PS 3342 CONFLICT & NATIONAL ISSUES-THE PPT DESCRIBE ISSUES RELATED TO AFRICAN SECURITY

CONFLICT AND NATIONAL SECURITY ISSUES

1. PS 3342: African POLITICS CONFLICT AND NATIONAL SECURITY ISSUES Ismael Aboui Buchanan, PhD. University of Rwanda, Huye Campus

2. In this class… Introduction Understanding ethnicity and identity politics, Religion, the state and conflict in the African politics Extreme ideologies and Terrorism Natural resource and Local conflicts International Conflicts in Africa Conclusion

3. Introduction Politics and ethnicity share a close relationship in most states. Also on familiar terms are politics and religion. Fault lines generated by these two social cleavages can be found in most countries….. Opposing interests are divided by these social fractures , which , in turn create political competition. Occasionally violent conflict is the consequence . Taking the example of 21 st century in Europe, for instance, notions of ethnicity played a key role in fueling the WWII. In the 1990s, similar sentiments brought devastation to the Balkans with the break-up of Yugoslavia. Even in other part of the globe, ethnic and religious tensions are common….

4. Cont.. We have many examples around on how strong ethnicity is important in some society, for example, when making decisions, political leaders in Africa not only have to think of the national interest, they also have to consider the reactions of the various ethnic and religious constituencies housed within their country . (in some African countries, ethnicity has become a method of modern political mobilization. Let examine the impact of ethnic identities on political mobilization in the African context.

5. ethnicity A basic definition of an ethnic group would be A community of people who have the conviction that they have a common identity and common fate based on issues of origin , kinship ties, traditions, cultural uniqueness, a shared history and possibly a shared language. Ethnicity, however, focuses more on sentiments of origin and ancestry, language, culture rather than the geographical imperative of a nation.. Notions of ethnicity become pronounced and political when they are used to distinguish one social group from another within a specific territory. In US for example : Africa- A mericans, Irish-Americans…. Etc ( here, minority groups are defined in terms of ancestral origins).

6. Understand ethnic political mobilization Ethnic political mobilization is a process by which groups organize around some features of ethnic identity ( Olzak , 1983). For ex. Skin color, language, customs) in pursuit of collective ends. Politicians may use ethnic identity for votes, power, to suppress rivals: Rwanda, South Africa offer two contrasting outcomes of this process. In many African countries, colonial powers reinforced ethnic categories for control. These divisions did not disappear after independence- they were politicized, Today , ethnicity often influences who gets power, access and protection.

7. Power struggles Within Africa cultural settings power struggles emerge when ethnic groups fight to control government power and acquire resources through mobilizing their ethnic solidarity. The use of ethnic identities as political instruments develops due to fierce state control battles.

8. Case study: the igbo & the biafran in Nigeria Historical background: Post independence Nigeria was marked by ethnic tensions among major groups: Hausa-Fulani (north) and Yoruba (West) and Igbo (East) In 1966, a coup led predominantly by Igbo officers resulted in the assassination of key northern leaders A counter- coup ensued, leading to widespread anti Igbo- violence, with estimated of 10.000 to 30.000 Igbo killed in the North. On May 30, 1967, Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu declared the Eastern Region as the independent Republic of Biafra.

9. Cont … HAUSA PEOPLE IGBO PEOPLE FULANI PEOPLE

10. the root causes of sudan’s civil wars South Sudan gained independence in 2011 after a decades long civil war with Sudan. Hope for peace were quickly dashed by ethnic-based political conflict; T his case revealed how ethnic identities were politicized to gain and consolidate power. The rivalry between President Salva Kiir (Dinka) and Vice President Riek Machar (Nuer)

11. WHEN POLITICS TURNED ETHNIC (2013 CRISIS) 60+ ethnic groups. Two dominant: Dinka (35% of population) Nuer (15-20%) Historical rivalry over: LAND AND CATTLE, ACCESS TO STATE RESOURCES, Ethnicity became a political identity, not just a cultural one. WHAT HAPPENED??? Kiir (Dinka) accused Machar (Nuer) of a coup which Machar dismissed Violence erupted in Juba, spread rapidly. Army fractured ethnic lines.

12. KIIR AND MACHAR

13. Ethnicity as a weapons of war and power MASSACRES: Juba (2013): Dinka forces targeted Nuer civilians. Bentiu (2014): Nuer rebels killed hundreds based on ethnicity. ETHNIC FAVORITISM SHAPED: Army structure/government positions/access to resources, deep ethnic mistrust/ elite mobilized ethnic identity not for unity- but for power retention.

14. Dinka and nuer

15. Case of study: Rwanda genocide Colonial rule institutionalized ethnic categories. In 1933, identity cards officially labeled people as Hutu, Tutsi and Twa . Quotas limited Tutsi access to education and jobs, deepening resentment. Propaganda media, like the Kangura newspapers and RTLM radio, openly preached ethnic hatred . “The infamous HUTU 10 commandments. “DEMONIZED THE TUTSI MINORITY” INTERAHAMWE were organized and trained to kill Tutsis and local government leaders prepared to participate. Weapons were distributed, radio gave instructions, house to house raids were carried out, people were slaughtered..

16. ID BEING INTRODUCED DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

17. Conclusion Ethnicity was rooted in colonial manipulation and elite propaganda, and also weaponized to justify genocide, killings, etc…. Ethnic participation is not inherently violent, it depends on how leaders and institutions use it. Many of African politics hinges on whether identity becomes a bridge or a barrier.

18. Any observations or questions? Why ethnicity matters in African Politics?

19. Religion, state and conflict As with ethnicity, religion has also long been established as a social cleavage generating political competition within, and between, societies; Ever since humans have been in existence, individuals have been mobilizing politically with reference to spiritual beliefs . Ethnic and religious sentiments are, of course, not the sole foundation for political relationships in Africa. They combine with other social considerations such as class, ‘race’, ideology, gender and age, to mention but a few.

20. Cont.. However, ethnicity and religion have been particularly relevant to the political structure of post-colonial Africa . Religious elements have been present in many of Africa’s conflicts ever since pre-colonial times, just as European colonialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries gave rise to resistance movements that were partly inspired by religion – either by traditional religions, Christianity or Islam. Witchcraft and sorcery are also still given widespread credence across Africa today, as many respect this traditional animist world of spirits and ancestors.

21. Active radical groups Active radical groups have a more direct influence in North Africa, such as Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), or offshoots of the so-called Islamic State. They have an interest in creating branches in other countries. They have supported rebels in Mali and they were also doing it in Nigeria and Somalia. Their influences was about spreading a radical version of Islam.  Sub-Saharan Africa traditionally was home to a rather moderate form of Islam, for example, Sufism

22. Cont.. Countries like Saudi Arabia or Qatar were spreading Wahhabism, or similar variants, which could indirectly create a radical ideology that led to violence . To some countries religion has been used to help achieve political ends. For example in CAR. Religious fanaticism, such as the global Islamic Jihad, exacerbated the situation in CAR. The Seleka insurgents in CAR, according to them, hold the vision of global political Islam, which wants to overthrow all worldly government (i.e., the Kufur system) to enthrone an Islamic theocratic state.

23. Cont …

24. Key religious conflicts Central African Republic : This country has seen religious conflicts with religious overtones Mali , Nigeria, and Somalia : These are considered hotspots for religiously armed conflicts, with rebels linked to global groups like al-Qaida and the Islamic State. 

25. Extreme ideologies and terrorism Extreme ideologies are sets of beliefs and principles that are considered far outside the mainstream and advocate for radical or extreme measures, often based on violence, hatred, or intolerance and seeking to negate fundamental rights, overthrow democratic systems, or justify destructive actions.  These ideologies often use propaganda, conspiracy theories, and narratives of grievance to recruit and motivate followers who are willing to commit violent acts to achieve their goals.  These ideologies can be political, religious, or social, and they can become more extreme as individuals become more dogmatic and intolerant of other viewpoints

26. Key characteristics Intolerance of opposing views:   Individuals with extreme views become increasingly intolerant of differing opinions, challenging or opposing anyone who disagrees with them.  Rejection of mainstream values:   Extreme ideologies often reject fundamental societal values like democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty, and mutual respect for different beliefs.  Promotion of hatred and violence:   They are frequently based on hatred and intolerance, and some may promote or use violence to achieve their goals. 

27. Cont … Goal of social or political change:   A common aim is to undermine, overturn, or replace an existing system with one based on the extreme ideology itself.  Justification of harm:   Some extreme ideologies may justify violence as a necessary tool to achieve their aims, even considering it a religious or moral duty.  Examples : online-based ideology, Movements based on fascist, racist, groups that have ideologies based on violence to establish a strict interpretation of a specific religious or political system; Groups that oppose democracy or aiming to destabilize governments. 

28. How ideology functions in radicalization Radicalization : The process by which a person comes to support extremist ideologies and terrorism, often facilitated by ideological propaganda . Narrative and propaganda : Terrorist groups use propaganda to spread their ideology, often mixing half-truths and lies to reinforce commitment among vulnerable individuals . Grievances : Ideologies tap into real or perceived grievances, framing them within a larger narrative of victimhood and injustice . Conspiracy theories : Many extremist ideologies incorporate conspiracy theories that can further isolate individuals and reinforce their extremist beliefs. 

29. Types of ideologies and related terrorism Right-wing extremism : Ideologies like  White Nationalism  and  White Supremacism  are linked to right-wing terrorism . Islamist extremism :  This is another form of extremism associated with terrorist groups. Other extremist ideologies : Terrorism can also stem from left-wing, anarchist, or single-issue extremism

30. Important nuances Not all extremism is terrorism:  Organizations that promote extremist ideologies may not be proscribed terrorist groups and may not engage in extreme violence, but their divisive or hateful narratives can be linked to terrorism. Debate on causal role:  While ideology is central, there is ongoing academic debate on the extent to which it is the primary cause of terrorism versus a factor that emerges during the process of radicalization or within a terrorist group

31. W hat does terrorism mean?? Terrorism is generally understood to feature a political objective, whether that means the politics of nationalism, ethnicity, religion, ideology or social class amongst others. Terrorism is defined, at its simplest, as : Any act designed to cause terror; violent acts, create fear or acts of unlawful violence and war created by criminal organizations for protection rackets or with intention to enforce a code of silence…. In some cases, the same group may be described as “Freedom fighters” by its supporters

32. Cont..

33. Types of terrorism: Political terrorism : violent criminal behavior designed primarily to generate fear in the community or substantial segment of it, for political purpose; State terrorism: referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism of such proportions. It may also be referred to as STRUCTURAL TERRORISM: defined broadly as terrorsit acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

34. Cont.. Data terrorism: the unjust storage or use of private information for economic, political or personal gains . (countries or large company like facebook ….), Other types: cyber terrorism, Eco- terrorism, Nuclear terrorism, Religious terrorism, biological attacks, Narco terrorism etc…

35. We can also divided this into BY IDEOLOGY Ethno-nationalist/separatist terrorism :  Groups that use terrorism to achieve political goals based on shared ethnicity or nationality, like the IRA or ETA . Religious terrorism :  Terrorism motivated by religious beliefs, which can include extremist interpretations or specific religions like Christian or Islamic terrorism Left-wing terrorism : Groups that use terrorism to achieve their political goals, often related to a communist or anarchist ideology.

36. Cont.. Right-wing terrorism :  Groups motivated by a far-right ideology, which can include themes like white supremacy, anti-government sentiment, and xenophobia. Single-issue terrorism :  Terrorism motivated by a single issue, such as environmental or animal rights activism BY LOCATION D omestic terrorism : Terrorist activities committed by individuals or groups within their own country, without foreign direction

37. Cont.. International terrorism :  Terrorist acts that cross national borders, which can involve groups or individuals with ties to foreign organizations or states BY METHODOLOGY Cyberterrorism :  The use of cyber-attacks to cause destruction, disrupt critical infrastructure, or create fear. Biological terrorism :  The release of biological agents, such as bacteria or viruses, to cause illness, death, or panic Nuclear terrorism : The use of a nuclear device or a dirty bomb (a device that disperses radioactive material) to cause mass casualties and contamination Conventional or Chemical terrorism, etc….

38. Major terrorist groups in the 21 st century 1. Al Qaeda and Taliban Is a global militant islamist organization founded by Osama Bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam and several others at some point between August 1998 and late 1989, with origin traceable to the Arab volunteers who fought against the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in the 1980s. It operates as a network comprising both a multinational, stateless army and an islamist, extremist, Wahhabi, jihadist group. Alqaeda carried out many attacks.

39. Osama bin laden (al qaeda )..

40. Cont. 2. BOKO Haram Which calls itself WILAYAT GHARB IFRIQIYYAH (Islamic State’s) West Africa Province, ISWAP) and was formerly called JAMA’AT AHL AS SUNNAH LID DA’WAH WAL JUHAD” Group of the people of Sunnah for Preaching and Jihad), is an Islamic extremist group based in North-Eastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and Northern Cameron. The group is led by Abubakar Shekau . Estimated of the group’ s membership varies between 7,000 to 10,000 fighters it had a link to Al-Qaeda, but in 2014, it expressed support for the Islamic State of Iraq

41. Abu bakar shekau ( boko haram)

42. Abu bakr al- badhdadi ( isis ) & hafeez saeed ( Lashakar -e- taiba )

43. Cont.. PENTAGON BOMBING KENYA BOMBING

44. Nationalist, separatist, or political Hamas :  A Palestinian Islamist political party and militant group that has been a key player in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. FARC :  The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia is a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla group that has been involved in a long-running conflict in Colombia Hizballah :  A Shi'a Islamist political party and militant group based in Lebanon, often cited for its extensive network and support from Iran. Fatemiyoun Division :  An Iran-backed Shi'a militia that is active in Syria and other conflict zones .

45. Other notable groups Haqqani Network :  An insurgent group with ties to the Taliban, active in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lashkar-e- Jhangvi :  A Sunni extremist group active in Pakistan. Kurdish Workers' Party (PKK) :  A left-wing militant group based in Turkey See more list of terrorist organizations

46. Terrorist organizations

47. INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT IN AFRICA ARMED CONFLICT TERRITORY DISPUTES TERRITORY WATER, SUPERPOWER PROMOTING REGIME CHANGES DRUG TRAFFICKING LEVEL OF ANALYSIS: INDIVIDUAL, DOMESTIC, INTERSTATE, GLOBAL

48. Armed conflicts Armed conflict is the use of armed force between states or protracted armed violence between governmental authorities and organized groups.  It can be categorized as either an international armed conflict (between states) or a non-international armed conflict (within a state, between governmental forces and organized groups). 

49. Types of armed conflict International Armed Conflict (IAC):  This occurs when there is a confrontation between the armed forces of two or more states, regardless of whether there's a formal declaration of war.  Non-International Armed Conflict (NIAC):  This involves protracted armed violence between governmental authorities and organized armed groups, or between such groups, within a single state.  

50. Cont.. Armed conflict leads to severe impacts, including civilian and military casualties, displacement, and destruction of infrastructure, and it is governed by the principles of IHL for example World War I and World War II

51. Cont..

52. Total number of armed conflict ( 90-99)

53. What are the causes of armed conflict   Poor economic conditions  are the most important long-term causes of intra-state armed conflicts today; Repressive political systems/under democratic country are also war-prone, especially in periods of transition; Degradation of renewable resources (specifically soil ... (reading go to …………http :// www.berghof-handbook.net)

54. Territory disputes A territory dispute is a disagreement between two or more political entities over the possession or control of land, water, or airspace; In short TD is: A disagreement over sovereignty of a piece of land, water, or air. Involves at least two parties with competing claims. Can occur between sovereign states, or with a new state and an occupying power. 

55. Cont.. Unclear historical boundaries:  Resulting from colonial-era decisions or lack of clear demarcation . Lack of administrative presence:  Disputed areas are often remote and lack a strong administrative presence, making their status ambiguous . Irredentism:  A political goal to reclaim territory that is perceived to belong to a nation based on ethnic or historical tie

56. India-Pakistan(Kashmir)

57. China-japan The main China-Japan dispute involves territorial sovereignty over the   Senkaku Islands  ( Diaoyu Islands) in the East China Sea, a territorial conflict that has escalated due to the area's potential oil and gas reserves, strategic location, and fishing grounds While Japan controls the islands, China and Taiwan both claim them, and the dispute is further complicated by issues of maritime boundary delimitation, fisheries, and resource rights in the surrounding water

58. EASTERN DRC CONFLICT

59. Natural resources and local conflicts Africa is known as a continent that is steeped in armed conflict and instability, the causes of which are both diverse and endemic; Natural resource conflicts arise from competition for access and control over resources like land, water, and minerals, and are driven by factors such as population growth, unequal distribution of benefits, and climate change These conflicts can range from local disputes over resource use to large-scale violence that funds armed groups, but are often more complex, involving rooted issues of rights, identity, and governance failures.

60. Causes of natural resource conflicts Competition for access:  Disputes arise when multiple users compete for limited resources without clear agreements or legal status, leading to conflict over land, water, and other resources; Governance failures : Weak or corrupt governance, including a lack of clear legal frameworks and poor management, can exacerbate resource conflicts. Sometimes, resource wealth is used to fund and sustain violence; Economic and population pressure:  Economic and population growth, combined with ecosystem degradation, increase demand for resources, fueling competition and conflict

61. Cont ,.. Unequal distribution:  The wealth generated by natural resources, such as oil or diamonds, can increase tensions when it is not shared equitably, with benefits often going to elites or external actors, while local populations bear the social and environmental costs; Climate change:  Climate change exacerbates resource scarcity, such as through affecting agricultural productivity, and can worsen existing conflicts or create new ones

62. Cont..

63. Some case study… Rich natural resources are taken away from the African continent at a fraction of their value; Case of Nigeria: It is all mainly about oil though non- lootable Though Nigeria is one of the world’s largest producers of oil, over half of the country’s population lives below the poverty line . Longstanding religious and ethnic tensions, corruption in the government, civilian unrest in regard to multinational oil companies in regard to their operations within the country

64. Cont..

65. Some case study DRC’s case study: Rich in minerals The Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is always poised on the edge of a machete blade Violent armed conflicts related to the extraction and exploitation of natural resources in the DRC has been a recurrent feature in Congolese history; Natural resource wealth is not juxtaposed to the socio-economic status of the ordinary citizens of the DRC

66. Cont..

67. DRUG TRAFFICKING Drug trafficking is a global illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws; Criminal networks traffic a range of drugs including cannabis, cocaine, heroin and synthetics such as methamphetamine and fentanyl, often operating through complex, hierarchical organizations. 

68. Causes of drug related crimes Economic factors:  Poverty and lack of economic opportunities are often cited as underlying causes of drug-related crime. In disadvantaged communities, drug trafficking can present an avenue for economic survival, leading individuals to engage in illicit activities . Addiction and dependency:  Substance abuse can alter an individual's judgment and decision-making abilities, leading to impulsive and criminal behavior. Drug addiction drives individuals to prioritize obtaining drugs over legal means, pushing them into a cycle of criminal activity.

69. Cont.. Gang involvement:  Gangs and organized criminal networks play a significant role in drug trafficking. The allure of power, protection, and financial gain draws individuals into these criminal enterprises, fostering an environment of violence and crime . Policy and legal factors:  The criminalization of drug use and punitive drug policies can inadvertently contribute to the association between drugs and crime. Mass incarceration resulting from drug-related offenses can perpetuate cycles of criminal behavior, hindering rehabilitation and reintegration efforts.

70. Cont..

71. Consequences The consequences of drug-related crime reverberate through society, impacting individuals, families, and communities: Public safety:  Drug-related crimes, such as violence between rival gangs, drug-related homicides, and turf wars, pose a significant threat to public safety. Communities plagued by drug-related crimes often experience increased fear, reduced trust, and a diminished quality of life. Overburdened justice system:  The criminal justice system bears the brunt of drug-related crime, leading to overcrowded prisons, strained law enforcement resources, and significant financial burdens. This diverts resources that could be allocated to prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation efforts. Health and social costs:  Drug addiction and drug-related crimes have profound health and social consequences. Substance abuse can lead to physical and mental health issues, broken families, and increased strain on healthcare systems.

72. Causes of conflicts in africa Ethnic plurality Poor leadership Corruption Poverty Ethnicity External debt burden Access and control over resources From the above challenges what solutions can you think off??