Psychology of Learning Ain Shams University.pptx

psychology

1. Prof. Ahmed Saad Chairman of Institute of Psychiatry Ain Shams University Psychology of Learning

2. Definition The process by which experience produces a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior or abilities. Learning helps us in mastering new skills and academic subjects. Learning leads to change in thinking, emotions and behavior.

3. Approaches to learning The main categories under which learning theories fall are behavioral and cognitive approaches.

4. Approaches to learning Behavioral theories: Focus only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. They fall under two broad categories of S-R theory (stimulus- response) S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement Thorndike- Trial and Error theory Skinner- Operant Conditioning S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory without reinforcement Pavlov- Classical Conditioning

5. Approaches to learning Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Self-regulated learning and Media psychology is a newer addition among the learning theories because there is so much technology now included in the various types of learning experiences.

6. Approaches to learning a) S-R theory with reinforcement : I. Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: According to Thorndike, all learning takes place because of formation of an association between stimulus and response. He further says that learning takes place when a person makes a number of trials, some responses do not give satisfaction to the individual but he goes on making further trials until he gets satisfactory responses.

7. Approaches to learning a) S-R theory with reinforcement : I. Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain learning. He placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door, which could be opened by manipulating a latch of the door.

8. Approaches to learning a) S-R theory with reinforcement : I. Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: A fish was placed outside the box. The cat made random movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behavior biting at the box, scratching the box, walking around, in the course of her movements, the latch was manipulated accidently and the cat came out to get the food.

9. Approaches to learning a) S-R theory with reinforcement : I. Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Over a series of successive trials, the cat took shorter time, committed less number of errors, and after sometime, the cat was opened the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door.

10. Approaches to learning a) S-R theory with reinforcement : I. Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that the cat was able to hit upon the solutions. He named it as Trial and Error Learning.

11. Approaches to learning a) S-R theory with reinforcement : Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: An analysis of the learning behavior of the cat in the box shows that besides trial and error the principles of goal, motivation, explanation and reinforcement are involved in the process of learning by Trial and Error.

12. Approaches to learning b) Skinners’ Operant Conditioning Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Operant conditioning ( instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

13. Approaches to learning b) Skinners’ Operant Conditioning Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" Skinner introduced a new term- Reinforcement. Behaviour that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behaviour that is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).

14. Approaches to learning b) Skinners’ Operant Conditioning Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Skinner studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals placed in a "Skinner Box". The Skinner box involved placing an animal (such as a rat) into a sealed box with a lever that would release food when pressed. If food were released every time the rat pressed the lever, it would press it more and more because it learnt that doing so gives it food.

15. Approaches to learning b) Skinners’ Operant Conditioning Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of Learning: Pressing the lever is the operant behaviour , because it is an action that results in a consequence. The food that is released as a result of pressing the lever is known as a reinforcer , because it causes the behaviour (lever pressing) to increase. Food could also be described as a conditioned stimulus because it causes an effect to occur.

16. Important Definitions There is a difference between a reward and a reinforcer in operant conditioning. A reward is something, which has value to the person giving the reward, but may not necessarily be of value to the person receiving the reward. A reinforcer is something, which benefits the person receiving it, and so results in an increase of a certain type of behavior.

17. Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior Neutral response: Responses from the environment neither increase nor decrease the repetitions of behavior.

18. Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior Reinforcers : Any event that increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers . Positive reinforcers involve favorable outcomes that are presented after the behavior. I.e. behavior is strengthened by the addition of something positive as praise or a direct reward

19. Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior Reinforcers : Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant, e.g. removal from detention list for students In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

20. Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior Punishment : Is the presentation of an adverse outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. Punishment weakens behaviour . There are two kinds of punishment: Positive punishment: involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows e.g. a teacher yells at a student .

21. Skinner identified three types of responses can follow behavior Punishment : Negative punishment: occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs e.g. preventing a student from going on a school trip . In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases

22. Presentation of reinforcement Shaping : Rewarding closer and closer approximations at the desired behavior until the correct one is achieved. Chaining: Teaching complex behaviors by breaking them down into simple components. Each component is reinforced once acquired.

23. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement - reinforcement is given every time the animal gives the desired response. Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcement is given only part of the times the animal gives the desired response.

24. Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio reinforcement - a pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced. Fixed ratio reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular ratio, such as every fifth time the desired behavior is produced. Variable ration reinforcement (random) - reinforcement is given for a predetermined proportion of responses, but randomly instead of on a fixed schedule.

25. Schedules of Reinforcement Interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given after a predetermined period of time. Fixed interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given on a regular schedule, such as every five minutes. Variable interval reinforcement - reinforcement is given after random amounts of time have passed.

26. Schedules of Reinforcement Skinner found that continuous reinforcement in the early stages of training seems to increase the rate of learning. Later , intermittent reinforcement keeps the response going longer and slows extinction.

27. S-R theory without reinforcement Pavlov- Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning, which has been acquired through experience.

28. S-R theory without reinforcement The Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov introduced classical conditioning through his experiments on dogs. Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation, a natural bodily response to food) could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex/response.

29. S-R theory without reinforcement In order to do this he first showed them food, the sight of which caused them to salivate. Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually, the dogs started to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food.

30. Components Involved In Classical Conditioning In its most strict definition classical conditioning is described as a previously neutral stimulus, which causes a reflex.

31. Components Involved In Classical Conditioning The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Is anything, which can evoke a response without prior learning or conditioning. For example, when a dog eats some food it causes his mouth to salivate. Therefore the food is an unconditioned stimulus, because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and without the dog having to learn how to salivate.

32. Components Involved In Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Is created by learning, and therefore does not produce a response without prior conditioning. For example, if dogs had not learnt to associate the bell with food, they would not salivate when the bell rings.

33. Components Involved In Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Reflex/Response (UCR): Is any response that happens automatically without learning. For example salivation in response to seeing food happened automatically with dogs.

34. Components Involved In Classical Conditioning Conditioned Reflex (CR ): Is a response that was learnt by associating it with an unconditioned stimulus. For example salivation in response to hearing the bell WITHOUT any food.

35. Phenomena occurring in classical conditioning Extinction : a conditioned response will disappear over time when the conditioned stimulus is no longer presented. Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a previously extinguished response .

36. Phenomena occurring in classical conditioning Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same way to experience stimuli. For example, all fuzzy animals scaring a young child instead of just a fuzzy cat. Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between various stimuli .

37. Differences between classical and operant conditioning CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING Terminology Conditioned, unconditioned stimulus, response. Response, reinforcement Behavior Stimulus determines the behavior Behavior determines the effect. Paired during acquisition Two stimuli (conditioned & unconditioned.) Response and reinforcement (in the presence of certain stimuli). Responses Involuntary, involving the autonomic nervous system, e.g. salivation. Voluntary, involving cranio-spinal system, e.g. lever pressing. Novel behavior Doesnot create novel behavior and modeling Creates novel behavior and modeling Relation to stimulus Response depends on stimulus. Not related to specific stimuli.

38. Applications of learning theories in treatment of psychiatric disorders Aversion therapy in addiction and sexual paraphilia . Systematic desensitization in phobias. Shaping and chaining in mental retardation. Positive reconditioning in nocturnal enuresis. Experimental deconditioning in tics.

39. Cognitive theory of learning Learning has been considered partly a cognitive process and partly a social and affective one. It qualifies as a cognitive process because it involves the functions of attention, perception, reasoning, analysis, drawing conclusions, making interpretations and giving meaning to the observed phenomena. Cognitive learning involves acquisition of knowledge or understanding.

40. Types of learning Non-associative learning: A relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus. Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization. Habituation: is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of stimulus. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses.

41. Types of learning Sensitization : the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful.

42. Types of learning Associative learning: Is the process by which an association between two stimuli or a behavior and a stimulus is learned. The two forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning as explained before.

43. Types of learning Imprinting : Isany kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior.

44. Types of learning Observational learning: The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed behavior Individuals initially learn a behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior, and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior. Humans can copy three types of information simultaneously: the demonstrator's goals, actions, and environmental outcomes.

45. Types of learning Observational learning: Observational learning involves a neural component. Mirror neurons may play a critical role in the imitation of behavior as well as the prediction of future behavior. Mirror neurons are thought to be represented in specific sub-regions in the frontal and parietal lobes, and there is evidence that individual sub-regions respond most strongly to observing certain kinds of actions.

46. Types of learning Play : It generally describes behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the future. Play as a form of learning is central to a child’s learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration, emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, and facilitate the development of thinking and language skills in children.

47. Types of learning There are five types of play Sensorimotor play (functional play), characterized by repetition of activity. Role play occurs from 3 to 15 years of age. Rule-based play authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary.

48. Types of learning There are five types of play Construction play involves experimentation and building. Movement play (physical play). These 5 types of play are often intersected. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.

49. Types of learning Enculturation : It is the process by which a person learns the requirements of their native culture, and acquires values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in that culture. The influences which limit direct or shape the individual, whether deliberately or not, include parents, other adults, and peers. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the culture.

50. Types of learning Episodic learning : Is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory.

51. Types of learning Multimedia learning: Is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information. This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory.

52. Types of learning E-learning and augmented learning: Is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning. A specific and more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.

53. Types of learning When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime.

54. Types of learning Types of interaction necessary for quality, effective online learning: learner-learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present), learner-instructor (i.e. student teacher communication), learner-content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners’ understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).

55. Types of learning Rote learning: Is a technique which focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition , based on the idea that one will be able to quickly recall the material (but not necessarily its meaning) the more it is repeated.

56. Types of learning Rote learning: Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many situations.

57. Types of learning Meaningful learning: Is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. Meaningful contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.

58. Types of learning Informal learning: Occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life.

59. Types of learning Formal learning: Is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system. It is directed and organized.

60. Types of learning Non-formal learning: Is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

61. Types of learning Tangential learning: Is the process by which people will self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument.

62. Factors affecting learning Personal factors Intelligence. Attention. Motivation. Psychological state. Physiological state. Past experiences

63. Factors affecting learning Learned materials and learning strategy Meaningful more than meaningless materials. Using of mnemonic devices. Type of learning Content learning better than rote learning.

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