Plant and animal biology

A reviewer for BSED for Bio. Science majors

1. Plant and Animal Biology Prepared by: Mrs. IRISH M. SEQUIHOD – UDTOHAN, MS Bio

2. BIOLOGY Study of life BOTANY – study of Plants ZOOLOGY – study of Animals

3. Understanding Diversity The total number of living species is estimated to be between 4 million and 100 million, but only about 1.8 million species have been described. Biologists estimate that to date they have identified less than 10% pf bacteria, about 10% of fungi, only about 2 % of nematode (roundworm), and less than 20% of insect species. The variety of living organisms and the ecosystems they are part of are referred to as biological diversity . The totality of life on Earth represents our biological heritage, and the quality of life for all organisms depends on the health and balance of this worldwide web life-forms.

4. Classifying organisms The scientific study of diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships is called Systematics . An important aspect of Systematics is Taxonomy , the science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms. In Biology, the term classification means arranging organisms into groups based on similarities that reflect evolutionary relationships among lineages. Organisms are named using the Binomial System Of the many classification systems that were developed, the one designed by Carolus Linnaeus in the mid- 18 th century has survived with some modification to the present day. Linnaeus grouped organisms according to their similarities, mainly structural similarities.

5. The Tree of Life and the Three Domains of Life

6. Classifying Organisms Most biologists now classify organisms into the three domains. Some continue to classify organisms into kingdoms but some systematists no longer recognize “Kingdom Protista”. Instead, they assign protists to a number of “supergroups” that more accurately reflect evolutionary relationships. Many systematists argue that the traditional hierarchical Linnaean categories are limiting and do not fit well with recent findings. They maintain that using kingdoms, classes, and other ranks are cumbersome and that classification using these ranks must be frequently modified as researchers gather more data.

7. Classifying Organisms Some systematists prefer classifying organisms into Clades . A clade is defined as a group of organisms that share characters inherited from a common ancestor. The systematists prefer to identify clades and classify them in one of the three domains, rather than using the traditional hierarchical system. Some systematists use an approach called Phylocode , in which organisms are grouped into clades based on evolutionary relationships. A species is defined as a segment of a population lineage. In this system, taxonomic ranks are not required.

8. Phylogenetic Trees These show hypothesized evolutionary relationships This graphically represent revolutionary relationships among organisms that have common ancestors. The type of phylogenetic tree we us in books are cladogram . Each branch in a cladogram represents a clade, a group of organisms with a common ancestor. Each branching point, referred to as a node represents divergence or splitting, of two or more new groups from a common ancestor. Thus, the node represents the most recent common ancestor of each clade depicted by the branches.

9. How are organisms classified? Genetics Type of cell Morphology Ecological

10. BOTANY: Plant Biology Adaptations of land plants include a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss; multicellular gametangia; stomata; and for most plants, vascular tissues containing lignin. Plants undergo alternation of generations between multicellular gametophyte and sporophyte generations. Mosses and other bryophytes lack vascular tissues and do not form true roots, stems, or leaves. In club mosses and ferns, linin-hardened vascular tissues that transport water and dissolved substances throughout the plant body evolved.

11. BOTANY: Plant Biology

12. Four major groups of plants exist today Structural and molecular data indicate that land plants probably descended from a group of green algae called charophytes or stoneworts . Plants consists of four major groups: Bryophytes, Seedless vascular plants, and two groups of seeded vascular plants: gymnosperms and angiosperms.

13. Seed Plants Like bryophytes and seedless vascular plants, seed plants have life cycles with an tarnation of generations; they spend part of their lives in the multicellular diploid sporophyte stage and a part in the multicellular haploid gametophyte stage. The sporophyte generation is the dominant stage in seed plants, and the gametophyte generation is significantly reduced in size and entirely dependent on the sporophyte generation. Unlike the bryophytes and ferns, seed plants do not have free-living gametophytes. Instead, the female gametophyte is attached to the nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte generation. Seed plants produce ovules, in which is a megasporangium surrounded by integuments, layers of sporophyte tissue that enclose the megasporangium .

14. Seed Plants Alternation of generation in plants

15. Seed Plants Botanists divide seed plants into two groups based on whether or not ovary wall surrounds their ovules (an ovary is a structure that contains one or more ovules). The two groups of seed plants are the gymnosperms and the angiosperms. The word gymnosperm is derived from the Greek for “naked seed”. They produce seeds that are totally exposed or borne on the scales of cones. In other words, an ovary wall does not surround the ovules of gymnosperms. Pine, Spruce, Fir, Hemlock, and Gingko are examples of gymnosperms. The term angiosperm is derived from the Greek expression that means “seed enclosed in a vessel or case” . Angiosperms are flowering plants that produce their seeds within a fruit (a mature ovary). Thus, the ovules of angiosperms are protected. Flowering plants, which is extremely divers, include corn, oaks, water lilies, cacti, apples, grasses, palms, and buttercups. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms have vascular tissues: Xylem , for conducting water and dissolved minerals (inorganic nutrients), and Phloem , for conducting dissolved sugar.

16. Seed Plants

17. Seed Plants Spruce, Pine, Hemlock, Fir, and Gingko

18. GYMNOSPERMS CONIFERS – belonging to Phylum Coniferophyta , which include pines, spruces, hemlocks, and firs, comprise most familiar group of gymnosperms. These 630 species of woody trees or shrubs produce annual additions of secondary tissues (wood and bark); there are no herbaceous (non-woody) conifers. The wood (secondary xylem) consists of tracheids , which are long, tapering cells with pits through which water and dissolved minerals move from one cell to another.

19. GYMNOSPERMS CYCADS – belonging to Phylum Cycadophyta were very important during the Triassic period, which began about 251 million years ago and is sometimes referred to as the “Age of Cycads”. Most species are now extinct, and a few surviving cycads, about 140 species, are tropical and subtropical without stout, trunk-like stems and compound leaves that resemble those of palm or tree ferns.

20. GYMNOSPERMS GINKGO – belonging to Phylum Ginkgophyta have only Ginkgo biloba as the only living species in its phylum. This native of eastern China grew in the wild in only two locations, although people had cultivated it for its edible seeds in China and Japan for centuries. This is the oldest genus of the extant trees. Like cycads, they are dioecious, with separate male and female trees.

21. GYMNOSPERMS GNETOPHYTES – belonging to Phylum Gnetophyta consist of about 170 species in three diverse and obscure genera ( Gnetum , Ephedra, and Welwitschia ). They share certain features that make them unique among gymnosperms. For example, gnetophytes have more efficient water-conducting cells, called vessel elements, in their xylem. Flowering plans also have vessel element in their xylem, but of the gymnosperms, only gnetophytes do. In addition, the cone clusters that some gnetophytes produce resemble flower clusters, and certain details in their life cycles resemble those of flowering plants. Despite the similarities, most botanist now think that they represents evolutionary diversity in gymnosperms and are not in a direct line to flowering plants.

22. GYMNOSPERMS Ephedra, Gnetum , and Welwitschia

23. ANGIOSPERMS Flowering plants, are the most successful plants today, surpassing even the gymnosperms in importance. They have adapted to almost every habitat and, with at least 300,000 species, are Earth’s dominant plants. Flowering plants come in wide variety of sizes and forms, from herbaceous violets to massive eucalyptus trees. Some flowering plants – tulips and roses, for example – have large, conspicuous flowers; others, such as grasses and oaks, produce small, inconspicuous flowers. Flowering plants are vascular plants that reproduce sexually by forming flowers and, following a unique double fertilization process, seeds within fruits. The fruit protects the developing seeds and often aids in their dispersal. Flowering plants have efficient water-conducting cells called vessel elements in their xylem and efficient sugar-conducting cells called sieve tube elements in their phloem.

24. Monocots and Eudicots These are two largest classes of flowering plants. Phylum Anthophyta is the phylum of these two. Distinguishing Features of Monocots and Eudicots Feature Monocots Eudicots Flower parts Usually in threes Usually in fours or fives Pollen grains One furrow or pore Three furrows or pores Leaf venation Usually parallel Usually netted Vascular bundles in stem cross section Usually scattered or more complex arrangement Arranged in a circle (ring) Roots Fibrous root system Taproot system Seeds Embryo with one cotyledon Embryo with two cotyledons Secondary growt h(wood and bark) Absent Often present

25. Monocots and Eudicots

26. Sexual reproduction takes place in flowers Flowers are reproductive shoots usually composed of four parts – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels – arranged in whorls (circles) on the end of a flower stalk, or peduncle. The peduncle may terminate in a single flower or cluster of flowers known as inflorescence. The tip of the flower stalk that bears the flower is known as the receptacle. All four floral parts are important in the reproductive process, but only the stamens (the “male” organs) and the carpels (the “female” organs) produce gametes. A flower that has all parts is complete , whereas an incomplete flower lacks one or more of these four parts. A flower with both stamens and carpels is perfect, whereas an imperfect flower has stamens or carpels, but not both.

27. Sexual reproduction takes place in flowers

28. The Life cycle of Flowering plants

29. Adaptations of flowering plants Account for their success in terms of their ecological dominance and their great number of species. Seed production as the primary means of reproduction and dispersal, an adaptation shared with the gymnosperm, is clearly significant and provides a definite advantage over seedless vascular plants. Most have efficient water-conducting vessel elements in their xylem, as well as tracheids . Most flowering plants also have efficient carbohydrate-conducting sieve tube elements in their phloem. The leaves of flowering plants, with their broad, expanded blades, are very efficient at absorbing light for photosynthesis. Abscission of these leaves during cold or dry periods reduces water loss and has enabled some flowering plants to expand into habitats that would otherwise be too harsh for survival. Adaptability of the sporophyte generation in new habitats and changing environments, e.g. cactus and water lily.

30. SEEDLESS NONVASCULAR PLANTS The mosses and other bryophytes are small non-vascular plants that lack a specialized vascular, or conducting system to transport nutrients, water and essential minerals (inorganic nutrients) throughout the plant body. In the absence of such system, bryophytes rely on diffusion and osmosis to obtain needed materials. This reliance means that they are restricted in size; if they were much larger, some of their cells could not obtain enough necessary materials. They do not form seeds instead they reproduce and disperse primarily via haploid spores.

31. BRYOPHYTES The bryophytes (from the Greek words meaning “moss plant”) consists of about 16, 000 species of mosses, liverworts, and hornworts; bryophytes are the only living nonvascular plants. Because they have no means for extensive internal transport of water, sugar, and essential minerals, bryophytes are typical small. They generally require a moist environment of active growth and reproductions, but some can tolerate dry areas. Moss gametophytes are differentiated into “leaves” and “stems”. Each individual plant has tiny, hair like absorptive structures called rhizoids and an upright, stem like structure that bears leaf like blades, each normally consisting of a single layer of undifferentiated cells except at the midrib. Because they lack vascular tissues they do not have true roots, or leaves; the moss structures are not homologous to roots, stems, or leaves in vascular plants. Some moss species have water-conducting cells and sugar-conducting cells, although these cells are not lignified or as specialized or effective as the conducting cells of vascular plants.

32. BRYOPHYTES A Comparison of Major Groups of Seedless Plants Plant Group Dominant Stage life cycle Nonvascular; reproduce by spores (bryophytes) Liverworts ( Hepatophyta ) Mosses ( Bryophyta ) Gametophyte :thalloid or leafy plant Gametophyt : leafy plant Gametophyte: thalloid plant Vascular ; reproduce by spores Club mosses ( Lycipodiophyta ) Ferns ( Pteridophyta ) Whisk ferns ( Pteridophyta ) Horsetails ( Pterodophyta ) Sporophyte: roots, rhisomes , erect stems, and leaves ( microphylls ) Sporophyte: roots, rhizomes, and leaves ( megaphylls ) Sporophyte: rhizomes and erect stems, no true or leaves Sporophyte: roots, rhizomes, erect stems, and leaves (reduced megaphylls )

33. BRYOPHYTES

34. Liverwort Liverwort gametophytes are either thalloid or leafy Phylym Hepatophyta consist of about 6000 species of nonvascular plants with a dominant gametophyte generation but the gametophytes of some liverworts are quite different from those of mosses. Their body form is often a flattened, lobed structure called thallus that is not differentiated into leaves, stems, or roots.

35. Hornwort Phylum Anthocerophyta are small group of about 100 species of bryophytes whose gametophytes superficially resemble those of the thalloid liverworts. Hornworts live in disturbed habitats such as fallow fields and roadsides.

36. SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS The most important adaptation found in seedless vascular plants, though absent in algae and bryophytes, is specialized vascular tissues, xylem and phloem – for support and conduction. This system of conduction lets vascular plants grow larger than bryophytes because water, minerals, and sugar are transported to all parts of the plant. Although seedless vascular plants in temperate environments are relatively small, tree ferns in the tropics may grow to heights of 18 m. All seedless vascular plants have true stems with vascular tissues, and most also have true roots and leaves.

37. SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS Botanists have extensively studied the evolution of the leaf as the main organ of photosynthesis. The two basic types of true leaves – microphylls and megaphylls – evolved independently of each other. The microphylls , which is usually small and has a single vascular strand, probably evolved from small, projecting extensions of stem tissue (enations). Only one group of living plants, the club mosses, has microphylls . In contrast, macrophylls , probably evolved from stem branches that gradually filled in with additional tissue (webbing) to form most leaves as we know them today.

38. SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

39. Plant Anatomy and Physiology The basic plant anatomy is composed of two Systems: The ROOT and the SHOOT.

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46. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Root Modifications Plants have different root structures for specific purposes. There are many different types of specialized roots, but two of the more familiar types of roots include aerial roots and storage roots . Aerial roots grow above the ground, typically providing structural support. Storage roots (for example, taproots and tuberous roots) are modified for food storage. Aerial roots are found in many different kinds of plants, offering varying functions depending on the location of the plant. Epiphytic roots are a type of aerial root that enable a plant to grow on another plant in a non-parasitic manner. The banyan tree begins as an epiphyte, germinating in the branches of a host tree. Aerial prop roots develop from the branches and eventually reach the ground, providing additional support. Over time, many roots will come together to form what appears to be a trunk. The epiphytic roots of orchids develop a spongy tissue to absorb moisture and nutrients from any organic material on their roots. In screwpine , a palm-like tree that grows in sandy tropical soils, aerial roots develop to provide additional support that help the tree remain upright in shifting sand and water conditions.

47. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Root Modifications Storage roots, such as carrots, beets, and sweet potatoes, are examples of roots that are specially modified for storage of starch and water. They usually grow underground as protection from plant-eating animals. Some plants, however, such as leaf succulents and cacti, store energy in their leaves and stems, respectively, instead of in their roots.

48. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Root Modifications Other examples of modified roots are aerating roots and haustorial roots. Aerating roots, which rise above the ground, especially above water, are commonly seen in mangrove forests that grow along salt water coastlines. Haustorial roots are often seen in parasitic plants such as mistletoe. Their roots allow the plants to absorb water and nutrients from other plants.

49. Plant Anatomy and Physiology

50. Plant Anatomy and Physiology The LEAVES The plant leaves are lateral outgrowth of the stem which develop from the meristematic tissues of buds. They are the part of the plant shoot which serves as the chief food-producing organ in most vascular plants . To perform this function more efficiently, they are arranged on the stem and oriented as to allow maximum absorption of sunlight . The leaves may be considered as the most important life-giving part of the plant body. The carbohydrate that is produced in the leaves in the process of photosynthesis sustains animal life, both directly and indirectly. This organic compound contains the energy which the plant obtains from the sun, the same energy that powers animal and human life. Likewise, the oxygen that plant leaves give off is essential to the continuing existence of animals and other aerobic organisms.

51. Plant Anatomy and Physiology

52. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Functions of Leaves Photosynthesis – Plants capture sunlight as the energy needed in photosynthesis in splitting the molecules of water in the process. Transpiration - Plants lose a large volume of water through the leaves in the form of vapor. The exit of water is through the stomata and the cuticle, but  stomatal transpiration  is largely more dominant than  cuticular transpiration . It is estimated that the loss of water via stomata through the process of transpiration exceeds 90 percent of the water absorbed by the roots. Floral induction - The plant leaves synthesize and translocate the flower-inducing hormone called florigen  to the buds. Food Storage - The leaves serve as food storage organ of the plant both temporarily and on long-term basis. Under favorable conditions, the rate of photosynthesis may exceed that of translocation of photosynthates toward other organs. During the daytime, sugars accumulate in the leaves and starch is synthesized and stored in the chloroplasts. At nighttime, the starch is hydrolyzed to glucose and respired or converted to transportable forms like sucrose. Special uses - In banana, the leaf sheaths provide the physical support, oftenly called  pseudostem , to raise the leaves upward. In a few  insect-eating plants  such as the pitcher plant, venus fly-trap and sundew, plant leaves are so modified to trap visiting insects, then releasing enzymes and digesting them for their protein which is a source of nutrition. In some plants such as  Bryophyllum  and  Kalanchoe , the leaves are used for asexual reproduction

53. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Types of Leaves: Seed leaf Foliage leaf Scaly leaf Bract leaf or Hypsophylls Prophylls Ligule Floral leaf Sporophylls

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56. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy of a leaf

57. Plant Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy of a leaf

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77. ANIMAL BIOLOGY Animals are multi-cellular organisms Heterotrophic and are relying mainly on organic carbon and chemical energy to convert the nutrients they get from food to energy. The major group of animals are classified under the Kingdom Animalia, also known as Metazoa . This kingdom does not contain prokaryotes. All the members of this kingdom are multicellular, eukaryotes. They are heterotrophs, they depend on other organisms directly or indirectly for food. Most of the animals ingest food and digest in the internal cavity. Most of the organisms are motile which means they can move independently and spontaneously. The Kingdom Animalia is primarily classified into two: Invertebrate and Vertebrate

78. ANIMAL BIOLOGY

79. ANIMAL BIOLOGY General characteristics of the Kingdom Animalia are as follows:  Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.  They have multiple cells with mitochondria and they depend on other organisms for food.  Habitat - Most of the animals inhabit seas, fewer are seen in fresh water and even fewer on land.  There are around 9 to 10 million animal species that inhabit the earth. Only 800,000 species are identified.  Biologists recognize 36 phyla in the animals kingdom. 

80. ANIMAL BIOLOGY Size - The sizes of animals ranges from a few celled organism like the mesozoans to animals weighing many tons like the blue whale. Animal bodies - Bodies of animals are made of cells organized into tissues which perform specific functions. in most animals tissue are organized into complex organs, which form organ systems.  Cell structure - The animal cell contains organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi complex, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, vacuoles, centrioles, cytoskeleton.  Animals are made up of many organ systems, that aids in performing specific functions that are necessary for the survival of the organism.  Organ systems are skeletal system, muscular system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, excretory system, reproductive system, immune system and the endocrine system.  Body symmetry - Most of the animals are bilaterally symmetrical, while primitive animals are asymmetrical and cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical.  Locomotion - Most animals have the ability to move, they show rapid movement when compared to plants and other organisms. Respiration - It is a gaseous exchange of taking in oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide. This process takes place in organs of respiration like the lungs, gills, book gills and book lungs and some animals skin is also used for respiration.

81. ANIMAL BIOLOGY General characteristics of the Kingdom Animalia are as follows:  Digestion - Animals ingest food, and digestion takes place in the internal cavity like the digestive system in animals, in primitive animals vacuoles are for digestion.  Nervous system - Sensory mechanism and the coordination of the organ systems is carried on by the nervous system. In animals the nervous system comprises of nerve ganglions, or brain, spinal cords and nerves.  Circulatory system - The distribution of nutrients, exchange of gases and removal of wastes takes place in the circulatory system. This system comprises of the heart, blood vessels and the blood. Excretory system - Removal of wastes from kidneys.  Skeletal system - support and protection is provided by the skeletal system. Reproductive system - Most animals reproduce sexually, by the fusion of haploid cells like the eggs and the sperms. Glands of the endocrine system help in control and coordination of the body system. 

82. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate Invertebrate , any animal that lacks a vertebral column, or backbone, in contrast to the cartilaginous or bony vertebrates . More than 90 percent of all living animal species are invertebrates. Worldwide in distribution, they include animals as diverse as sea stars, sea urchins, earthworms, sponges, jellyfish, lobsters, crabs, insects, spiders, snails, clams, and squid. Invertebrates are especially important as agricultural pests, parasites, or agents for the transmission of parasitic infections to humans and other vertebrates. Invertebrates serve as food for humans and are key elements in food chains that support birds, fish, and many other vertebrate species.

83. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate

84. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate

85. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate Kingdom Animalia has approximately 36 sub-divisions known as 'phyla'. Each phyla share particular properties structurally and functionally which together separate it from other phyla. Below are the most common phyla classified under traditional biological  methodology. Phylum Porifera – Show transition from unicellular to multicellular life. They do not have tissue or organs and have less cell specialization. They are also considered as the simplest animal form.

86. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate Phylum Cnidaria - Has a pretty much replaced the older term of Coelenterata ; which of both known as Radiate Animals because they both have radial or biradial symmetry . Hydras , jellies, sea anemones, and corals are examples. They are soft-bodied, carnivorous and have stinging tentacles arranged in circles around their mouths. Simplest animals to have body symmetry and specialized cells. Phylum Platyhelminthes – They are flatworms that are mostly parasitic with a few free living in sea water or freshwater. They have an organ system grade of organization with bilateral symmetry body. Digestive system is incomplete. Parasitic worms have direct absorption of soluble nutrients by cells and tissues. Respiration is by simple diffusion of gases through body surface and no circulatory system. They can reproduce by sexual or asexual way on gametic fusion and regeneration and fission. Fertilization is internal and life cycle is complex involving one or more hosts.  

87. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate Phylum Nematoda - Nematodes are ubiquitous, unsegmented, acoelomate and pseudocoelomate worms . Nematodes are probably the most abundant multicellular animals alive today. They occur in all environments, in fresh and sea water, on land, in polar regions and in deserts. They can be found in hot springs, high up mountains and in the deepest oceans.   Phylum Mollusca - an invertebrate of a large phylum that includes snails, slugs, mussels, and octopuses. They have a soft, unsegmented body and live in aquatic or damp habitats, and most kinds have an external calcareous shell . The body symmetry of Mollusca and Annelida is a figure of the same bilateral appearance when it is cut in half longitudinal.

88. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate Phylum Annelida - The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms . They have elongated body and are round. Some are hormonomous , with body segments mostly similar, others are heteronomous with specialized segments.   Phylum Arthropods - is the most numerous phylum of all living organisms, both in number of species and in number of individuals. They have a segmented body, jointed legs, and a tough outer covering or exoskeleton . Phylum Lophophorates - any of three phyla of aquatic invertebrate animals that possess a lopophore , a fan of ciliated tentacles around the mouth. Movements of the cilia create currents of water that carry food particles toward the mouth. The lophophorates include the moss animals (phylum Bryozoa ), lamp shells (phylum Brachiopoda ), and phoroid  worms (phylum Phoronida ). The phyla are no longer thought to be closely related to each other.

89. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Invertebrate Phylum Echinoderms - Echinoderms usually inhabit shallow coastal waters and ocean trenches organisms in this class include: Sea stars, Brittle stars, Sand dollars, and Sea cucumbers. Phylum Ctenophora - Nearly all of ctenophores are predators and most are nearly transparent . Comb Jellies - Gelatinous Carnivores. The 150 or so described species are exclusively marine and most are planktonic.

90. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate The Vertebrata, or vertebrates, is a very diverse group, ranging from lampreys to Man. It includes all craniates , except hagfishes, and are characterized chiefly by a vertebral column , hence their name. The majority of the extant vertebrates are the jawed vertebrates , or gnathostomes , but lampreys are jawless vertebrates. However, in Late Silurian or Early Devonian times, about 420 to 400 million years ago, the situation was reverse, and the majority of the vertebrate species were jawless fishes (the " ostracoderms ", presumably more closely related to the gnathostomes than to lampreys). The decline of the jawless vertebrates and the subsequent rise of the gnathostomes took place about 380 million years ago.

91. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate All chordates have 4 basic features that are present at some point during their life cycle Hollow Nerve Cord – Nerve cord in which nerves branch out at regular intervals Notochord – Long supporting rod that runs throughout body Pharyngeal Pouches – Paired structures in throat Muscular Tail – Extends beyond anus Only 4-5% of animals are chordates Examples = Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds

92. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate

93. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate

94. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Sub- phylum Urochordates –sometimes known as the Tunicata , are commonly known as "sea squirts." The body of an adult tunicate is quite simple, being essentially a sack with two siphons through which water enters and exits. Water is filtered inside the sack-shaped body. However, many tunicates have a larva that is free-swimming and exhibits all chordate characteristics: it has a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. This "tadpole larva" will swim for some time; in many tunicates, it eventually attaches to a hard substrate, it loses its tail and ability to move, and its nervous system largely disintegrates. Some tunicates are entirely pelagic; known as salps , they typically have barrel-shaped bodies and may be extremely abundant in the open ocean .

95. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Sub-phylum Cephalochordata –  are marine organisms. Their body is fish-like with notochord and nerve cord persisting throughout life . They extend the entire length of the body. The eyes, and jaws are absent. The fundamental plan of the chordate body is seen in its most simple form in these animals. Gonads are paired in Amphioxus and unpaired in Asymmetron .

96. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Sub- phylum Vertebrata or Craniata -  are well developed chordates. They show distinct head. Notochord is replaced by the vertebral column completely or partially. The nerve-tubes anterior and enlarged to form a brain. Cranium protects the brain . Visceral clefts called Gills perform respiration. They are not more than seven pairs. Heart is ventral Andes are present. They are formed by several segments.

97. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate

98. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Muscle segments Tail Anus Pharyngeal pouches Mouth Hollow nerve cord Notochord

99. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate

100. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Class Fish ( Ichthus ) Three of the vertebrate classes are fish. The most primitive are the Agnathans . These are jawless fishes that do not have scales. These are lampreys and hagfishes. Fish that have skeletons consisting of hard rubber – like cartilage rather than bone are members of Chondricthyes . Examples are sharks and rays. All of the bony fishes are members of Osteichthyes . Trout, Tilapia, Salmon, and Parrot fish are example. Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are examples of  Osteichthyes .

101. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Class Fish ( Ichthus ) Fish live in nearly every single aquatic habitat imaginable and they are aquatic vertebrates characterized by fins, scales, and gills. Fish were the first vertebrates to evolve. They bring oxygen rich water through gills and remove oxygen poor water through gill slits. They have a closed circulatory system and have a single – chambered heart. Their swim bladder controls buoyancy and are mostly are egg laying. Most move by contracting opposite muscles (S Shaped ). Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are examples of  Osteichthyes .

102. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Class Amphibians These animals spend part of their lives under water and part on land. Frogs, toads, and salamanders are amphibians. Many of these species must keep their skin moist by periodically returning to wet areas. All of them must return to water in order to reproduce because their eggs would dry out otherwise. They start life with gills, like fish, and later develop lungs to breathe air. Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are examples of  Osteichthyes .

103. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Class Reptiles Includes turtles, snakes, lizards, alligators, and other reptiles. All of them have lungs to breath on land and skin that does not need to be kept wet. They produce amniote egg which usually has a calcium carbonate rich, leather hard shell that protects the embryo from drying out. This is an advantage over fish and amphibians because amniote egg can be laid on land where it is usually safer from predators that would be in lakes, rivers, and oceans. Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are examples of  Osteichthyes .

104. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Class Birds (Aves) This includes all the birds. They also produce amniote eggs but usually give them greater protection from predators by laying them high off of the ground or in other relatively inaccessible locations. In the case of both reptiles and birds, the eggs are fertilized within the reproductive tract of females. There are other striking similarities between their anatomies and reproductive systems. This is not surprising because birds are descendants of theropod dinosaurs (two-legged mostly carnivorous dinosaurs). Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are examples of  Osteichthyes .

105. ANIMAL BIOLOGY: Vertebrate Class Mammalia First true mammals appeared 220 million years ago Mammals flourished after dinosaurs became extinct – 65 million years ago Basic characteristics Hair Mammary glands – produce milk to nourish young Breathe air Four chambered heart Endotherms – can generate own body heat Internal fertilization; care for young Tuna, bass, salmon, and trout are examples of  Osteichthyes .

106. Animal Physiology The fundamental biology of all animals Human health and disease The health and disease of nonhuman animals of importance in human affairs

107. Animal Physiology The study of physiology integrates knowledge at all levels of organization.

108. Animal Physiology

109. Animal Physiology Physiology’s two central questions about how animals work. What is the mechanism by which a function is accomplished? How did that mechanism come to be?

110. Animal Physiology

111. Animal Physiology

112. Animal Physiology

113. Terms to know

114. Animal Physiology Mechanisms and adaptive significance are distinct concepts that do not imply each other .

115. Animal Physiology Animals are structurally dynamic and have organized systems that require energy to maintain organization. Both time and body size are fundamental significance in the lives of all animals. They are structurally dynamic and the atoms of their bodies are dynamic exchange with the atoms in their environments. Although the particular atoms exchange the overall structure stays the same energy required.

116. Animal Physiology

117. The environment an animal occupies is often microenvironment or microclimate

118. The environment an animal occupies is often microenvironment or microclimate

119. Animal Physiology Regulation demands more energy than conformity because regulation represents a form of organization. Homeostasis – the existence of regulatory systems that automatically make adjustments to maintain internal constancy: negative and positive feedback. This mechanism will help provide material needs of cells, removes wastes from cells, regulates physical environment of cell and communicates among cells.

120. Homeostasis Homeostatic regulatory compoments Controlled systems – effectors Regulatory systems which acquire information, process information, integrate information, and send commands. Homeeostatic regulatory variables such as setpoint (optimal chemical or physical condition), feedback information (actual current condition), and error signal (discrepancy between setpoint and feedback value).

121. Homeostasis Negative feedback – reduces or reverses activity of effector and returns condition to set point. Positive feedback – amplifies activity of effector and self-limiting activities. Feedforward information – changes the setpoint

122. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation Living cells cannot survive temperatures above or below fairly narrow limits. Thermosensitivities of organisms vary and their effectors vary. Q 10 quantifies temperature sensitivity – the ratio of physiological rate at one temperature to the rate at 10 o C lower temperature. Acclimatization can alter an animal’s temperature response. These changes that allow optimal activity under different climatic conditions.

123. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation Metabolic compensation – maintain metabolic rate in different seasons and accomplished with alternate enzyme systems. Animals are classified by how they respond to environmental temperatures ( homeotherm and poikilotherm ). They can also be classified by they respond to environmental temperatures and their sources of body heat: ectotherm and endotherm.

124. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

125. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

126. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

127. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

128. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

129. Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

130. Animal Physiology

131. Animal Physiology

132. Animal Physiology

133. OXYGEN Need for oxygen due to need for metabolic energy. Releasing energy from organic compounds (food) release hydrogen. This is combined with oxygen to form water. The suitability of an environment depends on availability of O2.

134. Osmoregulation Osmoregulation varies according to the environment. Aquatic vertebrates have adaptations to maintain the water-salt balance of their bodies. Cartilaginous fishes has a total concentration of ions in their blood is less than that in the sea water. Blood plasma is nearly isotonic to sea water because they pump it full of urea, giving their blood the same tonicity as sea water, Marine bony fishes lose water by osmosis at their gills. To counteract this, they drink sea water almost constantly and to get rid of excess salt, they actively transport it into the surrounding sea water at the gills. The kidneys conserve water, and they produce a scant amount of isotonic urine.

135. Osmoregulation Freshwater Bony fishes tend to gain water by osmosis across the gills and the body surface. As a consequence, these fishes never drink water and actively transport salts into the blood across the membranes of their gills. They eliminate excess water by producing large quantities of dilute (hypotonic) urine.

136. Osmoregulation

137. Osmoregulation Terrestrial vertebrates have adaptations to maintain the water-salt balance of their bodies. Kangaroo Rat lives in the desert and fur prevents loss of water to the hair, and during the day, it remains in a cool burrow. Rat’s nasal passage has a highly convoluted mucous membrane surface that captures condensed water from exhaled air. In birds like seagulls, salt-excreting glands located near the eyes produce a salty solution that is excreted through the nostrils and moves down the grooves on their beaks until it drips off.

138. Osmoregulation In marine turtles, the salt gland is modified tear (lacrimal) gland, and in sea snakes, a salivary sublingual gland beneath the tongue gets rid of excess salt. If humans drink sea water, we loss more water than we take in just ridding the body of all that salt.

139. Osmoregulation

140. Osmoregulation The kidney is an organ of Homeostasis. It is part of the urinary system. Urine made by kidneys is conducted from the body by the other organs in the urinary system. In all vertebrates, except fro placental mammals, a duct from the kidney conducts urine to a cloaca, a common depository for indigestible remains, urine, and sex cells.

141. Osmoregulation Urine formation requires three steps.

142. Osmoregulation The kidneys concentrate urine to maintain water-salt balance.

143. Osmoregulation Hormones control the reabsorption of salt.

144. Acid-base balance Lungs and kidneys maintain acid-base balance.

145. Osmoregulation Hormones control the reabsorption of salt.

146. Animal Defense Some animals use these methods of defense to protect themselves: Comouflage Mimicry ( B atesian or Mullerian ) Bright coloration “Hair” projections

147. Animal Defense Some animals use these methods of defense to protect themselves: Comouflage Mimicry ( B atesian or Mullerian ) Bright coloration “Hair” projections

148. Animal Adaptations

149. Animal Adaptations

150. Animal Adaptations

151. Animal Adaptations: High Altitudes

152. Reproduction in Animals

153. Reproduction in Animals

154. Reproduction in Animals

155. Reproduction in Animals

156. Reproduction in Animals