Recent trends in production technology of okra

This is ppt for recent trends in vegetable production

1. Course Code Subject VSC 601:- Recent trends in Vegetable Production Topic:- Recent trends in Production Technology of Okra BABASAHEB BHIMRAO AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW (A Central University) Submitted By:- BIPIN KUMAR Enroll. No.1819/23 Submitted to:- Senior professor Dr. SAJNAY KUMAR Department of Horticulture, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, (A Central University) Vidya - Vihar , Rae Bareli Road, Lucknow-226025, India, 2024

2. RECENT TRENDS IN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF OKRA Scientific Name :  Abelmoschus esculentus Family :  Malvaceae Chromosome number : 2n=72, 108,130 Origin :  Asiatic region / Etthiopea /Africa. Common names :  Bhendi , Lady’s Finge Present status and prospects of okra cultivation- India is the largest producer of okra globally, with a contribution of more than 72% (6 million tonnes) from an area of 0.5 million hectares (NHB, 2020). Okra has vast potential for earning foreign exchange as it has a significant share in fresh vegetable export (APEDA, 2020). Tender pods of okra are used as a delicious vegetable.

3. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND USES Okra is more remunerative than the leafy vegetables . Fresh okra fruits are important and used as vegetable in India, Brazil, West Africa and many other countries. For year round consumption sun dried (Africa, India), frozen and sterilized (USA) fruits are also important market products. Tender green fruits are cooked in curry and also used in soups. The root and stem are useful for clearing cane juice in preparation of jaggery . Its ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Turkey . Matured fruits and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry. Okra is rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other minerals. 100g consumable unripe bhendi fruits contain 10.4g dry matter, 3,100 calorie energy, 1.8g protein, 90mg calcium, 1.0mg iron, 0.1mg carotene, 0.07mg thiamin, 0.08mg riboflavin, 0.08mg niacin and 18 mg vitamin C. The dry seeds contain 13-22% edible oil and 20-24% protein. The seed cake is also used as an animal feed.

4. CLIMATE AND SOIL The crop is basically adapted to tropical climate and vigorous warm humid weather for best growth and production. It is susceptible to drought and low night temperatures. For seed germination optimum soil moisture and a temperature range between 25 and 35 o C is required, with fast germination observed at 35 o C. Seeds fail to germinate below 17 o C . At temperature above 42 o C flower buds in most of the cultivars may desiccate and drop causing yield losses. The optimum temperature range for growth is 20-30 o C. Sunlight is equally important for bhendi crop. A 50 % reduction in sunlight during first three weeks after sowing has adverse effect on yield. It can be grown in all kinds of soils ranging from sandy loam to clay. However, high yields can be obtained in loose friable, well manured loamy soils having better drainage. The soil optimum pH for okra ranges from 6-6.8.

5. Seed sowing Seed is sown directly in the soil by seed drill, hand dibbling or behind the plough. Broadcasting is not recommended due to high seed rate as well as inconvenience in cultural operations and harvesting. Sowing on ridges ensures proper germination; economize irrigation and helps in drainage during rainy  season. Seed rate The recommended seed rate per ha is 18-22 kg for spring summer crop and 8-10 kg for kharif crop . Higher seed rate could be used if the crop is to be sown early in January as it will augment germination loss due to low temperature. Higher seed rate and lower spacing could also be opted for spring summer crop to lower the field temperature and continued fruiting under frequent light irrigation.

6. Cropping systems/ planting systems Okra could be used in different cropping systems. In sequential cropping, potato-carrot-okra,   okra-potato-tomato  and cauliflower-tomato-okra  provides higher income per unit area. Under sequential intercropping system ( Okra +French bean)-( Capsicum+onion )-( Muskmelon+radish ) gave higher yield as compared with sole crops of okra-capsicum-muskmelon.  Okra +radish and palak+French bean gave higher return than sole crop. Bhendi could give 300-500% crop land use efficiency as an intercrop in cassava and cucurbits . Growing in sequences like okra-cowpea-maize, maize-okra-radish reduced bacterial wilt in tomato and brinjal taken as succeeding crop.

7. Preparation of Field Soil should be worked well upto a depth of 20-25 cm and made into a fine tilth before seed sowing. The plant has well developed tap root system and is a heavy feeder and as such the soil should be made rich in organic matter content. Application of 25 t/ha of FYM is needed for obtaining good crop. Solarisation during hot summer months helps to great extent in controlling weed pest population.

8. Spacing A plant distance of 60 X 30 cm accommodating 5000 plants/ha is recommended for branching types , while 45 X 30 cm accommodating 66,000 plants/ha for non branching type. During spring summer  season with less plant growth these spacing is kept at 45 x 20 cm or less . The seed should be sown at a depth of 2.5cm .

9. Nutrition The quantity of manures and fertilizers depends upon the type of soil, but in normal condition 25 tonnes of FYM should be added at the time of last harrowing. In addition to this, 125kg N, 75kg P and 63 kg K/ha will be required in medium type of soils. Half of the nitrogen and full amount of P and K should be applied as basal dose while remaining half of the N should be given as top dressing 35-40 days after sowing the seeds. Positive effects of zinc up to 2% as soil application or 2mg/litre of foliar spray of molybdenum @20mg/l foliar spray have been observed on fruit yield and appearance

10. Irrigation During kharif , irrigate the crop as and when required. In summer  season  the crop should be irrigated at an interval of 5-6 days. Flooding of plants should be avoided. Drip  irrigation  increases considerable yield and saves 70-80%  irrigation  water Weed control About two weedings are required till the crop canopy covers the  soil  surface. Use of weedicides has helped in reducing the numbers of  weeding  to zero during summer and one during kharif   season . Fluchloralin @1.5kg a.i /ha as pre  sowing   soil  incorporation and alachlor @ 2kg a.i /ha as post  sowing  gives control of weeds. The  soil  surface application of weedicides is effective for 4-5 weeks.

11. Use of chemicals and growth regulators The highest average fruit set and yield were obtained with cycocel at 100 ppm As seed soaking for 24hrs on seed treatment by GA (400 ppm), IAA (200 ppm) or NAA (20 ppm) enhanced germination Ethephon (100-500ppm) reduced vegetative growth and weakened apical dominance Post harvest treatment with cycocel (100ppm) enhanced shelf life of fruits With ascorbic acid (250 ppm) retention of chlorophyll was the best.

12. Varieties from IIVR ,Varanasi Kashi Mohani -   Plants are tall, height 110-140 cm, flowers at 4-5 node during summer and 5-7 nodes during rainy season after 39-41 days of sowing, fruits five ridges, 11.3-12.6 cm long at marketable stage, suitable for summer and rainy season cultivation ; gives yield of 130 -150 q/ha. It tolerate high temperature during summer season and resistant to YVMV under field conditions. This has been identified for the cultivation and release through AICRP for all the okra growing regions of the country.

13. Kashi Bhairav Plants of this hybrid are medium tall with 2-3 branches; fruits are dark green with 10-12 cm length at marketable stage; yield 200-220 q/ha. This is resistant to YVMV and OLCV under field conditions. This has been released and notified during the XII meeting of Central Sub Committee on Crop Standard Notification and Release of Varieties for Horticultural Crops for the cultivation in the entire okra growing region of the country

14. Kashi Mangali This variety has been developed through pure line selection. Plants are tall, height 120-125 cm, flowers at 4 to 5 node after 40-42 days after sowing, fruits five ridges, light green; yield 130 -150 q/ha. This is resistant to YVMV and OLCV under field conditions and stands high temperature during summer season. This has been identified for the cultivation and release through AICRP for the cultivation in Punjab, U.P. Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, Orissa and A.P.

15. Kashi Vibhuti This is a variety with dwarf growth habit, plant height 60-70 cm during rainy and 45-50 cm during summer seasons. It bears 2-3 branches with short inter-nodal length . Flowering starts on 4th to 5th nodes after 38-40 days after sowing. A plant bears 18-22 fruits with 8-10 cm length at marketable stages; yield 170-180 q/ha. This is resistant to YVMV and OLCV. It has been released and notified during the XII meeting of Central Sub Committee on Crop Standard Notification and Release of Varieties for Horticultural Crops for the cultivation in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana.

16. Kashi Satdhari Plant height is 130-150 cm with 2-3 effective branches, flowering at 42 days after sowing at 3rd to 4th nodes. A plant bears 18-25 fruits with seven ridges , length 13-15 cm at marketable stage and yield 110-140 q/ ha,resistant to YVMV under field conditions . This has been notified during the XII meeting of Central Sub Committee on Crop Standard Notification and Release of Varieties for Horticultural Crops for the cultivation in U.P., and Jharkhand

17. Shitla Uphar Plants are medium tall, height 110-130 cm, flowering starts at 38-40 days after sowing at 4-5 nodes. Fruits are green, 11-13 cm long at marketable stage and yield 150-170 q/ha. This is resistant to yellow vein mosaic virus and OLCV . It has been notified and released for the cultivation in Punjab, U.P., Bihar, M.P.

18. Shitla Juoti This hybrid is suitable for warm humid climate with relatively long day length . Plants are medium tall, height 110-150 cm, flowering starts on 30-40 days after sowing at 4-5 nodes. Fruit are green, 12-14 cm long at marketable stage, yield 180-200 q/ha. This is resistant to YVMV and OLCV. This has been released and notified for the cultivation in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Chhattisgarh, Orissa and A.P .

19. Kashi Vardaan This variety is suitable for both summer and rainy seasons . The yield potential is around 140-150 q/ha. The variety is resistant to both YVMV and OLCV, while moderately tolerant to major pests under field conditions . Plants are medium-tall with short internodes along with 2 to 3 branches. Fruits are medium, dark-green, easily cooked, good for both table and export purposes. Recommended for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand & Punjab, vide gazette notification number S.O. 2277(E), 17.08.2015 Growing season : Suitable for both spring summer and rainy season. Sowig time : February for spring summer crop and June for rainy season crop. Seed rate: 12-14 kg/ha for spring summer crop and 8-10kg/ha for rainy season crop. Spacing : 45 cm × 20 cm (spring summer crop) and 60 cm × 30 cm (rainy season crop) Fertilizer dose : 100kg Nitrogen:50kg Phosphorus: 50 Kg Potassium/ha

20. Kashi Chaman Plant are medium tall (120-125 cm). Flowering starts in 39-41days after sowing and fruiting period lasts from 45-100 days. Fruits dark green with fruit length of 11-14 cm. Plants are resistant to YVMV and OLECV under field conditions . Yield 150-160 q/ha. Suitable for both summer and rainy season. Notified by CVRC as a variety also in February 2019 for UP state, vide gazette notification number S.O. 692(E), dated 05.02.2019. Growing season : Suitable for both spring summer and rainy season. Sowig time : February for spring summer crop and June for rainy season crop. Seed rate : 12-14 kg/ha for spring summer crop and 8-10kg/ha for rainy season crop. Spacing : 45 cm × 20 cm (spring summer crop) and 60 cm × 30 cm (rainy season crop) Fertilizer dose: 100kg Nitrogen 50kg Phosphorus 50 Kg Potassium /ha

21. Kashi Lalima Redish purple fruits tolerant to YVMV and OLCV , Medium tall and short internodes with fruit yield of 14-15 t/ha. Rich in anthocynin and phenolics . Suitable for both summer and Kharif season. Recommended for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh , vide gazette notification number S.O. 692(E), dated 05.02.2019. Growing season : Suitable for both spring summer and rainy season. Sowig time : February for spring summer crop and June for rainy season crop. Seed rate: 12-14 kg/ha for spring summer crop and 8-10kg/ha for rainy season crop. Spacing: 45 cm × 20 cm (spring summer crop) and 60 cm × 30 cm (rainy season crop) Fertilizer dose : 100kg Nitrogen:50kg Phosphorus: 50 Kg Potassium/ha

22. Kashi Shristi Very high yield potential (18-19 t/ha), Medium tall and short internodes and narrow angled 2-3 branch. Tolerant to YVMV , dark green fruits, medium fruit length. Suitable for both summer and Kharif season . Recommended for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh, vide gazette notification number S.O. 692(E), dated 05.02.2019. Growing season : Suitable for both spring summer and rainy season. Sowig time: February for spring summer crop and June for rainy season crop. Seed rate : 12-14 kg/ha for spring summer crop and 8-10kg/ha for rainy season crop. Spacing: 45 cm × 20 cm (spring summer crop) and 60 cm × 30 cm (rainy season crop) Fertilizer dose: 100kg Nitrogen: 50kg Phosphorus: 50 Kg Potassium/ha

23. IIHR Varieties Arka Nikitha Early flowering first flower appears at 9 th  node and take 37-39 days for flowering. First picking starts at 43-45 day after sowing. Fruits are dark green, tender, smooth free from spines.  Yield 21-24t/ha in 125 to 130 days. Arka Anamika Fruits lush green, tender and long. Fruits free from spines having 5-6 ridges, delicate aroma. Good keeping and cooking qualities. Field tolerant to YVMV. Yield 20 t/ha. Suitable for fresh market.

24. Arka Abhay Fruits lush green, tender and long. Fruits free from spines having delicate aroma.  Good keeping and cooking qualities. Field tolerant to yellow vein mosaic virus (YVMV). Yield 18 t/ha. Fruits are suitable for fresh market and canning and dehydration

25. IARI, Varieties Pusa Bhindi 5 - gives an average yield of 18.0 tonnes/ha in kharif season. It is resistant to Bhendi Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus (YVMV) disease of okra under field condition. Its pods areattractive , dark green in colour with 5 ridges and medium in length (10-12 cm). It is recommended for growing in both kharif as well as in spring summer season under north Indian condition. This variety was released by the IARI Variety Identification Committee during 2016. Pusa A-4 This variety has been released as substitute for Pusa Sawani . The fruits are 5 ridged, attractive, dark green12-15 cm long having excellent shelf life. It is resistant to YVMV and tolerant to jassids and shoot and fruit borer. Yield ranges from 10-12 t/ha

26. Pusa Lal Bhindi-1 This variety was released by ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa , New Delhi in 2022 which was approved by the State Seed-Committee for Agricultural & Horticultural Crops, Govt. of NCT of Delhi on 17 January 2023. Its fruits are reddish purple. It is moderately resistant to Bhendi yellow vein mosaic (YVMV) and Enation leaf curl virus ( ELCV ) diseases. All plant parts including stem and petioles are reddish purple . It yields 15 t/ha on short internodes. It is rich in anthocyanin (130 µg/g) and antioxidant content (357 µg/g GAE). It is suitable for both summer and kharif season.

27. Pusa Makhmali It is a pure line selection from local type collected from West Bengal. Fruits are light green tappered , attractive, 12-15 cm long with high yielding (8-10t/ha) potential but is susceptible to YVMV. It is suited for cultivation in hills and at virus free season . Pusa Sawani Most popular variety known throughout the country. It is a hybrid derivative selection from the cross between IC 1542 and Pusa Makhmali . It bears smooth and dark green fruits having 5 ridges and takes 45-50 days from sowing to harvest. First fruit is borne on 5th to 7th node. It is suitable for cultivation in both spring summer as well as Kharif  season  since it is less sensitive to temperature fluctuations. Yield is around 12-12.5 t/ha.

28. OTHER VARIETIES Co-1: It was developed at TNAU as single plant selection from a heterogenous population of Red Wonder . Plants are tall, leaves are light green and deeply lobed. The fruit starts from 5th node. It has field tolerance to YVMV but is susceptible to fruit borer and powdery mildew. Suited well for cultivation in all  seasons  of the year. MDU1: It was evolved at TNAU as an induced mutant from Pusa sawani . The fruit bearing starts from 4th to 5th node and takes 45 days to first picking. Fruits are light green about 20cm long and weigh about 29 g each at the time

29. Punjab Padmini - It is released by PAU, Ludhiana as a hybrid derivative selection from inter specific cross between A. esculentus and A. manihot ssp manihot . The plants grow fast; 180-200cm. Pigmentation is visible on stem, shoots, petiole and basal lower veins of leaves. Fruits are 15-20 cm long, dark green and 5 ridged. It is resistant to YVMV and tolerant to jassids and cotton boll worm . It yields 10-12.5 t/ha green fruits. Punjab -7: This variety was developed at PAU, Ludhiana as a hybrid derivative selection of a cross between A. esculentus cv. Pusa sawami and A. manihot ssp. Manihot . Plants are medium tall. Leaves are dark green with less serrated margins. Plant is sparsely hairy. Fruits are medium long, green, 5 ridged. It yields about 10t/ha.

30. Punjab-8- It is an induced mutant derived from Pusa Sawani by treating seed with EMS 1%. The plants are tall. Fruits are medium long, thin, tender green and 5 ridged. It is resistant to YVMV and tolerant to fruit borer . Parbhani Kranti - This YVMV resistant variety was developed at Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani from interspecific cross between A. esculentus cv. Pusa Sawani and A. manihot . Plants are single stem, tall with dark green foliage. The first fruit is borne on 5th to 6th node. The fruits are dark green, slender, 5 ridged with long beak. Average fruit yield varies from 8.5-9 t/ha .

31. Gujarat Bhendi 1- It was developed by Gujarat Agricultural University, Ahmedabad as a pure line selection. Plant height is 60 – 90 cm. The plants are erect, purple tinge on stem. Fruit starts from 4th to 5th node and fruits are 5 ridged, tender and green in colour. It yields 7 t/ha. White Velvet: It is a very popular local variety in Karnataka. Varsha Uphar - The variety has been developed by HAU, Hisar from the cross. Lam selection 1 X Parbhani Kranti . It is resistant to YVMV and field tolerant to leaf hopper . Plants are medium tall (90-120), fruits bearing starts from 4th node. Fruits smooth, attractive, 18-20 cm long and 46-47 days to first picking. It is a prolific bearer with an average yield of 10 t/ha.

32. Hisar Unnat Developed by HAU, Hisar from the cross Selection 12-2 x Parbhani Kranti . It is resistant to YVMV , early (first picking in 46-47 days) and high yielding (12-13 t/ha) variety. Fruits 5 ridged 15-16 cm long on full maturity. It is suitable for growing during summer as well as rainy  season . Azad Kranti : It is released by C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. The plants are fast growing; fruits are shiny green, smooth, 5 ridged with long beak. It is tolerant to YVMV and gives good yield (12.5 t/ha).

33. Varieties from KAU Anjitha Inter specific hybridization followed by mutation breeding and selection. High yielding (14.6t/ha), early maturing, YVM resistant variety. Manjima Hybrid( Gowreesapattom local x NBPGR/TCR-874). High yielding(16t/ha), early maturing, YVM resistant variety. Kiran Kilichundan local (S) Aruna NBPGR No. 1343(SPS) Private sector companies bred hybrids having resistance to YVMV Varsha and Vijay from IAHS Hybrid No. 6 and 7 from Mahyco Adhunik and Panhali from Century Seeds Nath Sobha from Nath Seeds

34. Physiological disorder Poor seed germination:   Seed germinate poorly when soil temperature remains at or below 20 o C. The problem occurs during early spring summer cultivation when seeds are to be sown at low temperature condition. Control: a. Soaking the seeds in water for 24 hours. b. Soaking the seeds in hot water at 45 o C for 1 ½ hours. c. Seed treatment with alcohol for half an hour. d. Water soaked seeds after tying in a piece of cloth are put into a heap of fresh cow dung overnight . Heats released due to decomposition of cow dung stimulate germination.

35. Harvesting and yield The pods should be harvested when they are immature and green and have attained edible size. In general, harvesting every alternate day is advisable. Field is divided into blocks to ease harvesting at one or two intervals. Delay in harvesting causes fibrous and matured fruits of poor edible quality . Such fruits get very poor price in the market and ultimately poor income to the growers. Ten to fifteen pickings are done during the crop period . The best length at which the pods should be harvested is 8 to 10 cm . For distant market harvesting in the late evening and transporting the produce during coolness of night is practiced. The yield depends upon the season, variety and cultural practices followed for the crop cultivation. An average yield of 8 tonnes green fruits per hectare during spring-summer and 12.5 tonnes during rainy season is ideal, though much higher yields have been harvested by individual farmers.

36. Storage and marketing Fruits could be stored at 7-9 o C temperature and 70-75% RH for a couple of days without much loss in colour, texture of weight. The pods can be stored at room temperature for 2-3 days if water is sprinkled on the pods during day and once in night to keep them cool and fresh. Larger lots of harvested fruits suitably packed, reach the auction hall of vegetable market during night and are auctioned early in the morning. Transport of the produce to large or small mandis depends on the size of the lot and their requirement. Smaller producers form groups and come into contact with transporters. The producer pays the cost of transport and the commission agent charges some percentage of auction value from the wholesale purchaser who again pays 1% towards free of the mandi administration. The produce action by lots packs or bags of known size. The purchased produce is again channelized to sellers in different areas directly to the retailers or sub agents of the area.

37. Seed Production It is often cross pollinated crop and to get seed isolation distance of 400 and 200 meters should be maintained for foundation and certified seeds respectively. Some cultural practices should be followed as recommended for normal crop. However, rainy season crop is good for seed . Pests and diseases are controlled strictly. Crop should be inspected thrice during the crop period. First before flowering on the basis of foliage characters, off types and disease plants should be removed. Secondly at the time of flowering and on the basis of flower characters, off types and diseased plants should be removed. Finally, at the time of pod ripening and on the basis of pod characters. When pods are brown, they should be considered for harvesting. Harvest them 4 to 6 days interval depending upon the maturit y. Keep them in sun for drying and thresh them. Clean the seed and dry it up to 10% available.

38. Fungal Disease- Fusarium Wilt The disease can appear on any stage of plant growth and the crops planted during summer months suffer more than the crops planted during February-March. Symptoms:- The characteristic symptoms of the disease appear as yellowing and stunting of the plants followed by wilting and rolling of the leaves and finally the plant dies. Before the appearance of typical wilting symptoms, the leaves hang down during daytime and recover again in the night but ultimately they wilt and die. Vascular bundles of the affected plants appear as dark streaks and the whole stem is blackened in case of severe infection. Pathogen:- The disease is caused by Fusarium oxysporum   f.sp .  vasinfectum  (Atkinson) Snyder and Hansen. The mycelium is hyaline and intracellular in the host. Macroconidia are mostly 3 septate and microconidia are 0 to 1 septate. Macroconidia are fusiform, falcate, curved and formed on sporodochia and pionnotes . In mass these conidia appear buff to salmon orange in colour. The microconidia are 5-12 x 2-3.5 µm while macroconidia are 40-50 x 3-4.5 µm in size. Both intercalary and terminal chlamydospores are formed which are broadly ovate

39. Disease cycle and epidemiology The fungus survives from one season to other in the form of chlamydospores and in infected seeds. In contact with the host roots, the chlamydospores or conidia germinate and penetrate. The pathogen proliferates extensively in the cortical tissues, extending up and down. After some growth in root cortex, the pathogen reaches the xylem vessels where it multiplies very rapidly and result in browning of xylem vessels and clogged at further places. The optimum temperature for growth of the fungus is 25oC and for disease development ranges between 22 – 28o C. Moisture is not that much important for infection.  Management Cultural practices like long crop rotations, exposing the soil to the sun during summer months by deep ploughing, soil solarization and destruction of diseased roots are some of the practices which can reduce the disease. Some cvs . of okra like Pusa Sawani and Pusa Makhmali have been reported resistant to this disease. Use healthy seed and treat with carbendazim (0.2%).

40. Fungal Disease- C ercospora leaf spot Symptoms Three different species of  Cercospora   are associated with this disease. The symptoms of each species are described below: Cercospora abelmoschi : The fungus produces indefinite leaf spots but grows as a sooty mould on the lower surface of the leaves . Severely affected leaves roll, wilt and fall down to the ground.  Cercospora hibiscina : -The fungus produces dark olivaceous patches of mould on the lower surface of the leaves. Cercospora malayensis :- The spots caused by this species produce definite leaf spots with grey centers and red to purple borders. Pathogen(s): The disease is caused by three species of  Cercospora  like  C. abelmoschi  Ell. & Ev .,  C. hibiscina   Ell. & Ev . and  C. malayensis  Stevens. These species differ in their size of conidiophores and conidia. In  C. abelmoschi ,  the conidiophores are long, brown and bear pale olivaceous , slightly tapered conidia. The conidiophores of  C. hibiscina  are extremely long sometimes up to 1000 µm in size, narrow and bear conidia that are sometimes hyaline and appreciably more narrow then those of  C. abelmoschi . The conidiophores of  C. malayensis  are borne in clusters of 5-20 and bear conidia, which are colourless, narrow, long, and tapering from the blunt base to the sharp tip

41. Disease cycle and epidemiology- The fungus overwinters in the infected plant debris as conidia or stromata in soil and also on the wild species of  Abelmoschus . The conidia in favourable weather conditions, germinate and cause infection of the host through stomata. The spores produced on the primary spots are blown by wind and cause secondary infections. The three species cause infection in moderate temperatures (25-29o C) and high humidity. Management- Cultural practices like collection and destruction of infected plant debris, crop rotation and destruction of wild hosts from in and around the field should be followed to keep the disease under check. With the initiation of the disease, spray the crop with fungicides like carbendazim (0.1%) or benomyl (0.1%) or mancozeb (0.25%) or chlorothalonil (0.2%) and repeat at 10 to 14 days interval.

42. Fungal Disease- Powdery mildew Powdery mildew is an important disease of this crop and under favourable weather condition causes significant yield reductions particularly if the infection takes place at in early stages of plant growth. Symptoms: Symptoms first appear as minute discoloured patches with thin fine meshwork of white mycelium arising at many places on the upper surface of lower leaves . These white patches soon join together to form larger white greyish powdery coating discernible on the severely affected leaves and in later stages the affected leaves turn yellow and finally drop Pathogen: The disease is caused by  Erysiphe cichoracearum  DC. The conidia are single celled, hyaline, barrel-shaped and in long chains. The conidial dimensions vary with the physiologic race and the host. Cleistothecia are globose, dark with hyaline to dark brown and mycelioid appendages. They contain 8 to 18 asci and the asci are pedicellate , ovate to broadly ovate or ellipsoid. The number of ascospores per ascus is usually two, rarely three. The ascospores are one celled and hyaline oval to sub-cylindrical.

43. Disease cycle and epidemiology- The primary infection of the leaves is caused by wind blown ascospores (wherever cleistothecia are present) or by conidia formed on the earlier sown crop/ indoor cultivation in the neighbouring areas. In the process of infection, conidia germinate and after penetration, colonization of the entire leaf takes place. The conidia formed abundantly on primary infections are blown by wind and air currents and cause secondary infections and the cycle is repeated. The pathogen requires 60-80 per cent relative humidity for the development of the disease and dry conditions for the growth and sporulation of the fungus. Management- With the initiation of the disease spray the crop with fungicides like wettable sulphur (0.25%) or dinocap (0.05%) or carbendazim (0.05%) or hexaconazole (0.05%) or difenoconazole (0.03%) and repeat at 10 to 14 days interval. Other Important  Diseases- Root rot by  Macrophomina  and  Rhizoctonia solani

44. Viral Disease - Yellow vein mosaic (YVM) Symptoms: The characteristic symptoms include vein yellowing and thickening of leaves forming a net work of veins and veinlets in the infected leaves. Initially the leaves exhibit only yellow coloured veins but under severe infection, the leaves become completely chlorotic and turn yellow. The chlorophyll content of the leaves is reduced. Infected plants produce very few small sized leaves, deformed and give a stunted look. Affected plants produce very few small sized pale fruits. Virus The disease is caused by Yellow Vein Mosaic Virus (YVMV) and belongs to the Bigeminivirus . The size of virus is 18 x 30 nm. Virus particles are spherical, isometric measuring 28-30 nm.

45. Disease cycle and epidemiology- Virus is not sap transmissible but under artificial conditions, it can be transmitted by grafting. In nature, virus is transmitted by white fly Bemisia tabaci . Disease cycle and epidemiology: The virus is not sap transmissible but under artificial conditions it can be transmitted by grafting. In nature, the virus is transmitted by insect vector, white fly ( Bemisia tabaci Genn .) in a persistent manner. Both wild and cultivated plants serve as the source of inoculum and the incidence of the disease in a particular area depends upon the prevalence of wild or cultivated host plants, population buildup of the vectors and environmental conditions. Dry hot weather with little or no rainfall was conducive for disease development and also for the multiplication of the vector population Management- Various cultural practices like destruction of wild hosts from in and around the field, avoidance of mixed cropping of pumpkin , adjustment of date of sowing to avoid the period of maximum population of the whiteflies and regular removal of affected plants upto 55 days help in reducing the incidence of the disease. Application of yellow coloured polythene mulch significantly delays the appearance of the disease. Use resistant cultivars like Punjab Padmini , Punjab-8, Prabhani Kranti and Hissar Unnat . Four sprays of Metasystox ( demeton -S-methyl) at 15, 30, 45 and 60 days after sowing have been reported effective in controlling the insect vectors and keeping the disease under check

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