Origin and Distribution of Megalithic Tradition in India

Exploring the origin and development of the megalithic tradition in India through simple and to-the-point explanations. This presentation is accompanied by a good number of relevant photographs also. I have made this presentation during my masters in Archaeology in 2018.

1. Origin and Distribution of Megalithic Tradition in India Debajit Ghosh Department of A.I.H.C & Archaeology Deccan College PGRI, Pune

2. Introduction The meaning of the word ‘megalith’: Derived from two Greek words; ‘ megathos ’/’ megas ’, meaning ‘huge’; and ‘ lithoi ’/’ lithos ’, meaning ‘stone’. The common phenomenon of the ‘life’ after death. Significance of the proper disposal of the dead. Social purposes. What does the term ‘megalith’ indicate in broader perspective? Not just monuments comprised of huge stones but a ‘particular culture or tradition’. No regional bounds; worldwide distribution. In India, Megalithic tradition falls under the time bracket of Early Iron Age. Chronology: From about 1200 BCE-400-500 BCE.

3. Origin in Indian Context In India Babington first reported megaliths in his article ‘Description of the Pandoo Coolies of Malabar’ in 1823. Regarding the origin of megalithic tradition in India, there are three broader areas of discussion. Various theories given by different scholars. Trying to understand the origin through literary sources. A good number of interesting traditions and legends connected with the megalithic monuments.

4. Different Theories Mainly two different school of thoughts: Indian origin. Non-Indian origin. Regarding the origin of Megalithic tradition in India, there are various theories given by scholars. These are: South Indian origin. Maritime Influences. Immigration by sea or southward movement. Spreading from north to south. Independent Origin of North and South India. Other Theories.

5. South Indian Origin Proposed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. Evidences from the Excavation at Brahmagiri at Chitradurga District, Karnataka in 1947. Period II falls within Megalithic cultural period. Iron objects and Black-and-Red ware. Pit circles and cist burials were predominant. Date: From 3 rd century BCE to 1 st century CE. Mentioned the possible resemblance of Indian megalithic types with the megalithic structures of Western Asia and Europe. In one of the megaliths: 33 gold objects, 4 copper bangles, 2 carnelian beads and one conch shell. Reflection social heirarchy .

6. Maritime Influences Gordon Childe first came with the theory of Maritime influences. In Indian the culture probably came from west. Penetration of the culture far into the interior. Process of this expansion? Not clear. Maritime influences were responsible.

7. Immigration by sea or southward movement This theory was proposed by C. Von Furer Haimendorf in 1953. Megalithic builders of south India: speakers of Dravidian languages. Megalithic culture possibly immigrated into India by sea or possibly these people moved southward along the west coast of India. This culture superimposed itself on the indigenous cultures. He visualizes the first point of contact on the west coast.

8. Spreading From North to South N.R. Banerjee : ‘The Megalithic Culture of South India’, a paper presented in the International Conference of Asian Archaeology in 1961. Suggestion by him: Indian megaliths were probably inspired by the carin circles of Baluchistan and Persian and Baluch Makran . Migration from north to south India. South Indian megaliths: Flourished between 700 BCE to 200 CE. His arguments were based around the antiquity of iron in India. Some counter arguments by K.N.Dikshit : Problem of inter-connection between time and space. Focusing on only two megalithic types. Independency of iron technologies of north and south.

9. Independent Origins of North and South India K.N Dikshit focused on this possibility. According to him, Megalithic builders in Northern region of India probably entered by land routes. Possibility of taking sea routes is also there. In case of south India, western maritime communities practising megalith-architecture through Persian Gulf and Southern Arabia.

10. Other Theories According to Pande , Megalithism in Kashmir evolved out of earlier Neolithic practices. According to Moorti , on the basis of the pre-iron age burials some megalithic types( pit burials, urn burials) are considered as indigenous. Parpola : Megaliths were Aryan in origin. McIntosh has suggested the increased dependence on pastoralism as the factor in the emergence of megalithism in South India.

11. Literary sources Some scholars tried to trace the origin of megaliths in India in the literary sources. R.C Gaur worked on this. He mainly focused on Satapatha Brahmana . According to him, Megaliths: crude form of votive stupa . References in Sanskrit and Sangam literature. Limitations: Uncertain dates of literary sources. These references might refer to the prevalence of megalithism in some form or the other in the contemporary period.

12. Traditions and Legends Different traditions and legends grow because of lack no knowledge about Megalithic remains. The Pandavas The Demons. The Pygmies. The Tribal People. Some other traditions.

13. The Pandavas Legendary heroes of traditional India. Superhuman power. Given credit for the construction of huge megalithic monuments, especially Dolmens and Dolmenoid Cists. Belief: Dolmens were constructed by them when they were in exile. Different names are given to megalithic monuments bearing different meanings: ‘ pandavagullu ’, pandavaramane ’, ‘ pandurane ’, ‘ pandavakkuli ’ etc. Some parts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

14. The Demons In some places, megalithic monuments are ascribes to the demons/ Rakshasas . Monuments are known as ‘ Rakshaka gullu ’, ‘ Rakasi gudi ’, ‘ Rakshasa guttalu ’ , ‘ Rakshasa gudiam ’ etc. Size and appearance of the monuments. Skeletal dumps made by Rakshasas . Superstitions of local people. This belief is more popular in Andhra Pradesh.

15. The Pygmies It is believed that dolmens were built by an extinct race of Pygmies. Popular belief in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu . Being threatened with a fire storm, they built these monuments to escape the conflagration. Evidence came from skeletal remains discarded this idea of pygmies.

16. The Tribal People and Other Traditions Sometimes megalithic monuments are attributed to some tribal kings or simply tribal communities. An example: Local belief at Naikund in Vidarbha region in Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu: Animals are connected by traditions with the megalithic monuments. ‘ kuranguppattadai ’; the workshop of the monkeys. Also there is belief that there is rich treasure buried below the megalithic monuments. Attribution to Jaina Ascetics.

17. Distribution of Megalithic Tradition in India In India, megaliths have been reported from all over the country. Sites are of three types: Burial, Habitational and Habitational -cum-Burial sites. There are several types of megaliths. Two main category: Sepulchral and Non-sepulchral. Four broader regions of distribution: Deccan and South India Vidarbha region in Maharashtra. North and Central India. North-east and Eastern India.

18. Deccan and South India First discovery reported by Babington in 1823. Taylor, Breeks , Caldwell, Rivet-Carnac, Cunninghum , Carlyle, Leshnik , Fergussion , Chakrabati , Subbarao , Deo , Moorti etc. gave scholarly contribution. Sites located in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Main types are dolmen, rock-cut caves, kuda-kallu , topi-kallu , cist, stone circle, menhir , urn burials, extended burials, sarcophagi etc. The site of Brahmagiri : It’s importance in understanding the megalithic tradition of South India.

19. Courtesy: Joanna Sudyka (2011) Different groups of distribution: The southern tip: Mainly urn burial; cist, stone circle also. From Madras to Mysore: Mainly dolmen, cist and stone circle. Andhra Pradesh, Telengana and some portions of Maharashtra: Menhir , cist, stone circle, extended burials etc. Kerala: Mainly rock-cut caves.

20. Ceramics: White painted Black-and-Red ware, Plian Black-and-Red ware etc. Several iron implements. Some important sites: Brahmagiri , Hallur , Maski , Sanganakallu , Tekkalakoda (Karnataka); Paiyampalli , Adichennalur (Tamil Nadu); Kadanad , Porkalam (Kerala); , Ramapuram , Kesarpalli (Andhra Pradesh) etc. Probably a biological continuum of preceding neolithic-chalcolithic population to iron age population. Chronology: 1100 BCE-100 BCE(McIntosh, 1985) 1300 BCE-200 CE( Moorti , 1989)

21. Courtesy: asi.nic.in Adichennalur

22. Courtesy: karnatakatravel.blogspot.com Brahmagiri

23. Different Types of Megaliths in South India Rock-cut-cave Sarcophagi Courtesy: http://www.asithrissurcircle.in Courtesy: https://selfstudyhistory.com

24. Kuda-kallu Urn Burial Courtesy: http://www.unbelievableinfo.com Courtesy : asi.nic.in

25. Vidarbha Region in Maharashtra Vidarbha: Eastern part of Maharashtra; comprising 11 districts. Rich concentration of megaliths. Beginning of research by Hislop in 1864. Afterwards, Rivett -Carnac, G.G.Pearse , Carey, Hunter, Thapar , Deo , Dikshit , Mohanty , Thakuria , Sontakke , K.Pawar and other scholars contributed. Burial types are stone circles, carin circles, menhir , dolmen, sarcophagi etc. Important excavated sites are Bhagimohari , Khairwad , Mahurjhari , Junapani , Naikund , Takalghat-khapa , Hirapur etc. Presence of horse skeletal remains, horse ornaments in burials is special characteristic feature. Ubale : Horse skull.

26. Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

27. Mohanty et al (2017) divided the early ironmegalithic tradition of Vidarbha into four sub-divisions: Early Iron Age settlements without visible megalithic burials. Early Iron Age settlements with few burials in the rare vicinity. Early Iron Age settlements with large number of megalithic burials. Megalithic burial sites not as yet associated with settlement but surrounded by arable and pasture land. The basic type of burials: Stone circles filled with carins ; located mostly on unproductive barren land, hill slopes and rocky surfaces. 10 types of carin circles identified till now. The C-14 dates and other cultural material suggests that at least a part of the population continuously occupied the settlement throughout the year and for centuries.

28. Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

29. Different Types of Carin Circles Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

30. Specimen of Dolmen Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

31. Double-chambered Dolmen From Hirapur Copyright: Debajit Ghosh

32. Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

33. Iron tools for various functions were most important craft production. Hoes, ploughshare, sickles etc. Evidence of combined workmanship: Example: A dagger with iron blade and hilt skilfully covered with a thin sheet of copper enclosing a wooden frame. Ceramics: Black-and-Red ware, Black-on-Red ware, micaceous red ware, coarse red ware etc. Elaborated social organization. Chronology: 1000 BCE-300-400 BCE. Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

34. Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

35. Courtesy: Mohanty et al (2017)

36. North and Central India Sites reported from Jammu and Kashmir Uttar Pradesh, Ladakh etc. Several megalithic types are cist, stone circle, menhir etc. Menhirs at Burzahom , in the district Anantnag and in the bordering area of Ladakh and Tibet seem to have extra-Indian Affiliation. Dolmen is absent. The Vindhyan region, Adwa valley, Jangal Mahal , Kaimur Range, Kumaun region, Leh etc. have rich concentration of burial sites. Also Rewa , Sidhi district etc. of Madhya Pradesh. Main sites: Amahata , Munahi , Magha , Kakoria , Kotia etc. Ceramics: Red ware, Black-and-Red ware, Grey ware etc. Gold objects, bronze bowl, arrowhead etc.: Grave goods. Earliest date of iron came from sites from Uttar Pradesh.

37. North India with the location of the Site of Magha Courtesy: Google Maps

38. Courtesy: Dr. Kantikumar Pawar

39. Courtesy: Dr. Kantikumar Pawar

40. North-east and Eastern India North-east India comprises of seven states: Assam, Megahlaya , Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram,Nagaland and ripura . In 1872, remarkable effort was made by Godwin-Austen in order to understand the stone monuments of Khasi hills in Meghalaya. CB.Clarke , Haimendorf , David Roy, P.Binodini Devi, J.J.Waty , S.N.Rao , B.Mutum , M.B.Singh , Sharma and others contributed in the study. Rich concentration of megaliths in Khasi and Jayantia hill region of Meghalaya district. Living megalithic tradition is main feature. Two broad groups: Funerary stones and Memorial Stones.

41. Courtesy: Google Maps

42. Main eight categories within the funerary stones. They have local names such as Mawkynroh (stone cist), Mawbynna ( set of five menhirs ) etc. Main four categories within memorial stones. They also have local names such as Mau-in- lu ( stone of the salt), Mau- mlu (upturned stone) etc. Main types are Menhir , carin , grave stone, dolmens etc. The core concept is unchanged here. Living Megalithic Heritage of India.

43. Courtesy: www.alamy.com

44. Living Megalithic Tradition Presently popular in North-eastern states, Orissa, Central India, Kerala and Karnataka. Most of the past megalithic types are similar in present tradition. Nagas in north-eastern India, Maria Gods in central India, Savaras in south India, Valmikis in Andhra Pradesh etc. are till now continuing megalithic practices. Funeral ceremony, community feast are very common features. Legacy of Megalithic Tradition in India. Concept of death, soul etc. Similar belief till now; although change in customs.

45. Conclusion Traditions and legends: outcome of the knowing nothing about the antiquarian remains. Although there are some positive aspects of traditions and legends. No unanimity regarding the origin of megaliths in India. Different aspects Indian megalithic tradition must be came into consideration for a thorough, systematic and analytical research to try to solve the problem of the origin of Indian megalithic tradition. In order to understand the distribution pattern in a systematic pattern, the focus of research should be shifted from 'site' to region/landscape. Changes need in research design. Extensive exploration and large scale horizontal excavations are needed.

46. Acknowledgement I want to thank Dr. Kantikumar Pawar for giving me the opportunity to present this topic. I am also thankful to every alive and passed away scholars, personalities whose thoughts, ideas, articles, theses, books etc. helped me both in direct and indirect way; my friends Sayan Roy and Tanoy Sengupta who helped me in collecting source material; and also the online sources such as websites, blogs etc. in completing my presentation.

47. References Dikshit , K.N. Origin and Distribution of Megaliths in India, 1997. Mohanty , R.K. Vaidya , Shantanu Kharakwal , J.S Sontakke , Virag Thakuria , Tilok The Early Iron Age Megalithic Culture in Vidarbha in Broader Perspective: A Pragmatic Observation, 2017. Deo , S.B. Problems of South Indian Megaliths. Mohanty , R.K. Selva Kumar, V. The Archaeology of the Megaliths of India: 1947-1997, Indian Archaeology in Retroscope , Volume I, Edited by Settar , S. Korisettar , R. Vahia , N. Mayank Menon , M. Srikumar Abbas , Riza Yadav , Nisha Megaliths in Ancient India and Their Possible Association to Astronomy. Gaur, R.C. Megalithic Tradition in India, 1997. Sudyka , Joanna The “Megalithic” Iron Age Culture in South India: Some General Remarks, Analecta Archaeologica Resooviensia , 2011.