psychology problem and its anagemnt by nursing student

psychology problem and its anagemnt by nursing student and used eveience based practice

1. (unit IX) Theories of Personality and BehavioUr Samina Roohi Aziz Fatima CON Faisalabad

2. Objectives At the end of this unit learners will be able to: Understand theories of personality and behaviour . Discuss the relevance of these theories to the development of healthy personality. Identify various ways of assessing personality.

3. Definition of Personality? Personality refers to the relatively enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and that lead people to act in a consistent and predictable manner, both in different situations and over extended periods of time. Personality is defined as: the enduring or lasting patterns of behavior and thought (across time and situation).

4. Personality Four Major Perspectives on Personality Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations Trait - specific dimensions of personality Humanistic - inner capacity for growth Social-Cognitive - influence of environment

5.  Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) What is the structure and development of personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his successors ( i.e.,psychoanalysts )? According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is caused by parts of personality which are found in the unconscious and of which we are unaware. Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness: The conscious mind; The preconscious mind; and The unconscious mind.

6. Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Theory of Personality Three levels of consciousness: Conscious mind: mind things we are focusing on. Preconscious mind: mind things are not currently aware of but which we could focus on. Unconscious mind: mind that which we are unaware of.

7. Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Theory of Personality Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of the id, the ego, and the superego. id: id the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses. ego: ego restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the safety of the individual and to help the person to be a member of society. superego: superego the rights and wrongs of society and consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal.

8. Freud: superego, id, and ego According to Freud, an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego.

9. Freud’s Theory of Personality The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in conflict with one another. This conflict generates anxiety. If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with the tasks of everyday living. The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce anxiety) through the use of ego defense mechanisms.

10. Ego Defense Mechanisms Definition: A defense mechanism is a psychology tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people from becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and resulting anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the superego. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level. We are not aware of them during the time that we are actually using them. However, we may later become aware of their previous operation and use

11. Freud’s Theory: Defense Mechanisms Repression: Repression pushing unacceptable and anxiety- producing thoughts into the unconscious; involves intentional forgetting but not consciously done; repressed material can be memories or unacceptable impulses. A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack. Regression: Regression acting in ways characteristic of earlier life stages/earlier stage of personality. A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home, sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often did in grade school.

12. Freud’s Theory: Defense Mechanisms Reaction formation: replacing an anxiety-producing formation feeling with its exact opposite, typically going overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror opposites. A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men begins dating women several times a week. Rationalization: Rationalization creating false but believable excuses to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for behavior is not accepted by ego. A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating is genuine on an unfair examination.

13.  Freud’s Theory: Defense Mechanisms Denial: Denial claiming and believing that something which is actually true is false. A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that “I am not getting older.” Displacement: Displacement redirecting emotional feelings (e.g., anger) to a substitute target; involves directing unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening object/person. A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him, screams at his children. Instead of telling your professor what you really think of her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver on your way home from school.

14. Freud’s Theory: Defense Mechanisms Projection: Projection attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings or beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in terms of one’s own personal conflicts. A husband who has a hostile nature might attribute this hostility to his wife and say she has an anger management problem. Sublimation: Sublimation substitute socially acceptable behavior for unacceptable impulses. Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.

15. Freud:Stages of Personality Development Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests that personality develops through a series of stages, each of which is associated with a major stages biological function. More specifically, Freud theorized that as people age, they pass through several systematic stages of psychosexual development in their personality.

16. Psychosexual Stages of Development The stages of personality development involve critical events that occur in every child’s life. At each level, there is a conflict between pleasure and reality. The resolution of this conflict determines personality. At any stage, “a fixation” can occur. If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we become fixated at a particular stage. Each stage also involves an erogenous zone . Parts of the body that involve sexual pleasure.

17. Psychosexual Stages Oral (0-18 mos ) - centered on the mouth Anal (18-36 mos ) - focus on bowel/bladder elimination. Phallic (3-6 yrs ) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex” (Identification & Gender Identity) Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant Genital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others

18. (1)Oral stage of development Time period: Birth to 18 months: Erogenous zone is mouth. mouth Gratification through sucking and swallowing. Oral fixation has two possible outcomes. Oral receptive personality: Preoccupied with eating/drinking. Reduce tension through oral activity, like eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails Oral aggressive personality: Hostile and verbally abusive to others.

19.  (2) Anal stage of development Time period: 1 1/2 to 3 years of age. Erogenous zone is the anus. Conflict surrounds toilet training. Anal fixation has two possible outcomes. Anal retentive personality: Stingy, compulsive orderliness, stubborn, perfectionistic. Anal expulsive personality: Lack of self control, messy, careless.

20. (3) Phallic stage of development Time period: 3 to 6 years. Erogenous zone is the genitals: self-stimulation of the genitals produces pleasure. At age 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, children experience the Oedipal conflict (boys)/the Electra conflict (girls)--a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible. Oedipus complex (boys) vs Electra complex (girls) Child is sexually attracted to the other sex parent and wishes to replace the same sex parent.

21.  (4) Latency Period: During the latency period, little girls and little boys try to socialize only with members of their own gender. Freud posits that children do this so as to help minimize the awareness of “sexuality.” Thus, they continue the process of sexual repression that began in the previous stage (for those who successfully made it through the Oedipal Complex/Electra Complex).

22. (5) Genital Stage: When adolescence begin puberty, they enter the 5th stage of psychosexual development. They develop secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic hair). The onset of the physical sexual characteristics “re-awakens” people sexual urges, and thus they are no longer able to successfully repress their sexual desires, impulses, and urges. They begin searching for a marital mate, with whom they can share sex and intimacy.

23. Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering  attitudes , ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This  mastery  helps children grow into successful, contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

24. Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson's developmental theory of the "Eight Stages of Man" was unique and different in the sense that it covered the entire lifespan rather than ‘childhood’ and ‘adolescent development’. He believed that social environment combined with biological maturation results in a set of "crises" that must be resolved. The individual passes through the "sensitive period” and crisis at different stages, which has to be resolved successfully before a new crisis is presented. The results of the resolution, whether successful or not, are passed on to the next crisis and provide the foundation for its resolution.

25. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 12 months) The infant develops a sense of who and when to trust. He learns when to protect oneself and be cautious. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

26. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt  (1–3 years) The child develops a sense of independence and is able to understand and recognize his limitations. If independence is encouraged, he develops a sense of autonomy. If the child is overly restricted, over-protected, or criticized it may result into self-doubt and shame. Shame occurs when child is overly self-conscious when negatively exposed.

27. Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years) The child is able to tryout and explore various things. Indulges in various activities, both motor and intellectual.  These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Guilt arises after doing the negative acts e.g. aggression.

28. Industry vs. Inferiority  (6–12 years) Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

29. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years) Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” They explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future.

30. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s through early 40s) Beginning in the early 20s and may extend to the 40s. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

31. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s, to the mid-60s) Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement

32. Integrity vs. Despair (From the mid-60s to the end of life) People in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

33. Humanistic Personality Theories Maslow and Rogers Rejected Freud’s pessimistic view of personality. Rejected Behaviorist’s mechanistic view. More optimistic/positive about human nature. Humans are free and basically good. Humans are inner-directed. Everyone has the potential for healthy growth. Given the right environmental conditions, we can reach our full potential.

34. Characteristics of the self-actualized person Creative and open to new experiences. Committed to a cause or a higher goal. Trusting and caring of others, yet not dependent. Have the courage to act on their convictions.

35. Trait Personality Theories Information obtained from observation of behavior and questionnaire responses from the general population. Trait approaches have tried to identify the most basic and relatively enduring dimensions along which people differ from one another--dimensions known as traits. How many trait dimensions are there? How can we measure these trait dimensions? Where do these trait dimensions originate?

36. Trait Personality Theories:Allport Allport Most important personality traits are those that reflect our values. Allport suggested that there are 3 kinds of traits: Cardinal: a single personality trait that directs most of a cardinal person’s activities (e.g., greed, lust, kindness). Central: a set of major characteristics that make up the central core of a person’s personality. Secondary: less important personality traits that do not affect behavior as much as central and cardinal traits do.

37. Trait Personality Theories ( cont ): Recently personality theorists have begun to converge on the view that there are 5 basic personality dimensions: 1: emotional stability versus neuroticism: Calm, secure, self-satisfied VS anxious, insecure, self-pitying. 2: extraversion versus introversion: Sociable, fun-loving, affectionate VS retiring, sober, reserved. 3: openness versus close-mindedness: Imaginative, independent VS practical, conforming.

38. Cont.…… 4: agreeableness versus disagreeableness: Kind, trusting, helpful VS ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative. 5: conscientiousness versus undependable: Organized, careful, disciplined VS disorganized, careless, impulsive.

39. Social-Cognitive Personality Theories: Social Learning Theory: Bandura Emphasizes the role of learning in personality. Classical Conditioning. Operant Conditioning . Modeling. Instead of studying what’s going on inside the person (traits), study what is going on outside the person (environment). How does the environment shape personality?

40. Cont.…….  Bandura also emphasized the importance of cognition in personality development. People develop a sense of self-efficacy Self-efficacy: Our beliefs about our ability to achieve goals. Individuals with higher self-efficacy accept greater challenges. And try harder to meet challenges. Bandura also discusses the notion of Reciprocal Determinism: The individual and the environment continually influence one another.

41. Personality Assessment Personality assessment involves the techniques for systematically gathering information about a person in order to understand and predict behavior. Goal of personality assessment: to obtain reliable, assessment valid measures of individual differences that will permit the accurate prediction of behavior.

42. How do we measure “Personality”?

43. (1) Interview Ask the person about themselves. Obtain information that reveals personality.

44. (2) Behavioral assessment Behavioral assessment is based on the principles of learning theory. Watch the individual’s behavior in an actual or simulated situation Behavioral assessment employs direct measurement of behavior to determine the characteristics related to personality.

45. (3) Objective Test Assessment  Objective personality tests (self-report questionnaires) present the test taker with a number of specific items to which she is asked to respond, either on paper or on a computer screen. Self-report measures ask people about a sample range of their behaviors. These reports are used to infer the presence of particular personality characteristics.

46. Cont.……. Examples of objective personality measures: The MMPI (the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory). The 16 PF (the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire). The NEO-PI (the NEO Personality Inventory). The most commonly used self-report measure is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI- 2), designed to differentiate people with specific 2) sorts of psychological difficulties from normal individuals.

47. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) Mostwidely used personality instrument. Used in clinical and employment settings. MMPI-2 Has several different scales (multiphasic).  MMPI sample items: ‘I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting (FALSE) = Depression. ‘I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear’ (TRUE) = Schizophrenia. Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem: Extreme suspiciousness may indicate paranoia.

48. (4) Projective Test Assessment A projective personality test is one in which the subject is given an ambiguous stimulus and asked to respond spontaneously. pictures or inkblots. No clear answer. The ambiguous stimulus allows test takers to project their own needs, dreams, feelings into their response. The observer’s responses to the stimulus are then used to infer information about the observer’s personality.

49. Cont.…….. The 2 most frequently used projective tests are: The Rorschach: reactions to inkblots are employed to Rorschach classify personality types. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): stories about (TAT) ambiguous pictures are used to draw inferences about the storyteller’s personality.

50. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

51. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)