioneers for the women’s education, base of women’s empowerment through the education. The S.N.D.T Women’s University was founded by Bharat Ratna Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve , the bold social reformer who dedicated his life to the advancement of Indian women. In 1896 he started an ashram at Hingne, near Pune for widow and other helpless women. In 1916, the University was launched with an enrolment of five students. The motto of the university is “An enlightened woman is a source of infinite strength”.

4. Conceptual Framework Equality strongly concerns with equal representation in terms of rights, policies etc. Gender equality “means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. (UNICEF) Gender inequality explains that how men and women are not equal in terms of individuals living experiences in society. Gender inequality in higher education prevents progress in overall development of any nation. Gender bias in education has a significant negative impact on social and economic growth. Education is one of the most important indicator for the development of any nation or region . Education empowers the people with the knowledge, skills and values they need to build a better world .

5. The quality of education can help reduce poverty and inequality comes from a recognition that education is a basic human rights- similar to food and shelter and that it is vital to protecting human dignity . Women’s contribution in the development of human society remained invisible for a very long time. In recent times scholarly research has been conducted to explore and analyze women’s role in various sectors in society. There are variety of research themes that can be an attention to study invisible / ignored work of female in society; Women’s Political Participation / decision making Idea of Freedom in Tribal Women’s practices Women and Art (Their contribution to music, cinema, theatre, literature etc.) Women and Household work

6. The National Policy of Education (1986) has emphasized the need of women education for their effective participation in social and economic activities. The NPE, 1986 has stated, “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. The National Educational system will play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women. “The National Policy of Empowerment of Women (1990) has emphasized on education for– 1. Creating an environment to enable women to realize their full potential, 2. Providing all human rights and fundamental freedom to women on equal basis with men, 3. Participation of women in decision-making in every spheres of life, 4. Equal access to health care, quality education, guidance, employment, remuneration and social security, 5. Elimination of all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girl children.

7. Indian scenario of enrolment in Higher Education According to the census reports of Indian Census 2011, the population of India is 121 Crore with 62.3 Crore males and 58.6 Crore females. Adult Literacy (15 + Age Group) rate of India in 2011 is 69.3%. The Male literacy rate is 78.8 % and Female literacy rate is 59.3% according to Census 2011. The study consists of Global Enrolment Rate which has been compared with Indian female enrollment rate. Female GER trend for primary education to Higher education declines from 97.6 to 19.4. Compared to 20 Universities during independence, at present there are 903 Universities, 39050 Colleges and 10011 stand Alone Institution in India (AISHE 2018). There are 15 Universities exclusively for women, 4 in Rajasthan, 2 in Tamil Nadu & 1 each in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Uttarakhand and West Bengal. The top 8 States in terms of highest number of colleges in India are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. 60.48% Colleges are located in Rural Area. 11.04% Colleges are exclusively for Women. Bangalore Urban district tops in terms of number of colleges with 893 colleges followed by Jaipur with 558 colleges. Top 50 districts have about 32.6% of colleges. Total enrolment in higher education has been estimated to be 36.6 million with 19.2 million boys and 17.4 million girls. Girls constitute 47.6% of the total enrolment. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Higher education in India is 25.8%, which is calculated for 18-23 years of age group. GER for male population is 26.3% and for females, it is 25.4%.For Scheduled Castes, it is 21.8% and for Scheduled Tribes, it is 15.9% as compared to the national GER of 25.8%.

8. Higher Education and Inclusive growth It is a growth process which yields broad – based benefits and ensures equality of opportunity for all (Planning Commission 2007). Inclusive growth policies are expected to aim as the creation of a ‘Equal Society’ Inclusive growth consists of both pace and pattern of the growth, in other words we can say spatio – temporal aspect of the inclusive growth should be included while studying inclusive growth. Inclusive growth process requires inclusive education to promote inclusive growth, it has to be necessarily inclusive. In the Eleventh five year plan (2007 – 12) emphasis given on the inclusive growth and later it has been continued in the twelve five year plan (2012 – 17) by Government of India. To quote the inclusive nature of the growth it will be conditioned by the progress that is made in the areas of education (Ministry of Finance, 2007) The growth in the higher education has been remarkable in terms of number of Universities, Colleges, students and teachers. The National Sample Surveys (NSS) provides some data that helps to analyse and interpret the various dimensions of growth and inequalities in higher education in India. Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), University Grants Commission (UGC) and All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) and other research studies provide supplementary data on higher education in India. After analysing these data, we can have statistics growth and inequalities in Higher Education. Overall expenditure on education in India is only 4% of GDP, which makes negative impact on GER. In the general sense, the growth which ensures equal opportunities for all sections of the society, with special focus on the poor, particularly women and backward people, who are almost likely to be marginalised. The commission on Growth and Development of the World Bank defines inclusiveness as a concept that encompasses equity, equality of opportunity, and protection of the people mainly the weaker sections in market and employment transitions (Commission on Growth and Development 2008).

9. Study Area India, with an area of 3287263 sq. km. is the seventh largest country in the world and ranks second in the Population mainland extends between 8 4 N and 36 7 N latitude and 68 7 E and 97 25 E longitude. It measures about 3214 km. from north to south between the extreme latitude and about 2933 km from east to west between extreme longitude. It has land Fortier about 15200 km and total length of coastline is 7516.6 km. For the sake of study, physiographically, India divided into five physiographic divisions (i) Himalayan Mountains (ii) The Great Plain of North India (iii) The Peninsular plateau (iv) The coastal plains (v) The islands Geomorphological, the total land area 10.7 percent is more than 2132 m above MSL and is mountainous 18.6 is hilly area (305 to 2135 m), 27.7 percent is plateau (305 to 915 m) and remaining 43 percent is plain area (Khullar). The study has been carried out for whole India, hence study area has been divided into five administrative regions 1) East India 2) North India 3) North East India 4) South India 5) West India (Fig.2).

10. The North of India is the biggest administrative region comprises 1318975 sq. km geographical area, with average population density of 335 persons per square kilometre. There are nine states viz. Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh having total population 441187479 with 23081963 males and 210367786 females as per 2011 census. Overall enrolment in the higher education in this region was 1365157 with 840244 males and 524913 females (Table 1 and Fig.2). The South India region is the second largest / biggest administrative region, comprises 635757 sq. km. geographical area with average population density of 395 persons per square kilometre. There are five states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu, and Telangana having a total Population of 251322872 with 122747784 males and 125575088 females as per 2011 census. The overall enrolment in the higher education in this region was 1224233 with 643285 males and 580948 females (Table 1 and Fig.2). The East of India is the third biggest administrative region comprises of 561776 sq. km. geographical area with average population density of 526 persons per square kilometre. There are five states viz. Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh having total Population 295606165 with 152074017 males and 143532148 females as per 2011 census. Overall enrolment in the higher education in this region was 405966 with 236296 males and 169670 females (Table 1 and Fig.2).

11. The west of India is the fourth biggest administrative region comprises of 507439 sq. km. geographical area with average population density of 343 persons per square kilometre. There are Three states viz Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat having total population of 174214323 with 90584390 males and 83629933 females as per 2011 census. Overall enrolment in the higher education in this region was 551556 with 326106 males and 225450 females (Table 1 and Fig.2 ). The North East India is the smallest administrative region comprises 262179 sq. km. geographical area with average population density of 174 persons per square kilometre. There are seven states viz. Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Nagaland, having total population of 45587982 with 23309165 males and 22278817 females as per 2011 census. Overall enrolment in the higher education in this region was 83657 with 47345 males and 36312 females.

12. FIG - 1 FIG - 2

13. Database and Methodology In the present paper, an attempt has been made to find a considerable impact of gender inequality on enrollment in higher education. The women’s enrollment in higher education with different educational faculties has been selected for the study. The following study used following secondary sources for compiling database. National Sample Surveys (NSSO) India Statistical data Census of India Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) University Grants Commission (UGC) All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) State Higher education departments websites and publications

14. In the first phase India is divided into five administrative regions with geographical consideration and all these regions has been analysed from 1985 to 2010. These 25 years data classified into five years cycles. The data considered for the study for post graduate enrolment in the three faculties Master of Arts (M.A.), Masters of Commerce (M. Com) and Master of Science (M.Sc.). In the second phase this data is also compared with overall enrolment of all these five regions, which are considered for the post graduate enrolments. To analyse women’s enrolment in higher education a case study of S.N.D.T. Women’s University, Mumbai has been made to critically examine women’s enrolment at micro level. The data for Post-graduation women’s enrolment is considered from 1986 to 2015. In t he third phase is an extension of the second phase where the enrolment scenario has been analysed for SNDT Pune Campus where faculty wise enrolment in all the disciplines are taken into consideration for the study. Moreover Post Graduation enrolment has been focused to see the actual enrolment of women in the Higher Education.

15. Sr. No. Major Regions Geographical Area Density Population Overall Enrolment Male Female Total Male Female Total 1 East India 561776 526 152074017 143532148 295606165 236296 169670 405966 2 North India 1318975 335 230819693 210367786 441187479 840244 524913 1365157 3 North East India 262179 174 23309165 22278817 45587982 47345 36312 83657 4 South India 635757 395 125747784 125575088 251322872 643285 580948 1224233 5 West India 507439 343 90584390 83629933 174214323 326106 225450 551556 P.G. Enrolment in India (2011) (Source : Census of India and www.indiastat.com ) Table: 1

16. State wise Enrolment of PG Students 2010 - 2011 to 2014 - 2015 2010 - 2011 Sr. No. Geographical Region Male % Female % Total 1 East India 245631 7.52 172684 5.28 418315 2 North India 553779 16.95 480126 14.7 1033905 3 North East India 52564 1.6 28573 0.87 81137 4 South India 625480 19.15 527219 16.14 1152699 5 West India 334295 10.23 245153 7.5 579448 Total = 1811749   1453755   3265504 2011 - 2012 Sr. No. Geographical Region Male % Female % Total 1 East India 236296 6.5 169670 4.67 405966 2 North India 840244 23.14 524913 14.45 1365157 3 North East India 47345 1.3 36312 1 83657 4 South India 643285 17.71 580948 16 1224233 5 West India 326106 8.98 225450 6.2 551556 Total = 2093276   1537293   3630569 2012 - 2013 Sr. No. Geographical Region Male % Female % Total 1 East India 213263 6.21 190903 5.55 404166 2 North India 605896 17.64 609110 17.73 1215006 3 North East India 39133 1.13 40607 1.18 79740 4 South India 647450 18.85 627886 18.28 1275336 5 West India 255396 7.43 204353 5.95 459749 Total = 1761138   1672859   3433997 2013 - 2014 Sr. No. Geographical Region Male % Female % Total 1 East India 224650 5.9 222294 5.84 446944 2 North India 620000 16.29 708464 18.61 1328464 3 North East India 48652 1.28 51352 1.34 100004 4 South India 675955 17.76 678278 17.82 1354233 5 West India 309751 8.14 266287 6.99 576038 Total = 1879008   1926675   3805683 2014 - 2015 Sr. No. Geographical Region Male % Female % Total 1 East India 226011 5.96 230812 6.08 456823 2 North India 614385 16.2 731909 19.3 1346294 3 North East India 51874 1.36 55624 1.46 107498 4 South India 628795 16.58 670893 17.69 1299688 5 West India 315894 8.33 264401 6.97 580295 Total = 1836959   1953639   3790598 Table:2 Source : www.indiastat.com )

17. The Case Study of SNDT Women’s University S.N.D.T. Women’s University Mumbai is first Women’s University in South East Asia, recently completed 102 years. The S.N.D.T Women’s University was founded by Bharat Ratna Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve, the bold social reformer who dedicated his life to the advancement of Indian women. In 1896 he started an ashram at Hingne, near Pune for widow and other helpless women. In 1916, the University was launched with an enrolment of five students. Recognizing the pioneering work of Dr. Karve, Sir Vitthaldas Thackersey stepped forward with donation. In 1920, the University was named Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women’s University (SNDT) in memory of his mother. In 1936, the headquarters of the University shifted to Mumbai. The University continued to grow, providing higher education to more and more women. In 1951, the University was granted statutory recognition. Today the University has four campuses-Pune, Churchgate, Juhu and Shrivardhan. Now it has 44 University departments , 14 constituent colleges and 272 affiliated colleges throughout India.

18. Sr. No. Year M.A. M.Com M.Hsc 1 1986 - 1990 708 69 87 2 1991 - 1995 783 83 112 3 1996 - 2000 698 63 91 4 2001 - 2005 734 97 74 5 2006 - 2010 1023 145 187 6 2011 - 2015 1115 225 199 *7 2016 - 2020 1190 270 220 SNDT Women’s University Enrolment (1986-2020) Source: SNDT Admission database * Projected on the basis of 2016 – 2018 admissions database.

19. Faculty wise Enrollment (2006 to 2010)   Faculty   Arts   Commerce Home Science Education BCA   Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Higher Secondary 32 9 5 8 79 6 7 8 45 92 6 1 4 1 2 1                             Undergraduate 121 34 1 8 12 2 139 31 11 5 1 242 43 3 11 8 1 2 38 27 4 25 12 2 146 60 5 7 5 3 Post Graduate 76 32 1 17 10 2 3 10 4 5 1 71 18 2 5 1 12 6 1 7 4 1               SNDT Pune Campus Faculty wise Enrollment Faculty wise Enrollment (2010 to 2014)   Faculty   Arts   Commerce Home Science Education BCA   Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Higher Secondary 30 5 3 6 2 103 9 7 8 78 17 11 7                             Undergraduate 75 41 11 23 1 152 26 8 26 281 47 5 14 18 18 9 7 6 9 2 81 26 1 2 2 Post Graduation 90 29 6 12 14 1 6 5 3 2 1 9 39 7 1 5 1 11 8 1 3 2 1               Faculty wise Enrollment (2014 to 2017)   Faculty   Arts   Commerce Home Science Education BCA   Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known Higher Secondary 21 5 3 10 4 149 17 2 17 12 69 24 9 1                             Undergraduate 123 54 10 17 19 2 147 33 7 20 17 2 270 76 2 25 30 7 8 3 1 0.5 31 15 1 5.5 4 Post Graduation 56 24 3 14 5 2 21 13 2 1 2 22 11 1 2 2 1               Source: Collected from SNDT Pune Campus Hostel * The database only shows the enrollment based on hostel admissions and not an overall enrollment

20. Sr. No Years Regions Pune Konkan Nashik Aurangabad Amravati Nagpur Other States Not Known 1 2006 206 45 83 36 19 5 23 3 2 2007 189 38 80 31 10 9 22 4 3 2008 188 49 87 39 12 7 23 *4 2009 205 40 76 39 10 6 18 5 2010 221 31 65 40 8 5 13 6 2011 206 38 49 41 5 4 17 7 2012 194 41 54 31 6 7 29 8 2013 170 31 54 27 7 9 31 *9 2014 185 37 51 30 9 7 24 10 2015 197 42 48 34 10 5 16 11 2016 205 52 41 37 10 2 16 12 2017 215 49 43 42 8 5 12 1 Totals (4469) 2381 493 731 427 114 71 244 8 Percentage 53.28 11.03 16.36 9.55 2.55 1.59 5.46 0.18 Spatial Distribution of Enrollment Source: SNDT Pune Campus Hostel Office * Interpolated data (the database for these years are not available)

21. Sr. No Years Category Open OBC ST SC NT SBC Not Known 1 2006 305 65 8 27 10 3 2 2007 251 76 4 28 18 2 4 3 2008 278 72 30 22 3 *4 2009 272 65 2 26 26 4 5 2010 265 59 4 21 31 6 6 2011 245 60 3 14 37 1 7 2012 247 57 5 24 28 1 8 2013 214 57 8 28 22 *9 2014 218 63 6 30 23 1 10 2015 222 69 4 31 24 2 11 2016 229 66 8 33 20 7 12 2017 237 78 8 27 23 2 Totals (4469) 2983 787 60 319 284 32 4 Percentage 66.75 17.61 1.34 7.14 6.35 0.72 0.09 Category wise Enrollment Source: SNDT Pune Campus Hostel Office * Interpolated data (the database for these years are not available)

22. Source: Admission database SNDT PGSR office SNDT Pune Campus Post Graduate Enrollment SNDTWU PGSR PUNE Year Geography Psychology Economics Music SC ST OBC NT OPEN TOTAL SC ST OBC NT OPEN TOTAL SC ST OBC NT OPEN TOTAL SC ST OBC NT OPEN TOTAL 2013-14 8 6 10 5 22 51 1 1 6 1 42 51 6   6   11 23 7   7 2 33 49 2014-15 4   9 3 19 35 2 2 9 1 37 51 5   4 2 14 25 4   7 1 35 47 2015-16 5 2 6 2 21 36 6 1 8 1 34 50 4 2 4 1 10 21 2   6   38 46 2016-17 3 3 5 1 21 33 9   4 1 22 36 3 2 1   19 25 2   4   46 52 2017-18 3 2 5 3 16 29 5   5 2 22 34 3   2   18 23 1   6 1 39 47 2018-19 6 3 3 4 15 31 7 2 5 2 27 43 2 1 3 1 11 18 3 1 6 2 26 38 Total 29 16 38 18 114 215 30 6 37 8 184 265 23 5 20 4 83 135 19 1 36 6 217 279 Percentage 13.49 7.44 17.67 8.37 53.02   11.32 2.26 13.96 3.02 69.43   17.04 3.70 14.81 2.96 61.48   6.81 0.36 12.90 2.15 77.78  

23. Results and Conclusion In the five regions South India and North East India having 998 and 955 sex ratio which plays vital role in the women’s enrolment at higher education. On the other hand total expenditure on education (not higher education) was 0.64 % of GDP in 1951 – 52 now increased 3 % of GDP. In fact, the expenditure on Higher education should be special budget expenditure, not in education budget GER for higher education from census 2001 to 2011 show three times more enrolment 6.7 to 19.4 in girl’s enrolment. The absolute numbers in terms of higher education enrolment, overall enrolment rises from 4.0 lacs in 1951 to 86 lacs in 2001 shows 21 times increase. Male and female enrolment was 3.5 lacs and 0.5 lacs in 1951 is now 54.0 lacs and 32.0 lacs respectively. The rise in male enrolment is 15 times, but in female rise is 64 times more which is very significant.

24. Overall P.G. enrolment 2010 – 2015 In the analysis of state wise enrolment of PG student from 2010 – 11 to 2014 – 15 the following main conclusion can be drawn. PG enrolment of female student was 44.49 % in 2010 which has increased up to 51.5 % in 2015. This shows the increasing trend of women’s enrolment in Higher education. In detail we can observe that there is decline in the women’s enrolment at West India region from 7.5 % to 6.97 % for North East region it is highest growth in the women’s enrolment from 0.87 % to 1.47 % (Table 2). According to census data (2011), total population of female and overall female enrolment also shows variations. These variation may be due to number of geographical factors like TGA (Total Geographical area), Population diversity, physiography of study region and other economic factor etc. The female literacy rate is 64.6 percent and sex ratio variation plays vital role in the enrolment. In higher education, girls per hundred boys enrolment was 13 in 1950 – 51 which has been increased now 78, which shows positive trend.

25. M.A., M. Com, M.Sc. enrolment for 25 years The study of three faculties i.e. Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Commerce (M.Com.) and Master of Science (M.Sc.) which have well existed and well distributed among all over Indian universities. For 25 years of M.A. enrolment, it is observed that there is overall increase in enrolment but in South region and North Eastern region decline in female enrolment from 5.37 to 5.08 in South and 0.93 to 0.82 in North Eastern region. This is because of sex ratio of South India region is 998 and NER is 955, which indicates that females migrate to other places for new faculties enrolment other than M.A., M.Com., M.Sc. In the Master of Commerce enrolment there is increasing trend of enrolment among women. Highest enrolment has been observed in western region i.e. 5.29 to 21.08 near about four times higher enrolment simultaneously in this region there is decline of male enrolment from 24.85 to 19.94. In the Master of Science (M.Sc.) enrolment, the women’s enrolment is highest in the South region (10.70) which increases almost in double (19.18) from 1985 to 2010. All other regions, except Eastern region where slight decline of women’s enrolment in the science faculty is observed.

26. In the case study of S.N.D.T. Women’s University, P.G. Enrolment, study has covered the last thirty years. The average enrolment in the M.A. has been increase from 708 to 1115 in 2011 to 2015 and it has been estimated to 1190 during 2016 to 2020. This indicates average 30 women’s enrolment per year is very less, increase in enrolment Master of Commerce average enrolment from 69 to 225 and M.Hsc from 87 to 199 also shows very low increase in the enrolment. There is decline in the enrolment of SNDT students because other courses are available in nearby universities of the region. In 2010 Master of Arts having 7.62 % of students which decline to 5.14% in the year 2015. Master of Commerce and Master of Home Science enrolment percentage remain unchanged or slight changes from 2010 to 2015. Overall in this five year period less than 10 % of total enrolment contributes to the three Master Degree programmes.

27. The total overall enrollment of Pune Campus is 4469 from the year 2006 to 2017 includes all the faculties comprising Higher Secondary, Undergraduate and Post Graduation. 1088 i.e. 24.35 % of total girls are enrolled in Arts faculty followed by 1173 i.e. 26.25 % in Commerce, 1588 i.e. 35.53 % in Home Science, 227 i.e. 5.08 % in Education and 393 i.e. 8.79 % in BCA. The spatial distribution shows that more than 50 % of the girls are enrolled from Pune region where, Nagpur region have very less enrollment i.e. 1.59 % at SNDT Pune Campus. Category wise enrolment shows that about 67 % of enrolment has been from Open category and SBC category has enrolment less than 1 %. Moreover STs, SCs and NTs also have less enrolment i.e. 1.34 %, 7.14 % and 6.35 % respectively. The analysis shows the following trend of total overall enrolment: At Post graduate level 55 % girls are enrolled in the faculty of Arts followed by Home Science 26 %, Commerce 11 % and Education 8 %. At Graduate level 38.35 % girls are enrolled in the faculty of Home Science followed by, 22.13 in Commerce, 19.57 in Arts, 13.92 in BCA and 6.03 in Education. At Higher Secondary level 50 % girls preferred Commerce followed by Home Science 35 % and Arts 15%.

28. The analysis of Post graduation enrolment shows that there is very less enrolment of STs in the faculties such as Music, Economics and Psychology where Geography is the only subject having enrolment of various social category as per governments reservation policy. The enrolment in Music faculty shows that the enrolment of open category is much more higher as compared to other faculties with respect to government reservation policy indicates disparity in the enrolment related to professional and non-professional course.

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