Shifting Centres and Emerging Margins_ Translation and the Shaping of Modernist Poetic Discourse in Indian Poetry.pdf

This presentation, 'Shifting Centres and Emerging Margins: Translation and the Shaping of Modernist Poetic Discourse in Indian Poetry', explores the significant role of translation in shaping modernist poetry in India. It examines how Indian modernist poets engaged with global literary movements while navigating their own cultural and linguistic traditions. By analyzing the translation of Western modernist poets like T. S. Eliot, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Charles Baudelaire into Indian languages, the presentation highlights how these translations disrupted traditional poetic norms and introduced experimental literary styles.

The discussion begins by outlining the historical and cultural contexts in which Indian modernism emerged, particularly between 1950 and 1970. Modernism in India developed as a response to colonialism, nationalism, and socio-political transformations, making it distinct from its Western counterpart. Poets such as Buddhadeb Bose, Dilip Chitre, Ayyappa Paniker, and B. S. Mardhekar played a crucial role in translating and adapting modernist aesthetics into Indian poetry. The presentation also emphasizes the role of *little magazines* as platforms that facilitated cross-cultural literary exchanges, allowing modernist ideas to circulate beyond elite academic circles.

The presentation further explores the challenges of translation, such as the difficulty of preserving linguistic nuances, cultural references, and poetic rhythms. It discusses André Lefevere’s concept of *translation as refraction*, which suggests that translation is not just a linguistic act but also a cultural and ideological process. Examples from regional modernist traditions—such as Bengali, Marathi, and Malayalam poetry—illustrate how translation influenced poetic experimentation, leading to the decentralization of literary authority.

A key theme in the presentation is the tension between global modernism and indigenous poetic traditions. While Western modernism was often viewed as detached and universalist, Indian modernism was deeply rooted in local histories, addressing themes of colonial legacy, cultural fragmentation, and identity formation. The presentation critiques Eurocentric perspectives that marginalize non-Western modernisms and argues for a more inclusive understanding of literary modernity.

In conclusion, the presentation asserts that translation was instrumental in reshaping Indian modernist poetry by facilitating dialogues between local and global literary traditions. It highlights the need to recognize Indian modernism as an independent and innovative movement rather than a mere derivative of Western modernism. By emphasizing the role of translation in cultural negotiation and literary transformation, the presentation underscores the importance of decolonizing modernist discourse and acknowledging diverse poetic expressions.

1. Shifting Centres and
Emerging Margins:
Translation and the Shaping
of Modernist Poetic Discourse
in Indian Poetry


Sujata Binoy Gardi,
Department of English,
Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University
Date: 3rd Jan, 2025
Presenters :Unnati Baroliya
Vishwa Parmar
Trupti Naik
Yashraj Sodha

2. Objectives
❖Interpreting Cross-Cultural Influences
❖Shifting Literary Centers
❖Modernist Expression
❖Interdisciplinary Connections
❖Decolonizing Literature
Research Problems

❖How has translation influenced the development of modernist poetic discourse in Indian poetry?
❖What are the challenges of balancing global modernist influences with local cultural and linguistic
traditions in Indian poetry?
❖What are the difficulties in accurately representing the nuances of Indian poetry across different
languages through translation?
❖How do translations address or perpetuate colonial ideologies in Indian poetry?

3. Methodology

❖Examines translations of Indian poetry alongside their originals to identify shifts in meaning, tone, and cultural
context.
❖Incorporates perspectives from translation studies, cultural theory, and postcolonial studies to frame the study.
❖Investigates both the textual transformations that occur during translation and their implications within broader
cultural and historical contexts.
❖Concentrates on themes like cultural negotiation, identity formation, and the decentralization of literary authority
as they appear in translated works.

Key Findings
❖The process of translation has contributed to a shift in literary focus, enabling diverse voices from regional
languages to participate in the broader discourse.
❖Translation has facilitated meaningful cultural exchanges, allowing Indian poetry to engage with global literary
movements while maintaining its unique identity.
❖The process of translating poetry involves significant challenges in preserving cultural nuances, linguistic
complexities, and the original emotional depth.
❖Translation has transformed the thematic and stylistic contours of Indian poetry, fostering innovation and
experimentation in its modernist phase.

4. Introduction

The chapters explores how translation significantly influenced modernist poetry in India between
1950 and 1970, emphasizing the interplay between global modernist ideas and local Indian literary
traditions.
➢Translation as a Catalyst for Modernism
Indian modernist poetry was deeply shaped by translations of Western poets like Baudelaire, Rilke,
Eliot, and Yeats. These translations introduced "foreignizing" elements, disrupting established norms
of poetry rooted in Romanticism and nationalist aesthetics.
➢Role of Major Indian Poets as Translators
Poets such as Buddhadeb Bose, Agyeya, Dilip Chitre, and Ayyappa Paniker were also
translators.Their translations acted as tools for breaking the monopoly of traditional literary
sensibilities, thus creating space for alternative styles and discourses.

5. Continue…

➢Little Magazines and Their Importance
Translations during the early modernist phase often appeared in little magazines—small, experimental
publications that served as platforms for avant-garde writing. These magazines opened up Indian poetry
to global influences and helped legitimize experimental, non-mainstream poetic styles.
➢Translation Beyond Textual Practice
Drawing on André Lefevere’s concept of "translation as refraction/rewriting," the chapter expands the idea
of translation to include: Critical essays, Histories,Anthologies, Commentaries. Let’s take an example:
Sudhindranath Dutta’s essay on T. S. Eliot in Bengali and Ayyappa Paniker’s critique of Vallathol in
Malayalam are considered "translational" writings. These writings introduced Western modes of thinking to
interrogate entrenched poetic traditions. ( Lefevere, 2000, 235)

6. Part-1 Relation between Modernity and Modernism in Indian Context
Modernity, in the Indian context, refers to the epoch of transformative changes triggered by colonialism. These changes
spanned various domains, including: Colonialism and Capitalism, Industrialization, Western Education, Nationalism
and Reform, Institutional Reforms.




➢Acceleration of Change:
According to Dilip Chitre, the processes of
modernity that unfolded over centuries in Europe
occurred in a compressed time frame of 50 years
in India. This rapid transformation led to a "crisis"
of identity and tradition, forcing Indian writers to
engage with foreign traditions
creatively.(Chitre,1967)

➢Cross-Pollination of Cultures:
B. S. Mardhekar, a major Marathi modernist,
epitomized this synthesis. His poetry reflected a
fusion of India’s "deeper, larger native tradition"
with "contemporary world culture," illustrating
the interaction between local and global
modernist traditions.
➢Oppositional Content of Indian Modernism:
Despite its aesthetic roots in colonial ideology, Indian modernism was oppositional in nature. D. R. Nagaraj
highlighted how writers, disillusioned by the co-option of nationalism and spirituality into state apparatuses, retreated
into individualism as a means of resistance.Writers navigated the tensions between traditional cultural values and
modern, often alien, literary forms, crafting works that addressed local concerns while engaging with global
discourses.(Nagaraj,1992)

7. Part-2 Historical way of looking at West and India
➢Indian Modernism in a Global Context
Indian modernism has not been recognized as part
of the global modernist movement, largely because
the discourse is tilted in favor of Western
modernism. Indian modernism, arising in a
postcolonial context, carried unique political
complexities. It wasn’t merely derivative of
European modernism but was shaped by the
specific socio-political and historical dynamics of
the subcontinent.
➢Reimagining Modernism Beyond Eurocentrism
Critics like Simon Gikandi, Susan Friedman, Laura Doyle, and others argue that non-Western modernisms are not
simply imitative of Western modernism. Modernism in non-European societies such as Asia, Africa, and Latin
America should be understood within their own contexts, rather than being relegated to a “periphery” status relative
to a European “center.”

➢Contextualizing Indian Modernism
Western modernism is often seen as detached and
universalist, but Indian modernism is rooted in specific
socio-political terrains. Indian modernism engages
deeply with the local and historical, addressing
contradictions between the past and present. Critics like
Rebecca Walkowitz and others advocate for studying
modernisms in their plural forms, recognizing them as
diverse and context-specific rather than a monolithic
European phenomenon.

8. Learning outcomes
➢Understand the impact of translating European poets (e.g., Baudelaire, Eliot, Yeats) on the development of
Indian modernist poetry.

➢Modernism in Indian literature differed from Western modernism due to its postcolonial context and
socio-political dynamics.

➢Learn about the relationship between Indian modernism and historical events, such as the Partition and the
decline of Nehruvian idealism.

➢Understand the evolution of Indian modernist poetry as a blend of indigenous traditions and global
influences.

➢Understand the importance of documenting non-Western modernisms to reframe global modernist
discourse.

9. Part -3
●Indian modernism was mediated by local socio-political dynamics.
●Each regional tradition evolved based on its unique historical and cultural contexts.
●Bengali modernism involved rejecting Tagore's influence.
●Kannada modernism reflected caste-based tensions and reacted to Nehruvian ideals.
●Issues like caste, region, and individualism varied in importance across different traditions.
●The role of father figures like Tagore was region-specific and not universally applicable.

The Reception of Western Modernist Discourses in
India:

10. ➢Local Dynamics in Modernism:
The reception of Western modernist discourses in India was shaped by local socio-political upheavals,
including the formation of the nation-state and shifting power structures. Each literary tradition evolved
differently based on its unique historical and cultural "givens."


➢Varied Manifestations:
Modernism in India cannot be generalized due to the differing sensibilities and configurations of regional
languages and traditions. Each region and language had its own mode of engaging with modernist ideas.





➢Bengali Modernism:
In Bengal, modernism involved a deliberate break from Rabindranath Tagore. Writers turned away from his
influence to meet the demands of their historical moment, using modernism as a tool of rejection and
renewal.

11. ➢Kannada Modernism:
Kannada modernism was deeply influenced by the conflict between Brahminical and non-Brahminical
ideologies. It emerged as a reaction to the Nehruvian political and cultural environment, reflecting these
social tensions.


➢Caste, Region, and Individualism:
Modernist traditions in India addressed themes like caste, ethnicity, freedom, progress, and individualism
differently based on regional and cultural contexts.


➢Role of Key Figures:
The influence of key figures like Tagore was central to Bengali modernism but not relevant to the
development of modernism in Kannada or Malayalam, showcasing the diversity of modernist traditions
across India.

12. Part - 4
Translating Modernism: The Role of Translation in Shaping
Indian Literary Traditions




The examines the pivotal role of translation in shaping modernism within Indian literatures by focusing on
three prominent modernist authors from distinct linguistic traditions: Sudhindranath Dutta (Bengali), B.S.
Mardhekar (Marathi), and Ayyappa Paniker (Malayalam). It traces the chronological progression of
modernism across these literary cultures and emphasizes how translation served to introduce and validate
modernist aesthetics. As bilingual authors, they composed critical essays in both English and their native
languages, actively challenging the prevailing Romantic-nationalist and Romantic-mystical paradigms.
Through their translations and critical works, they bridged Indian and Western literary traditions, fostering a
transformative redefinition of poetic form and content.

13. ➢Chronological Evolution of Modernism in Indian Literature:

Bengali modernism emerged in the 1930s and continued into the 50s.

Marathi modernism became prominent in the 1950s and 60s.

Malayalam modernism rose in the 1960s and waned by the late 70s, but not before redefining
literary aesthetics.


➢Role of Translation in Modernist Poetics :

Translation served as a medium to intgroduce modernist idea into indian literary traditions .

Sudhindranath Dutta translated French poets Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Valéry into Bengali.

Ayyappa Paniker translated European poets into Malayalam.

B.S. Mardhekar's Arts and the Man (1937) emphasized formalist aesthetics, legitimizing modernist
practices.

14. ➢Bilingualism and Critical Essays:


All three authors were bilingual, writing in English and their native languages to outline and validate
new poetic modes.

Their essays elaborated on modernist aesthetics, contrasting them with the dominant Romantic
traditions.


➢ Engagement with Western Traditions:


These authors were deeply influenced by Western philosophy, art, and literature.

Their translations and writings demonstrated a critical understanding of Western modernism's significance
and limitations.

15. ➢Impact of Modernism on Indian Literatures:


Modernism redefined the relationship between content and form in Indian poetry.

Discursive prose by these authors served to "translate modernism" into Indian terms, making it
accessible and relevant to their audiences.


➢ Notable Translations and Contributions:


Sudhindranath Dutta and Buddhadeb Bose contributed significantly to the translation of European
modernist poetry into Bengali.

Ayyappa Paniker and B.S. Mardhekar expanded the reach of modernist aesthetics through translations and
original works.

16. The Primacy of Poetry:
●Dutta argues poetry is essential across societies, even among the unsophisticated, showing its necessity .
●Believes only poetry can provide associations where reason fails, rejecting the centrality of reason in modern
society .
Role of the Creative Artist:
●Agrees with Virginia Woolf that artists need moments of retreat but emphasizes staying connected to society’s
needs .
●Underlines the importance of the masses in shaping literary tradition, stating that intellectuals must meet the
"pragmatic test" of the people .
Criticism of Anglicists:
●Critiques Anglicists for failing to free the people from colonial illusions.
●Praises Jamini Roy’s use of traditional Indian art to create a universal mode of representation
(Chaudhuri 2008, 24).
Sudhindranath Dutta’s View on Poetry, Tradition, and Modernism

17. Modernism and Decolonization:
●Modernism in India was not a celebration of Western values but a part of the decolonizing project.
●Dutta endorses Eliot’s commitment to tradition, which he sees as revolutionary and necessary for survival
(Chaudhuri 2008, 55).
“The Camel-Bird”: A Poem of Crisis and Survival:
●The poem reflects the poet’s alienation and disconnection from the past, symbolized by the vulnerable bird.
●Emphasizes the need for reinvention and survival in a world of ruins, where the poet searches for meaning
amidst violence (Ananthamurthy et al, 1992, 28).
Quest for Humanity and Community:
●The poem goes beyond personal crisis, embodying the inertia of a colonized community and the search for
humanity in a fragmented world.

Dutta’s Modernist Poetics and the Crisis of Tradition

18. B.S. Mardhekar and the Transformation of Marathi Poetry
Modernist Aesthetic in Marathi Poetry:
●Mardhekar, alongside P.S. Rege, introduced modernism into Marathi poetry, drawing influences from Western
modernists like T.S. Eliot.
●Both poets reinvented Marathi poetic traditions, revisiting saint-poets like Tukaram and Ramdas for a modern
audience.
Response to Cultural Fragmentation:
●Mardhekar’s work responds to the moral and cultural disintegration he experienced, particularly in urban
Bombay.
●His poetry reflects an intricate relationship with tradition and modernity, influenced by figures like Jyotiba Phule
and Bhimrao Ambedkar.
Complex Poetic Practice:
●His poetry blends irony and self-reflection, exploring societal contradictions and personal alienation.
(Chitre, 1967)

19. “Mice in the Wet Barrel Died"
●Mardhekar uses grim imagery, such as "sadness has poisonous eyes made of glass," to depict the harshness of
modern life (Chitre, 1967).
●The poem reflects urban despair and existential suffering through vivid metaphors (Chitre, 1967).
Subversive Language and Irony:
●The poet combines modern and archaic language (e.g., "jibha" and "jivha" for 'tongue') to create a unique poetic
voice (Sarang, 1988).
●This blending of languages creates a striking contrast, enhancing the subversive nature of his work (Sarang,
1988).
"Although the Lights"
●Mardhekar explores urban alienation, blending human and mechanical elements to depict a dehumanized
cityscape. The poem highlights despair through vivid, contrasting imagery (Engblom, 1990).
Key Poems and Modernist Techniques

20. Role of Translation: Understand how translation helps connect different cultures and
languages in Indian poetry.

Modernist Poetry: Learn how Indian poets use new ideas and styles to make poetry
modern and unique.

Cultural Influence: Explore how history and culture shape modern Indian poetry.

Regional Voices: Appreciate the importance of regional and local languages in Indian
poetry.

Global Trends: See how Indian poets adapt global ideas to fit their own traditions.
Learning outcomes

21. Imagery and Themes in Kurukshetram
●Opening Imagery: Explores decline and chaos.
○"Eyes suck and sip the tears that spurt."
○Suggests organic societal collapse.
●Central Symbol: Kurukshetram as a metaphor for conflict
and struggle.


Part 7
Ayyappa Paniker

●A romantic poet turned modernist, active in shaping Malayalam literary
modernism.
Key Contributions:

●Translator of global poetry into Malayalam
●Advocate for rejecting traditional prosody in favor of rhythmic free verse.
●Critical intervention against canonical figures like Vallathol Narayana
Menon.
‘Kurukshetram’ - An Overview
●Publication: 1960
●Structure: 294 lines in five sections, with an
epigraph from the Bhagavad Gita.
●Theme: Reflects moral decline and societal
disintegration, akin to T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land.
(Panikar)

22. Analysis of the poem
●Public critique of societal decline.
●Retreat to private introspection; disrupted harmony and infernal visions.
●Invocation of mythical figures, highlighting modern alienation.
●Rejection of faith and politics; search for self-reliance.
●Gandhi as a failed prophet; redemption sought through imagination and dreams
Key Philosophical Insights
Modernist Poetic Vision:
●Rejects allegorical/didactic
traditions.
●Integrates personal/public
realms of existence.

Kurukshetram’s Relevance:
●Resonates with global modernist discourse.
●Offers a critique of contemporary society and
the poet’s existential struggle.
Ending Note:
●Imagination as the sole redeemer in a
fragmented world.
●Paniker’s Legacy: A transformative figure in
Malayalam poetry, bridging tradition and
modernism.

Symbolic Imagery:
●Navel-born lotus of Brahma, a metaphor
for rebirth and creativity.

23. Postcolonial Context and Indigenous Modernity
●Writers had access to internal critiques of Western modernity
●Developed alternative traditions of modernity in native context
●Selective assimilation of Western modernity on their own terms
●Translation of modernity/modernism through postcolonial perspectives

Part 8 (Conclusion)
Dual Nature of Relationships
b) External Dialogic:
●Negotiated Western modes without surrendering to
ideology
●Maintained critical distance from grand narratives
●Developed complex relationship with fragmented
society
a) Internal Dialectic:
●Writers related to their culture as critical
outsiders
●Critical of provincial nature of their culture
●Valued cosmopolitan worldviews

24. Role of Translation
●Enabled writers to be both "within" and "without"
their speech community
●Answered deep needs of their ambivalent existence
●Bilingual sensibility demanded expression that could
move between native and alien traditions

The Modernist Subject in Indian Context
●Fragmentation different from Western context
●Colonial modernity operated as realm of desire
●Created new social imaginary
●Formalist poetic corresponded to inner world of
desire
Language and Self-Expression
●Language became only reality writers could relate to
●Enabled moments of recognition through Western
modernist discourses
●Self-reflexive movement was postcolonial in essence
●Questioned prevailing limits of freedom
●Created interior mode of being

25. ●Role of translation in shaping modernist poetic discourse in Indian literatures (1950-1970)

●Differences between Indian and European modernism due to postcolonial contexts

●Modernist poets' negotiations between tradition and modernity, indigenous and Western

●Diversity of political ideologies and experimental styles within Indian modernist tradition

●Translation's critical, creative, and performative functions in Indian modernist poetics

●Importance of studying non-Western modernisms to critique Eurocentrism
Learning Outcomes

26. References
Ananthamurthy, U. R., Ramachandra Sharma, and D. R. Nagaraj. 1992. Vibhava: Modernism in Indian writing.
Bangalore: Panther Publications.

Brooker, Peter, and Andew Thacker, eds. 2005. Geographies of modernism: Literatures, cultures, spaces. New
York: Routledge.

Chaudhuri, Sukanta, ed. 2008. The art of the intellect: Uncollected English writings of Sudhindranath Datta. New
Delhi: Chronicle Books.

Chitre, Dilip. 1967. An anthology of Marathi poetry 1945-1965. Bombay: Nirmala Sadanand Publishers.

Main Article:
Ramkrishnan, E. V. Shifting Centres and Emerging Margins: Translation and the Shaping of Modernist Poetic
Discourse in Indian Poetry, Orient Blackswan, 2017.
Resources cited in Article

27. Doyle, Laura, and Laura Winkiel. 2005. Geomodernisms: Race, modernism, modernity. Bloomington: Indiana
UP.

Engblom, Philip C. 1990. Modernism in Bombay: Marathi and English versions. The Bombay Literary Review
1: 31-48.

Friedman, Susan Stanford. 2006. Periodizing modernism: Postcolonial modernities and the space/time borders
of modernist studies. Modernism/ Modernity 13. 3: 425-43.

Gikandi, Simon. 1992. Writing in limbo: Modernism and Caribbean literature.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP.

Lefevere, André. 2000. Mother Courage's cucumbers: Text, system and refraction in a theory of literature. In
The translation studies reader, ed. Lawrence Venuti, 233-49. New York/London: Routledge.

OpenAI. Chatgpt, chatgpt.com/. Accessed 02 Jan. 2025.

Paniker, Ayyappa. 1985. Selected poems of Ayyappa Paniker. Trivandrum: Modern Book Centre.

28. Ramanan, Mohan, ed. 1996. Four centuries of American poetry. Madras (Chennai): Macmillan.

Sarang, Vilas. 1988. The stylistics of literary translation: A study with reference to English and
Marathi. Bombay: University of Bombay.

Satchidanandan, K., ed. 2001. Indian poetry: Modernism and after. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.

Walkowitz, Rebecca L. 2006. Cosmopolitan style: Modernism beyond the nation.
New York: Columbia UP.

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