viii Foreword
practitioners can use what we know about self-regulatory processes to help students
become better self-regulated learners.
Throughout this text, the authors integrate two key aspects of self-regulated
learning shown by theory and research to be critical: phases of self-regulated learn-
ing and levels of self-regulatory skill development. Zimmerman’s (2000) three phases
of self-regulated learning encompass learner actions before, during, and after task
engagement. The forethought phase precedes actual performance and includes self-
regulatory activities that set the stage for action, such as identifying goals, deciding
which strategies to use, establishing favorable social and environmental conditions,
and feeling self-effi cacious for learning. The performance control phase includes task
engagement activities that affect attention and action. Learners implement task
strategies and monitor their performance outcomes. During the self-refl ection phase,
which occurs during pauses and after tasks are completed, learners respond evalu-
atively to their efforts. They may persist if they believe their strategies are working
or modify their strategies or seek assistance if they believe their learning progress
is inadequate. Self-refl ections return learners to the forethought phase.
The four levels of self-regulatory skill development refl ect the idea that learn-
ing begins with social (external) sources and shifts to self (internal) sources
(Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997; Zimmerman, 2000). At the initial observation level,
learners acquire basic skills and strategies from social sources such as modeling
and coaching, although learners may not be able to perform those skills and
strategies. With practice, feedback, and encouragement during the emulation level,
learners’ performances approximate those of the models. The major difference
between these two levels is that learning occurs through instruction and observa-
tion at the observation level and at the emulation level, learners can perform
the behaviors, although perhaps in rudimentary ways. Both levels primarily are
social because learners require exposure to models, real or symbolic (e.g., tele-
vised). Learning is not yet internalized, or part of their self-regulatory systems,
so they need assistance to perform.
At the third level, self-control , learners can employ the skills and strategies on
their own when performing the same or similar tasks. They continue to pattern
their actions after those of their teachers (models). They have not yet developed
the capability to modify their performances based on adaptations they deem
necessary in given situations. At the fi nal level, self-regulation , learners can adapt
their skills and strategies based on what alterations they believe may be needed
to deal with changing personal and environmental conditions. At this level,
students have internalized skills and strategies, which means they can transfer
them beyond the learning setting; adjust them to fi t new contexts; and maintain
their motivation through goal setting, perceived goal progress, and self-effi cacy.
The progression from social to self sources is complete.
Internalization is a critical component of this progression (Schunk, 1999). When
knowledge and skills are internalized, they are under the learner’s self-regulatory
control. Although learning can occur without internalization, as when learners