SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY AND ISSUES in social work practice

notes

1. SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY AND ISSUES
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO POLICY ISSUES
1.1Conceptualization of “Policy” issues
In order to understand social policy analysis and its significance in policy making
process and its role in enhancing the welfare of the people, there is need to first
grasp the concepts related to it. These key concepts are: Policy, Public Policy,
Policy analysis and Social Policy.
1.1.1Policy
There is no definite definition for this term bse many scholars attempted to define it
differently. A policy can be defined as a principle that governs actions and
decisions directed towards given ends. The decisions and actions apply to
government, private sector, organizations, and groups or individuals. Policy can be
used to describe a field of activity eg economic policy, social policy. Policy as a
process which is viewed as continuous consisting of many steps and the
completion of one stage leads to the onset of the other which is referred to as the
policy cycle ie initiation to termination. Policy can be viewed as a program, Policy
as output, Policy as an outcome, etc.
1.1.1.2 Purpose of policies
If no policies existed, anarchy would reign. Staff members, consumers, agency
directors, and public officials would pursue whatever they thought valuable. Some
staff might commit most persons with mental problems, even minor ones, to
institutions, while other staff might commit no one, even those with life- threatening
conditions. Anarchy has its virtues, but such random and personal actions would
lead to confusion and unfortunate consequences for many. Anarchy would also
threaten the rights of vulnerable persons, such as racial minorities or poor persons.
By defining which services and benefits persons can receive and clearly stating
rules about determining eligibility, policies establish entitlements that cannot be
violated by staff who dislike certain kinds of persons. Official policies also make
clear to citizens which resources or services they can legitimately seek from social
agencies.
Policy help establish policy priorities.
While policies allow policy makers to express their preferences, they also create
accountability and enforcement. Elected officials are ultimately accountable to
their constituents, who base their votes on which policies the officials support and
oppose. In turn, the agencies, programs, and staff that implement legislative
policies are ultimately accountable to elected officials; if they flout legislative

2. policies by not implementing them, they risk losing funds and may be subject to
prosecution.
1.1.2Public Policy
It can be defined as a set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or
group of actors concerning goals and the means of achieving them with a specific
situation. These decisions should, in principle, be within the power of these actors to
achieve. The focus of public policy is the public and its problems. Public policy is
concerned with how issues and problems come to be identified, defined,
constructed and placed on the political and public agenda. Examples of public
policies are Health policy, Energy policy, Lands policy, education policy etc.
Generally, public policy refers to actions undertaken by the government to
influence society as a whole. Therefore, for a policy to be regarded as a public
policy, it must to some degree have been generated or at least processed within
the framework of governmental procedures, influences and organizations.
1.1.3Social policy
The drive to survive by satisfying intimate needs as well as social shaped needs are
the motivating force for social policy development. Therefore social policies
originated from pple’s actions and their relations to one another and to their
environment.
1.1.3.1 Narrow and Broad definitions of Social Policy
Defining social policy is a matter of social and political act which implies that there
is no universal acceptable definition of social policy. Some emphasize the kinds of
services and resources that social services provide. According to Jansson (1994), he
defines social policy as a collective strategy to address social problems. It
emphasizes that social policies aim to alleviate social problems such as hunger,
poverty, mental illness etc. This definition is primarily concerned with solving social
problems. They focus on the behavior of individuals and families and do not
necessarily focus on the environment in which the individual lives. They attempt to
protect vulnerable groups in societies and those who are particularly exposed to
hazards not of their own making.
Broad definitions focus on the relationship between social problems and the wider
society/ environment. They aim at a deeper understanding of social problems and
social structures or the environment. Social policies bring about change and will
often addresses problems in the human services delivery system. When addressing
an issue in question, one will not focus alone on the subject matter but the
surroundings as well eg jigger infestations in Busoga – ignorance, poverty, lack of
govt intervention etc.

3. When a social policy is implemented, it frequently encounters formidable barriers,
such as lack of coordination between different agencies, lack of funds, lack of
adequate financial management, or poorly trained staff. To appreciate the scope
of changing social policy, imagine enacting legislation that provides prenatal
services so as to decrease premature births and birth defects in Uganda. Imagine
as well, that the person who sponsored the legislation found several years later that
it had had little impact on rates of premature births or birth defects in Uganda. A
legislator might seek to change policy by:-
Amending original legislation, Having a govt agency regulations, changing the
budget that funded the program, changing the policy at specific program sites,
such …..
1.1.4Policy analysis
It can be defined as a systematic evaluation of alternative goals. Policy analysis
involves a description of the content of policy and an analysis of the impact of the
socio- economic and the political forces in the context of public policy. Policy
analysis is different from program evaluation in that it attempts to evaluate
changes to policies and programs rather than evaluating their current
performance. It requires rational and sensitive approaches since it affects many
people and is influenced by many pple.
1.2Social Policy perspectives
Because of the failure to have a universal acceptable definition in social policy,
some scholars have developed different conceptions of what social policy is.
Scholars like Marshall refer to social policy as not a technical term with an exact
meaning. Titmus (1974), while in agreement with Hill (1986) also seemed to suggest
that social policy is a lay term not a technical one and like most such terms, it
defies simple definitions. Irrespective of all this controversy, social policy can be
conceived under 5 major perspectives:-
1.Social policy as a programme /product- It consists of the conclusions
reached by agencies, govts, communities concerned with the betterment of
the community conditions. As a programme, it refers to a series of social
economic activities / programmes/interventions that may be put in place to
solve existing problems by creating new services or improving the
performance of those already in place. Eg UPE – reduce on illiteracy levels,
new breeds of animals. At times, these may be expressions of govt social
missions to address what is purported to be a social problem or undesirable
social condition.

4. As a product on the other hand, social policy can be viewed as concrete
outcomes of govt intentions on ground.
2.Social policy as a philosophy - it can be perceived as philosophical concept
in an abstract sense. It is also the principle whereby members of large
organizations and political entities collectively initiate sustainable solutions to
the problems that affect them eg security in an area. Therefore social policy
is seen as a tool for enhancing and perpetuating the notion of community
(Collectivism) as opposed to individualism.
Perceiving social policy as a philosophy is also based on value judgment of
society as to what is wrong or right. The valued arguments are also based on
the norms of society ie those rules and regulations (social policies) that are
initiated within society aimed at guiding and regulating behavior. In certain
behaviors which do not conform to norms of society, then deliberate causes
of action are instituted to rectify on what is going wrong. Those collective
and preventive measures aimed at promoting the integrity and common
good of societies are considered as social policies. Therefore, s policy as a
philosophy simply means that the various deliberate causes of action taken
by the state, voluntary actors will have to be guided by norms, values and
beliefs of a given society.
3.Social policy as an ideology- perceived as a product making a policy
process. In an event of policy making, there are ,various stake holders
(interest groups) with conflicting interests. These conflicts arise as a result of
different interpretations of social conditions in society at a given time and
how the available resources should be utilized.
The beliefs held by the stronger and more influential group tend to determine
policy direction and how to meet distribution of resources eg the rich in
society. It should be noted that regarding the organization, mgt, and
implementation of social services especially in LDC’s are often guided by the
political ideology and not the pragmatic assessment of social needs
4.Social policy as planning- in this regard, social policy is perceived as the end
product of a national exercise involving the determination of goals –
generation and examination of alternative courses of action (s policies and
the options to be used in achieving the goals). Here social policies are
assumed to be pragmatic, deliberate and problem oriented. They are
conceived as planning for social alternatives aimed at the equitable
distribution of resources and over role benefits. Over role s policy as planning
is taken as an organized effort of the society to meet identifiable social
needs / s problems presented by groups or individuals in society.

5. 5.Social policy as a field of study –is perceived in the domain of Social sciences
like many social science disciplines or professions. Some scholars like Marsh
(1997), argued that it’s the study of sociology, history, anthropology,
economics among others. History is the study of past events. It has enhanced
the devt of NSSF policy whereby pple at the age of 55 (Retirement age) are
given pensions. Therefore history acts as a guiding factor in order to form
policies.
Anthropology is the study of society, people and cultural patterns. Social
policy as a science is concerned with the purposes and consequences of all
public action. Social policies determine a country’s programmes and
services in such matters as income distribution, employment, and levels of
living which are very important in the lives of pple to be left to a chance.
1.3Categories of Policies
Distributive policy:These are policies which aim at extending goods and services to
all citizens so that they can improve on their standards of living. The cost for funding
these policies is usually shared by all tax payers eg govt policy on public
expenditure on roads, education, national security and general social
infrastructure.
Regulatory policies: These are policies that limit individual behavior for pple in
different communities ie they regulate pple’s decisions so as to create social order
eg the Public Order bill that is yet to turn into a policy/ a law. Such policies are
drafted and accompanied by sanctions like fines, punishment, and imprisonment.
Re – distributive policies:These policies take benefits from those who who have to
those who do not have in order to reduce income inequality and other forms of
social inequality eg PAYE.
Constituent policies: These are concerned with legislative issues. They are
legislative activities mandated in the constitution provisions which give mandate to
govt to act in a particular way during a given situation eg constitutional provisions
of amending certain acts in the Constitution and all others that are open to
Parliamentary debate.
1.4Principles of Social Policy
In the discipline of social policy, they can be referred to as principles. They are five
principles, which are used as a baseline in the construction, designing and
implementation of social policies.

6. a.Social Justice: This principle suggests that social structures should guarantee
each person the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty
for others eg if its determined that there is need for others to have a minimum
standard of living, then social policies should be designed to ensure such an
outcome. In other words, the person of social justice is concerned with either
collective or distributive justice.
Collective justice examines the relationship between deviance and
punishment and attempts to create a balance and redistribution.
Redistributive justice is concerned with the allocation of resources and this
tends to be the pre occupation of social policy. It addresses such issues in the
fairest way of dividing the benefits of society among its members.
b.Social Equity: This principle simply means fair treatment. It prescribes that as
much as possible pple should receive what they deserve based upon their
contribution in society, apart from those whose inability to contribute is not of
their own making eg vulnerable gps, retrenched etc.
c.Social Equality: The search for this is a fundamental justification for designing
social policies. The values/principles of social equality prescribe that benefits
should be allocated in such a way to equalize the distribution of resources
and opportunities available in society. The principle suggests that social
policies should not be designed along narrow disseminating interests.
d.Social control: This is reflected in the extent to which the forms of social
provision will create social order, harmony with social values and norms.
e.Social freedom: Is all about freedom of choice. It is reflected in the extent to
which benefits are offered in forms that allow recipients to exercise their
individual preferences. However, in LDC’s this principle is due to serious
inadequacy of resources. As a result, beneficiaries of social policies are
bound to take what is offered without exercising their individual freedom of
preferences eg govt dispatched double cabins to work as ambulances in
Local Governments. The communities had no option but to accept them.
1.5The role/ functions of Social Policy
The basic and consequently, the role of social policy rotates around its functions in
society and the resulting effects once social policy functions are not played. This
also implies that the objective is to improve the well being of individuals, groups
and community.
Objectives
Redistribution of resources in society eg taxes, health services, UPE, USE etc.
Social policies attempt to redistribute resources in a society in order to
promote the wellbeing of societal members. The govt performs this role thro
taxation and securing grants, loans from International community’s which in

7. turn are channeled into social programmes. In the redistribution of resources
in modern society, people suffer social economic disadvantages, over which
they lack direct and indirect control over them. It is recognized that a range
of circumstances perpetuate social probs and society is basically imperfect
in the distribution of opportunities. Therefore, social policy comes in to
address the imperfect nature of society by attempting to provide
opportunities to members who suffer various disadvantages.
The promotion of the well being of the society ie food – relief and subsidies.
Social policy embraces all positive attempts to promote the well being of
individuals and society including what Hill and Bramely call compensation for
this welfare imposed by the economic system. We should note that many
changes in society tend to have both neg- and pos+ impacts on the well
being of individuals. Negatively, the individual may fail to protect himself
against changes taking place eg retrenchment at work, privatization. That is
when social policy comes into place to advocate for provision of safety,
designed to help those who cannot live unaided.
Provision of social services which cannot be left to market forces eg safe
and clean water, medical services. This includes concern for other categories
of pple who may be suffering eg vulnerable gps. This basically entails the
state or govt to direct resources to the promotion and care of dependant
groups subjected to harsh conditions of life.
Perpetuation of the notion of community or collectivism as opposed to
individualism
Advocacy and empowerment of marginalized groups
UNIT 2: THE BASIS OF SOCIAL POLICY ANALYSIS
1.2Social Problems
A Social problem is a condition affecting a significant number of pple in ways
considered undesirable about which something can be done through collective
social action. The definition has four distinct ideas.
-A condition affecting a number of people
Eg the AIDS epidemic where by a number of pple have been affected, the
number of orphans is on the increase. One way of measuring public concern is
the number and length of magazine and newspaper articles devoted to that
problem each year as listed in the periodical indexes. When numerous articles
appear, it shows that the condition has widely attracted public concern and
has become a social problem.
When the articles begin to decline, ie either the concern of the problem is
waning. Or considerable policy about it has been reached and programmes

8. have been implemented which are intended to combat that particular social
problem.
-Ways considered undesirable
Cattle rustling among the Karimajongs was not a social problem as long as most
pple thought that it was desirable. Only when a considerable number of pple
decide that cattle rustling is bad, key actors start documenting it as a condition
which is undesirable then cattle rustling is considered a social problem.
A social problem therefore involves a valued judgment, a decision that the
condition is bad – sanitation, child sacrifice, environmental degradation, FGM,
floods etc. These examples show how values may define any condition as a
social problem or prevent any designation of any particular condition as a
social problem eg suicide, drunkardness, starvation, child battering etc. Any of
these may be defined as a social problem by the values of society or they may
be defined as non problematic because they are acceptable. No condition no
matter how grammatical or shocking to someone else is a social problem unless
until the values of a considerable number of pple in society define it as a social
problem.
In the past years, weather, famine were not much of a problem because of the
belief that they were part of natural and unchangeable order of things. Floods
before were considered a misfortune to be endured but they later became a
social problem only when it was decided that they can be prevented. Control
over the weather can be exercised and is leading to discussions, debates, and
weather has become a social problem. The nature of a problem changes as
techniques of treatment are developed.
For centuries, poverty was not considered a social problem because the poor
regarded it as a misfortune but only recently the problem has been integrated
into treatment and development perspective.
-About which something should be done.
A condition is a problem only when it’s believed something can be done about
it and if nothing can be done about a situation, then it’s a misfortune. Policies
are developed only after an issue has been identified as a social problem.
A social problem is a widely spread situation, disturbing that calls for public
concern, opinion formation in on and pressure development. Social problems
are therefore social in orign - a condition affecting a significant number of
people.
1.2.2Attitudes towards social problems

9. Attitudes and values determine the meanings that are found in the facts that are
observed.
Indifferent: The most wide spread attitude is that of unconcern. Few people
become agitated over anything that doesn’t involve their personal welfare.
Survival strategies keep people so busy to get concerned with issues which do not
involve them directly. General interest in a problem is likely to develop only when
pple sense a serious threat to their welfare or particularly shocking denial of their
values eg problem of street children is not an issue unless these children start spilling
over from the suburbs. That is when public actors come in to rectify the problem.
Most members of all races, classes and ages are relatively indifferent to problems
that do not appear as a direct threat to them eg cattle rustling and the
insurgencies.
Fatalistic resignation: passive acceptance of misfortune. Millions endure great
suffering, starvation with a calm stoic resignation. Some pple believe that the way
to meet misfortune is to endure it quietly. The thought of doing something about it
does not occur to them eg jigger infestations in Busoga. Hinders initiative in policy
development.
Cynicism:All talk about social problems is a waste of time. They believe that all
pple are motivated purely by self interest and other motives.
Religious retribution: View social probs as God’s punishment for sin eg drought,
war, floods, etc. The solution to such a problem is not to be found in social policies /
institutional changes but in righteous and prayer.
Social Science: This field is distinguished from others, mainly by the social scientists’
concern for withholding judgment until available relevant evidence is assembled
and studied. They ask many probing questions to reach at a conclusion. They seek
to understand rather than placing blame. They reject any simplicity, emotional
attachment to problems. In his attitude, successful social policies are found only in
objective study.
Objectives for the study of social problems
Awareness: Students of social problems should become aware of the main
social problems
Factual knowledge:
Understanding of the sociology of social problems ie a general
understanding of why and how probs develop, how pple are affected by
them, and what’s involved dealing with them.

10. Relation of theory and practice. Practice divorced from theory is not always
practical.
1.3Social Needs
According to Albert Will, persons are said to be in need when they fall below a
certain minimum requirement for sustaining physical and social life. The social
minimum life is when pple are living to their expected requirement, failure of which
to qualify for one leads to a need. The advantage of this conception is that once
society has set up a minimum, its possible to alternate the quality for goods and
services that are required to meet that need.
There are inevitable impressions involved in specifying suitable minimum
requirements of these needs even at the level of psychological substance.
Individual needs vary from an individual to individual. However the rate of variation
may be within certain limits. What constitutes a suitable society minimum also varies
from society to society over time.
Jonathan Bradshaw contended that the concept of needs is inherent in the idea of
society and social services. The history of social services strings from the recognition
of social needs and the history of society to meet the needs. In practice, a
separate definition of needs can be used by a policy maker in designing policies;
hence assessment of needs is paramount.
Forms of social needs
According to Jonathan Bradshaw, he proposes these measures of social needs:

11. Normative: This is what the expert /administrator defines as a need in a given
situation. A desirable standard is laid down and compared to the existing
standards. If an individual/group falls under the desirable standards, then they are
seen as in need, but this is not absolute and the values and norms held by different
experts and groups in society may differ from one another eg the elites may define
situations as undesirable, unlike the illiterates. They may be different and often
conflicting in standards laid down and this makes it difficult for experts to determine
what to offer to the two categories.
Felt needs: They are usually equated to want. When assessing a need, or a service,
pple should be asked whether they need it. These are needs which are intrinsic
(essential) and spontaneous (come from the pple /society eg security, water
provision etc.
Expressed needs: They can be demands ie felt needs turned into action. Although
one may need the service, they can only be put on the policy agenda if they are
expressed. They can be used in many of the social services like housing, where
weighing lists are taken as a measure of unattended needs. Here a policy
practitioner examines the observable variables to tell the extent to which the
community is in need of a service eg the large numbers of patients waiting for a
doctor at a health centre, the number of complaints registered at the Police post
about problems such as defilement, drug abuse etc. However, this definition is poor
because some people may not express their needs for some reason yet they are in
need of it.
Comparative needs: This measures social problems and other needs by
comparing the distribution of services in different communities, the distribution of
health centres or schools in rural areas compared to urban areas. Districts and
counties as well as countries can also be compared to tell which areas are in
problems and therefore need attention and intervention.
UNIT 3: SOCIAL SERVICES DELIVERY
3.0Social Services delivery
This is where policy makers determine whether social benefits will be offered in cash
or in kind. Social services delivery however may not be limited to monetary terms or
services. They may be other benefits which might include opportunities to individual
groups eg their educational opportunities, self capacity building which can lead to
individual self actualization. Social provisions delivered in cash enhance the

12. freedom of choice by allowing the individual exercise their preferences. This can be
manifested in the micro finance institutions approaches to poverty eradication.
Strategies for delivery of Social services
These are the alternative organizational arrangement through which policy
provisions will leave their initiation of conception stage to the consumption. Under
this element, concepts of decentralization and centralization of delivery systems
come in community based policies utilizing local structures eg safe water projects
where they look for existing water sources to build new ones. This approach leads
to capacity building, a sense of belonging and sustainability in a policy agenda.
Demands
These are expressed needs that pple direct towards authorities of a political system
for action. In social policy, demands form social needs which arise in society due to
poverty, vulnerability, isolation, physical weakness and powerlessness of the masses.
The resources to meet them are limited. This implies that relevant authorities are
often pressed or persuaded to make certain kinds of decisions and take actions if
their legitimacy and moral authority are not to be in jeopardy.
Authorities
Are those individuals responsible for making the day today systems required of the
political system. Sources of authority originate from the acceptance of enacted
decisions as binding by the pple. The authorities are esteemed to possess
considerable political and economic power and therefore a target of social policy
demands.
Problems in the Social Services delivery system that are often targets of policy
reform
1.Fragmentation: Barriers make it difficult for clients or consumers to obtain
services from multiple programs
2.Discontinuity: Clients cannot obtain consistent, accessible services over a
period of time.
3.Lack of access: Barriers make services hard to use at specific sites
4.Discrimination: service providers are hostile or indifferent to specific kinds of
clients
5.“Creaming”: providers deliberately seek clients with less serious problems
6.Wastage: different providers serve the same population for the same
problem, or services are not provided efficiently
7.Lack of outreach: providers make little effort to seek persons who do not
currently use services
8.Incompetent staff: staff are asked to perform tasks for which they have little
training
9.Lack of cultural sensitivity: providers make little effort to match their services
to the cultural perspectives of the clients they serve eg FGM.

13. Strategies for improving the effectiveness of service delivery
a.Strategies to restructure authority for, and control of policy making by
coordinating of environmental factors that influence the client’s functioning
by either decentralizing system of service delivery and through citizen
participation – democratic delivery system is more responsive to client’s
need.
b.Disengaging from bureaucratic delivering of services to private practice to
overcome the constraint posed by agency policies.
c.Creating specialized access structures, such as advocacy, advice,
information and referral services.
d.Etc…
UNIT 4: THEORIES AND MODELS OF SOCIAL POLICY
4.1Theories of Social Policy
All science consists of 2 interrelated elements, theory and research. These elements
support and generate each other. Theory guides the direction of research as it
identifies areas and variables to be investigated and the hypothesis to be tested.

14. Research findings also generate new theoretical formulations as unexpected
findings require new theoretical statements to explain the results.
i.Functional theory/Systems theory: is one of the most influential theories borrowed
from sociology. The theory was originally developed by Emile Durkin and refined
by Robert Marton and others. The theory views society as an organized system in
which most members agree on common values and norms. Members of society
do what is necessary to maintain a stable society because they have a sense of
belonging and accept the society regulations and rules.
Society is viewed as a system composed of interdependent, interrelated parts.
Each part makes a contribution to the operation of the system thus enabling the
entire system to function. The various parts are in delicate balance with a change
or imbalance in one part, affecting other parts. Changes in society introduced to
correct a particular imbalance may produce other imbalances even when it
appears to be going on well. Eg effective birth control is instrumental in preventing
unwanted pregnancies. However it may contribute to increased premarital and
extramarital sex.
UPE – pupils learn under very poor conditions
Agriculture modernization- high yields with no steady market
According to a functionalist theory, all social systems have a tendency toward
equilibrium – mantainence of a steady state or a particular balance in which the
parts of a system remain in the same relationship to one another. The theory asserts
that the systems have a tendency to resist change as change is seen as disruptive
unless it occurs at a slow pace. Because society is composed of independent and
interconnected parts, a change in one part of the system will lead to changes in
one or more other parts.eg Political system – increase of salaries for MP’s affected
the budget.
Communication – mobile phones led to a boom in business
Increased insecurity
Functionalism asserts that components of a society are similar to the parts of a
human being. When a component of a society interferes with efforts to carry out
essential social tasks that part is said to be dysfunctional.
ii. Conflict theory: This theory views a society as being a struggle for power among
different groups. Conflict is inevitable and in many cases its beneficial to society.
The conflict theory rests on the assumption that there are certain things such as
power, wealth, prestige, that members of society value highly and the one in
scarce / supply, pple either as individuals or groups struggle with one another to

15. attain them. Thus society is viewed as an arena for the struggle over scarce
resources. Conflict and struggle may take many forms eg strikes, Competition,
Court battles, Physical violence, and war. If the struggle routinely involves violence,
then nearly everyone will be involved in violent activities which often results in the
extermination to such a society.
Norms have emerged that determine what types of conflicts are allowed for
groups eg strikes, competition, court battles. The unacceptable ones are war,
physical violence. However, all these acceptable and unacceptable conflicts are
related. Conflict theorists assert that modern societies are composed of many
different groups with diversity and divergent values, attitudes, norms and therefore
conflicts are bound to occur. Not all conflicts stem from disagreements over values,
but some conflict arise partially bse pple share values eg wealth and power are
highly valued in our society. The rich spend considerable efforts and resources to
maintain their status whereas the poor advocate for equal rights and more
equitable distribution of income and wealth. Labour unions battle continually over
wages and free benefits – NOTU. Different political parties struggle constantly in the
hope of gaining increased political power – A4C.
In contrast to functionalism which is criticized as being too conservative, conflict
theory has been criticized for being too radical ( drastic). Conflict theory has also
been criticized as encouraging oppressed groups to revolt against existing power
structure rather than working within the system to address their concerns. Conflict
theory is the father of the feminist theory ie “it advocates for why should we,” eg
why should women be prohibited to participate in the labour market?

From the conflict theory, a social change mainly involves reordering of scarce
resources among groups. Unlike functionalism which views change as potentially
destructive, the conflict theory can lead to improvement, reduction of
discrimination against groups, emergence of new dominant groups, society
advancement. Without conflict, society will become stagnant.
From the conflict perspective another vital difference between functionalism and
conflict theory is that functionalism asserts that most pple obey the law because
they believe that the law is fair and just whereas conflict theory asserts that social
order is maintained by authorities backed by force or cohesion. The latter asserts
that the privileged classes hold power illegally and use the legal system to make
others obey their will.
Conclusively, many pple obey the law bse they are afraid of being arrested, or
even killed if they defy the laws.

16. iii. Interactional theory - it focuses on the individuals and the process of everyday
interaction among individuals rather than on larger structures of society eg the
educational system, economy, religious orientation and sexual orientations.
Interactional theory uses behavior as a product of each individual‘s social
relationships eg how aggressive or cooperative a person is, how much self respect/
confidence one has, how energetic and productive his work is, what he aspires
and what he believes to be true and good; are also highly determined by the
individual’s group’s membership eg single sex schools – homosexuality. In real
sense, they are products of groups and of relationships btn pple
Interactionist theory asserts that human beings interprete or define each other’s
actions instead of merely reacting. The theory asserts that pple are the products of
culture and social relations in which they participate. They also believe that an
individual’s personality continues to change throughout life in response to the
changing environment.
iv. Evolution theory - this theory is based on change, based on dynamic belief that
society is ever changing under individual, societal and natural forces. This theory
has 3 xctics namely:-
Change takes from simple to complex forms
 Change involves trial and error
Change takes place in a free determined direction
Change is considered to be necessary but gradual which asserts the
evolution theory.
In general, the 1
st
xctic of this theory is change which is necessary but must be less
gradual. It is further assumed to take place through a planned series of events and
in a direction in which its planned to occur eg UPE was planned.
However, some change is natural eg earthquakes, floods, famine. They are natural
but we should plan for them eg Disaster preparedness. Whatever change that
occurs may not either be planned. It can be neg- or pos+ and is not always
synonymous with development ie not moving from simple to complex forms.
Change can be curtailed with undesirable social forces like corruption but
corruption is a symptom rather than a disease itself.

Evolution theory can be determined by a necessary sequence of progress as it is
normally seen as society growing from rural settlements to large independent

17. communities. Basic xctic of survival for the fittest and this was used as a baseline for
the pilot policy for developing.
v. Cyclic theory - the theory provides a defense for an explanation for
development. It also provides a defense for the provision of social welfare services
associated with development. It serves as a rational to the use of social welfare
services, achievement of social reforms. Social welfare service tends to shift from
residual programmes to institutional ones. This theory has not been used so much
like the earlier theories and the reason for this is basically the premises and ideas
are archaic / outdated. The explanation does not provide an impetus to move
ahead on the other hand, the theory tries to borrow from classical functionists as it
emphasizes stability in relation with parts of society. Whereas functionalism argues
that the various parts of society retain their identity through time. The cyclic theory
varies in these aspects by emphasizing the following features:-
The elements of society disappear and reappear the disappearance and
reappearance occur in a regular and predictable pattern. The patterns are usually
from order rather than change. These xctics refer to the cyclic situation of what
has been is what will be. The theory further insists that there is nothing new on earth.
Relevance of cyclic theory
The relevance is to be found in two social concepts ie fatalism and activism.
Fatalism: - it sees society as static. The social conditions here occur in societies that
are committed to the belief that everything has a definite destiny which cannot be
changed by any form of action or knowledge. The belief is that, social conditions
like diseases, poverty etc are perceived as inevitable. This type of belief / attitude
creates a psychological environment in which problems most comfortably thrive eg
feminism and women empowerment which prevents women from owning land –
FIDA advocating for the domestic relations bill.
Activism: - it is rooted in a belief that anything is subjected to human control and
society is dynamic ie pple are not always comfortable with the status core or
fatalism.
4.2Models of Social Policy
A model is a construct of society, a testable hypothesis about a project that can
either be refuted or approved. A model is an explicit theory of how a set of
resources and activities would produce a specific impact in a given society. In
social policy, there are three models namely:-
a.Residual model

18. b.Institutional redistributive
c.Industrial achievement/ Performance model
a.Residual model is based on the belief /assumption that they are two natural
ways through which an individual meets his/her needs – family, market. Needs
are security, education, health etc. However these normal channels may
sometimes be inadequate due to disruptions like illness, natural calamities,
famine, age etc.
Residual models are concerned with temporary arrangements through which
pple can access the basics in life and they stop immediately when the situation
normalizes. Because of the residual model temporary and substituted
characteristics, social welfare provisions based on this model carry a stigma of
charity. The model is consistent with a capitalist ideology of individual
responsibility.
b.Institutional redistributive model is a balance btn residual and industrial
achievement / performance model. With this principle, the redistributive model
operates with a utilitarian (practical/effective) calculation of the common
good. It is simply defined as an organized system of social service delivery and
through this arrangement and policy designing , institutions are designed to aid
individuals /groups to attain a satisfied standard of life even when the channels
through which they access the basic needs is disrupted.
c.Industrial achievement/ Performance model - differs from the residual model in
that it perceives social welfare and the associated institutions as a necessity.
This model calls for the provision of social welfare services to enhance
productivity and performance at work. The model assumes social welfare as an
incentive/reward that is designed to motivate workers to perform better hence
increased output and productivity. Social welfare services are seen as catalysts
in the development process- allowances, pension, and increased salary.
UNIT 5: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION
Policy implementation is part of the policy making process/ policy practice. It is a
process of putting in practice what has long been planned and selected as the
alternative policy to solve or serve a specific policy. It should be noted that
implementation is the work of administrators and other relevant providers. Policy
administration/ implementation takes place when policy formulation ends. The
most critical questions here are:
Has the policy been implemented according to the intended plan/ objection and
if not why?

19. Some policies may fail to be effectively implemented or even totally remain on
paper without ever being implemented.
Policy practice: Skills and Tasks
Policy practice is defined as efforts to influence development, enactment,
implementation or assessment of social policies. Policy practitioners often use four
basic skills namely:-
Analytical skills – they enable the social policy practitioner identify policy
alternatives, compare their relative merits, and develop recommendations. The
analytical issues are helpful in a no. of ways:-
Identify problems requiring action
Bring problems forward and plan for them on the policy agenda
Provide evidence that the concern is important
Comparing costs and benefits of various proposals
Suggesting recommendations for policy recommendations
Demonstrating how the introduction of the policy will further the interests of
policy makers.
Political skills – help assess policies’ feasibility (viability), identify power resources,
and develop and implement political strategy.
Interactional skills – help practitioners make contacts, develop networks, build
personal relationships, identify “old boy” networks, and facilitate coalitions and
committees.
Value- clarification skills – helps when considering the morality of certain policy
proposals and strategies to obtain support for them. The policy maker is controlled
by the norms and values of the society by looking at the history of a particular
community and the forces of the first policies.
Practitioners use policy skills to perform six tasks namely:
a.Setting agendas
Policy makers like President, Ministers, MP’s, H.O.D have a lot on their plates
so if you are persuading them to take on policy in order to catch their
attention, first learn tricks to land an issue on a policy agenda. How does a
teacher, social worker, doctor introduce reform in Social policy? It’s the
ability to persuade policy makers that what you are suggesting is right to be
included on policies to be included.
b.Defining problems

20. Is a highly intellectual task. Define it in a sensible way. Be impressive with the
use of analytical skills. Have answers for – who, what, how.
c.Making proposals
You have persuaded policy makers and the problem is defined hence
preparation of proposals. Proposals must be written to persuade others, must
be written to persuade others, and must be presented in such a way that
they attract the attention of a policy maker.
d.Enacting policy
A proposal will be enacted into a law or formal rule. It becomes a
programme that can be supported. The task involved is getting a proposal
enacted is o fierce given the settings eg in Parliament where political
crocodiles are biting each other. At the point of enacting it, its real battle be
enemies of a proposal may bite it by piece, so that in the end you do not get
what was intended.
e.Implementing policy
A policy cannot be one unless it is implemented. Implementation is very
crucial because the policy may be poorly interpreted or implemented hence
the need for monitoring.
f.Assessing policy
It is crucial to assess policies to know whether they have been successful in
attaining their intended goals.