sociology significance.pptx educational sociology

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1. Significance of Sociology in Nursing Sociology enables the nurses to understand about the forces and pressures that can influence the patients unfavourably. In hospital and health care centres, various people are employed, a team of doctors, nurses, anaesthetists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, sociologists, psychologists, lab and X-ray technicians, dieticians etc. Thus, better knowledge of sociology enables the nurses to understand the behaviour, conflicts, inter personal relationships, hierarchy, group, adaptation. Etc., of all people.   The information about the socio-cultural life of the patient is very important for planning and implementing the treatment and sociology helps the nurse to collect such information.   There are different social factors that become challenges in the process of nursing like lack of education, superstitious principles, old age sayings of people, traditions, rituals, customs etc. Sociology enables the nurses to have the knowledge of the social factors and the ways in which the patients having different perspectives for medicines and doctors can be dealt with.  

2. In our country, the prime obstacle is illiteracy or lack of awareness. Together with care services, the nurses are also responsible for educating the people about the cleanliness, balance diet, vaccination, and about the health of mother and child.   The discipline Sociology enables the nurses to have the knowledge of social Problems faced by the patients.  In absence of Sociology, the nurses may find difficulties while dealing with the patients and the other members of the society. The study of Sociology enables the nurses to evaluate the information of patient because this subject helps them to learn about the techniques of interview, applications of statistics and the formation of theories.  In the process of nursing, the technique of adjustment is important and this can be facilitated by the study of sociology. Sociology enables the nurses to understand about the psycho-social problems of patients. This is significantly useful for their medical treatments.

3. Fundamental Concepts of Sociology

4. Social structure Social structure refers to the way the society is organised.   The concept of social structure was given by Herbert Spencer. The term "social structure" is used by sociologists to describe organised structure of society and also the interrelationships between different groups and constituents. Social structures are not visible to the new observer, but they affect all social dynamics According to Radcliffe Brown, "Social structure is an arrangement of persons in institutionally controlled or defined relationships".   According to Ginsberg Opines, "Social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social organisation, i.e., types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies".

5. Elements of Social Structure Social structure is an outcome of the interaction of various individuals who are organised to pursue certain goals and objectives Normative System: The normative system of the society is the source of various ideals and morals. Various institutions are related with each other on the basis of these norms. The individuals of society are governed as per the established norms of the society. For example, presence of old age homes in India is still not in wide acceptance. Position System: The position system refers to the status and responsibilities of individuals. Every individual has a different set of goals and aspirations. Sanction System: Every society has a sanction system for the appropriate enforcement of rules and norms. It can also be understood in terms of rewards and punishments that exist in a society for different types of behaviour. Different parts of the society should act in accordance with social rules and regulations. System of Anticipated Response: There are numerous words which we usually see or hear in our daily life. For example, “work ethics” or “keep your surroundings clean”. Action System: The action system focuses on social structure. This is a System which develops social relationships and activates social structure.

6. Bases of Social Structure Need to Pursue a Goal : Human beings are the key components of social structure. They have variety of opinions and interests. Inter-relationships of human beings provide basis of social structure. For example, family is a part of social structure. In this structure, all members of the family exist for a common purpose and objective for the happiness of the family. Preparedness to Accept One’s Role and Status : Members of social structure have certain roles and responsibilities. A status is a socially defined position within a group or society. A status may involve many roles. Both status and roles are the outcome of customs, traditions and thought processes of society. Norms and Mores : Norms are the types of behaviours which are socially approved. Norms play a very important role in allocating the roles and responsibilities of individuals within the society. These norms are helpful in creating the inter-relationships that are critical in a social structure. For example, in Indian family, mothers play a vital role in taking care of the family whereas, in American family, every member is responsible for self-care or self-help.

7. Types of Social Structure Universalistic-Achievement Pattern : This type of value systems are sometimes imposed on the values of social structure. These mostly relate to the values of kinship, class distinctions, racial qualifications, etc. These values become the guiding stones for valuation of achievement. The choice of goals by the individual must be in accordance with the universalistic values. Universalistic-Ascription Pattern : In this type of social structure, the Element of value-orientation is dominated by the ascription element. Thus, a Strong emphasis is put on the position of individual rather than his specific Achievements. Here, the prime focus is on individual rather than his accomplishment.

8. Particularistic-Achievement Pattern : This makes a shift from Universalistic to Particularistic norms. This type of social structure blends achievement values with a strong sense of individuality. But these are focused on certain points of reference within the relational system or are inherent in the circumstance. The emphasis on achievement refers to the creation of a correct pattern of adaptation that is a result of human achievement. It is maintained via ongoing efforts. Particularistic- Ascriptive Pattern : This combination is essentially an amalgamation of Particularistic with Ascriptive . The Particularistic part ensures that goals are set keeping in mind several relational bases, particularly those of family However, the ascriptive part ensures that these are very loosely defined and not binding in the strict sense.

9. Importance of Social Structure in Nursing Profession Nursing is a very noble profession. It ensures the continuous caring of people who are sick, handicapped and not capable of even the basic human functions. It encourages the health practises in individuals, families and communities. Nurses are involved in healthcare management, research, policy formulation and patient care.

10. Basic Concept of Society A large social group that shares similar geographical territory, common culture, and social structure, and are also expected to follow same laws are defined as a ‘society’.   According to G.D.H. Cole, “Society as the complex of organised association And institutions within the community”. According to A.W. Green, “A society is largest group to which any individual belongs. A society is made up of a population organisation, time, place and interest”.

11. Characteristics of Society System of Social Relationship: MacIver states that “Society is a network of social relationship”. The basis of society is the social relationship. On the basis of age, sex and generation there are as many as fifteen relationships in a family. Likeness: According to MacIver, “Society means likeness”. It is present in the like beings, like-minded and like-bodied people. It is likeness or similarity that establishes understanding among people. This type of understanding forms the basis for intimacy, friendship, association, institution and any other type of social relationship. Difference: Society includes people having different talent, personality, attitude and ability. Different activities are pursued by these people because of their differences. Interdependence: Another essential element of society is interdependence. For example, the foundation of family is the biological interdependence of gender. Cooperation and Conflict: Cooperation is also one of the bases of society. It is one of the very basic elements of social life. Without cooperation people cannot live a life that is happy and comfortable.

12. Culture: Culture of the society makes them unique and different from one another. Culture is possessed by only human beings. The inherited pattern of cultural activity of a man is referred to as their culture. Society is Abstract: Society includes customs, laws, morals, social relations, etc. Abstractness and intangibility are the characteristics of social relations. These relationships cannot be touched or seen.

13. Types of Society Hunting and Gathering Societies : This is one of the most primitive societies. Members of these societies are survived by hunting, fishing and agriculture. Earlier, this is used to be dominant form of existence Pastoral Societies : This type of society emerged 1200 years ago. Members of these societies are engaged in rearing animals and used them for food and transportation. This type of society still exists today and cab be seen in North Africa. Horticultural Societies : Horticulture societies relied on cultivating plants, fruits, vegetables, etc. As compared to pastoral society, these societies came into existence at various parts of the planet at the same time. Agricultural Societies : Agricultural societies were different from pastoral Societies in the sense that they used technology aggressively. They used the Benefits of technology to grow crops like rice, wheat, barley, etc., in large Areas Feudal Societies : Feudalism was an integral part of our society from 9 th century to 15 th century. It was based on ownership of land. There were land owners who were at the top of the social structure and people who worked under these landlords,

14. Industrial Societies: This type of social organisation developed as result of the Industrial revolution. These societies were driven by the use of machines, particularly those that were based on fuel. Post-Industrial Societies: The post-industrial societies have been driven by technological advancement. The operating paradigm in the current age is the generation and use of information, knowledge and services.

15. Individual and Society Human being cannot live alone therefore they are considered as a social animal. He enjoys living with others. Existence or survival of a man depends upon The society. Following are the reasons due to which man can be called as a social animal: Man is Social by Nature : Human being cannot survive alone. They need society for their survival. The nature of human being requires them to live in society. Some hidden capacities are present in human child. Development of Self : At the time of birth, human infant is unaware about his own “self”. After interacting with others the idea of “self” is developed in the mind of the child. Social Heritage Determines Human Personality : Man depends on social heritage and therefore he is social. Social heritage is a blend of beliefs, ideals, and customs. Necessity makes a Man Social : Necessities of a man forces him to live in a society. There are various needs of a common man. These needs of a man can be fulfilled very easily if he lives in cooperation with others in the society.

16. Community The term ‘community’ is formed from the two distinct Latin terms namely, the ‘com’ and the ‘ munis ’. The term ‘com’ refers to ‘together’ and the term ‘ munis ’ Refers to ‘serve’. Therefore, the entire word ‘community’ refers to ‘serve In the context of Sociology, the term ‘community’ refers to a group of people who comply with social framework of the society. The social framework consists of the culture, norms, values and status followed in the society. According to Kingsley Davis, “Community can be defined as the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life”.   According to Talcott Parsons, “Community can be defined as collectivity the members of which share a common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities”.

17. Characteristics of Community Community refers to a group of people involving in interaction. Interaction among people is arising inside a restricted geographical area that Is self-contained and all day to day activities (whether economic or non- Economic) are arising in that specific area. The members of community are sharing common values, beliefs and behaviors . A specific social structure is present in a community. In absence of social structure, a group of people cannot be termed as a community. The members of community logically belong to each other.

18. Types of Communities The types of communities on the basis of residential areas are as follows: Urban Communities : An urban area is considered as a centre of tertiary activities. Normally, the space of urban area is closed and densely populated. The people living in urban communities have a very busy lifestyle and they don’t have a concrete sense of unity or likeness towards each other. Suburban Communities: A sub-urban area is located outside the urban area comprising of various industrial and manufacturing units. Normally, the suburban areas are also considered as the semi-urban or semi-rural. The people living in suburban communities are very much similar to the urban communities having busy lifestyle and less cooperation with more conflicts. Rural Communities : A rural area is entirely separate from urban and suburban area. The people living in rural communities are very close to each other and share a concrete sense of cultural cohesiveness. Basically, the rural Areas are serving raw-material to the urban and suburban economies.

19. Association Association is a group of individuals collected together for the purpose of Achieving a common goals or objectives. An association can be formed for the Achievement of a single objective or number of objectives. Associations can be Society In society, no doubt the population is essential but, it is bounded by the sense of unity.   The Law Dictionary defines it as, “The act of a number of persons who unite or join together for some special purpose or business.”   According to Morris Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organisation with a view to securing a specific end or specific ends”.

20. Characteristics of Association Organised Social Group: An association is an organised group which is formed by people. Thus, it is a social group. It is not possible to have an association without the collaboration of people. Common Interest: An association is more than a mere collection of people. It is a collection of those individuals who have common interests. For example, people who have common political aspirations or interests can form political associations and those who have religious interest can join religious association. Regulation of Relations: Every association is governed by its own set of rules and regulations. Members have to abide by these rules. These rules may Be written down or oral. Cooperative Spirit: There needs to be collaboration between the members of the association. It is necessary that members work together for the achievement of certain common objectives. For example, a political association is formed with the specific objective of getting power.  

21. Association as Agencies: An association can be considered as a kind of agency through which members realise a common set of objectives. Social organisations take action through elected representatives and officials   Durability of Association : An association can be permanent or temporary. Family, religious associations, etc., are the examples of permanent association.

22. Types of Association Various types of association are as follows: Political Association: The BJP, Congress, Communist party, etc., Religious Association: The Ramakrishnan mission, Arya Samai , etc., Student’s Association: The ABVP, SFI, etc., Labourer’s Association: The AITUC, INTUC, etc., Professional Association: The Indian Bar Council, Indian Medical Association, etc., Economic Associational or Business Organisations: Hotel owners’ association, Chamber of Commerce, The Consumer’s Co-operative Society, etc., International Association: The Rotary Club, The Lions’ Club, YMCA, YWCA, etc. Student Association: AASW, ABVP and NSUI.

23. Institution A structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation which regulates the behavior of individuals within a given human community is referred to as institution or social institution. Institutions are recognized by certain social objectives and conduct which change individual's life and behavior. According to C.H. Cooley, "An institution is a complex integrated organization of collective behavior established in the social heritage and meeting some persistent need or want . " According to Fichter , "An institution is a relatively permanent structure of social patterns, role and relations that people enact in certain sanctioned and unified ways for the purpose of satisfying basic social needs ".

24. Characteristics of Institution Satisfaction of Specific Needs : Institution satisfies some specific needs. For example, family satisfies the need of controlling the reproductive socializing children and facilitating economic security to family members. Prescription of Rules: The different rules and regulations that are to be followed are provided by the institutions. For example, the relations between the husband and wife are regulated by institution . Abstractness : Institutions are neither visible nor tangible. Institutions are intangible in nature. For example, war cannot be weighted, religion cannot be rated and marriage cannot be kept in the museum . Cultural Symbols : Institution includes cultural symbols. These symbols may be either material or non-material. For example, a country has its own flag, emblem and national anthem . Universality : Social institutions are found in every society and every stage of social development. Thus, social institution is universal in nature . Social in Nature: Institutions are formed as a result of collective actions of people. Thus, they are social in nature. Indeed, institutions are also developed by the secular and repetitive social association of people .

25. 7. Institutions are the Controlling Mechanisms: Government laws, religion, state, morality, etc., are the institutions which control the behavior of people. 8 ) Relatively Permanent : In most cases, institutions normally do not undergo rapid or sudden changes. They undergo gradual and subtle changes. They become the conservative elements in society over time. For example, religion, caste, etc . 9 ) Oral and Written : Institutions may be written or oral. In case of primitive societies, they may be oral. While in current societies, they may be observed in written and unwritten forms . 10 ) Interrelated : Institutions are interrelated with each other. In order to understand one institution, one has to understand the other connected institution. There is an interconnection between the religious, moral, educational, political, economic, and other types of institutions .

26. Elements of Institutions Individuals : Members of society performs various other functions on the basis of which the society is divided into various strata such as, farmer, manager, engineer, teacher, etc. For example, religious institution is consists of clergy and followers. Likewise, parents and children constitute the family . Material Structure : Material structure is one of the other important factors of social institution in which different activities are performed by the members. For example, machines, forms and stationery are included in economic institution. Likewise, Temple, Mosque, etc., creates religious institution . System : System is the combination of different methods which organize the individual and material structure of social institution. These methods govern the human character as per specific principles. For example, democracy, socialism, etc., are included in political institutions. Whereas, socialism or capitalism are included in economic institutions.

27. Types of Institution Crescive Institution : Crescive institutions are unconsciously originated and involve matter related to marriages, property and religion . Enacted Institutions : Enacted institutions are established consciously and are associated with the profits and economy and include business and credit institutions . Basic Institutions : Basic institutions are established for maintaining the social order in society such as educational institutions, family institutions, religious institutions, political institutions and so on .

28. 5)Subsidiary Institutions : Subsidiary institutions are not aimed at maintaining social order and are of complex nature. Recreational activities and clubs are some of the common examples of these institutions. 6 ) Operative Institutions: These are the institutions that organize the patterns required for achieving any objective. For example, institution of Industrialism . 7) Relative Institutions : Relative institutions assist in controlling the customs and other behaviors but are not the part of regulatory institutions.

29. Role or Function of Institution Institutions Simplify Action for the Individual : An institution unifies numerous parts of behavior into a coherent pattern, making highly complicated and sometimes long-continued portions of social behavior more or less automatic. Institutions Provide a Means of Social Control : Institutions are the most significant channels via which the society's approvals are applied to the individual. In other words, institutions play a crucial role in the social control process. All main institutions, including the family, school, religious organizations, and the government, instill core values and concepts in children. As a result, social institutions conveys majority of the regulations that deal with basic living problems . Institutions Provide a Role and Status for Individuals : Individuals are able to get role and status through institutions such as some individuals work in businesses, in the professions while others serve in public welfare whereas some are expert in the field of literature, art or sports. Institutions, to some extent, give a chance for the person to develop his own traits and decide his position and status .

30. 4 ) Institutions Provide Order to the Society : Institutions provide society with unity in addition to assisting individuals in meeting their fundamental requirements. If there were no institutions to keep order, the law of the jungle would rule. 5 ) Institutions act as Harmonizing Agencies in the Total Cultural Configuration : The institutions are part of a larger cultural system or configuration. The majority of the institutions in the system tend to work together to support one another and the overall arrangement. As a result, courting promotes marriage, which in turn promotes family life, with all three institutions being mutually reliant.

31. Important Social Institutions Indian Government : Government is a trusted institution which has the responsibility of formulation and implementation of rules in any society. It also governs the relationship with other societies. 2 ) Economy : The term economy means the whole structure of consumers, producers and distributors of goods and services in a national, regional or local community. In other words, an economy means an activity of producing and consuming goods and services which indicates the way in which scarce resources are distributed in different areas. 3 ) Education : Education is one of the essential components of socialization and encourages social integration. Every society should educate its young people in order to prepare them for adult life and to teach them societal values by the process of education.

32. 4) Law : Law can be seen as the system of rules which is recognized by particular country or community which regulates the action of societal members and which may enforce through enforcements of punishments. 5) Health : Health institution is responsible for defining and dealing with mental and physical disease among the members of the society. The aim of the medical institution is to promote the health and total well-being of people. 6) Family : A group comprising of children along with their parents residing under a single roof, living as a unit, is termed as a family. It generally involves all the successors of mutual forefathers. 7) Religion : An important blend of various beliefs and activities, followed by large number of people, is known as religion. These beliefs are related to the purpose and reason behind the existence of universe, reason behind certain happenings, moral behavior of human beings, etc.

33. Organization An organization is a group of people, who are organized in a certain structure in order to satisfy a need or to attain a common objective. Every organization follows a particular structure for its management which specifies that who is going to do what . According to Ralph C. Davis, "Organization is a group of people who cooperate under the direction of leaderships, for the accomplishment of a common end“ According to Ogburn and Nimkoff , "An organisation is an articulation of different parts which perform various functions; it is an active group device for getting something done“

34. Nature of Organization Social System : Social system can be understood as a set of interrelated and independent components that forms a complete whole. In an organization, social system consists of people of the society which is organized by a distinctive pattern of relations . i ) Feudal System: Established in the 8th Century in Europe, Feudal system is an economic and political system having its foundation on the relation between lord and vassal, and holding of land. This system is usually characterized by forfeiture, homage, legal and military service of tenants. ii ) Patriarchate : Patriarchate is a type of social system under which male is designated with the title of family head, and it is his surname which is further passed to future generations. iii ) Matriarchate : Matriarchate is a type of social system under which female is designated with the title of family head, and it is her surname which is further passed to the future generations

35. iv Meritocracy : Meritocracy is a type of social system under which the person having superior intelligence and intellects is empowered with all the societal powers . v ) Class Structure : Under the class structure, there exist different classes within a society . vi ) Segregation : Segregation is a type of social system under which separate and distinct facilities are provided to the minority groups . 2 ) Mutual Interest : When various groups are able to negotiate strategies, the organizational relationships tend to be strong. Mutual interests are the interests that are related to the achievement of respective goals and are common to the involved parties. When the mutual interests are shared among different people, the organisation becomes stronger as a shared concern.

36. 2.1.6.2 . Elements of Organisation Key elements of organisation are shown in figure 2.1:PeopleIndividualGroupEnvironmentGovernmentCompetitionSocial PressuresStructureJobsRelationshipsOrganisational BehaviourTechnologyMachineryComputer Hardware and SoftwareFigure 2.1: Elements of Organisation1) People: The internal social system of any organisation is made up of the healthcare people who work in it. This comprises of individuals, large and small groups, informal and formal groups. It is the organisation that exists to serve its people and not vice versa. Today's organisations have changed and have become more diverse than before. Present day healthcare employees come up with a broad range of talents, educational backgrounds and perspectives. Hence, the nursing leaders are required to transform themselves with the workforce in order to attain maximum efficiency.2) Structure: Relationships and roles of people in the organisation are defined by structure. People working in an organisation perform different roles and have different relationships with each other. Division of work is done based on the capabilities and designation of the healthcare employees so that healthcare

37. organisational goals are met efficiently. These may be nurses, doctors, etc , working in one direction to achieve the healthcare organisational goals in an organised manner. Authority-responsibility relationships are the essence of structure.3) Technology: Technology plays a vital role in any modern organisations . It empowers people for their work and also influences their activities. Since work cannot be done without equipments , hence healthcare organisations use technology to build buildings, design machines, develop work processes and collect resources. Technology in turn helps people to perform better. But technology has some side effects like it is costly and limits people in certain ways, i.e., it makes them dependent on machines. So, technology has both pros and cons.4) Environment: Operations of all organisations take place under internal and external environment. A healthcare organisation is a small part of a large system which contains elements such as government, family and other organisations . Changes in the external environment affect the individual organisations such as healthcare, schools or factories. It also affects working conditions and people's behaviour and provides struggle for resources and power.2.2. PERSONAL DISORGANISATION2.2.1. IntroductionWhen an individual's behaviour is not in accordance with the social norms then it is referred to as personal disorganisation . In this condition, the individual is unable to meet the requirements of the society in which he/she lives and develops personality problems. As a result he becomes personally disorganised . It causes social rejection which is expressed by numerous ways. The individual can react in a variety of ways. He may respond either positively or negatively. Therefore, personal disorganisation can be in the form of milder or more significant mental disorders like psychoses or neuroses.According to Prem Sharma Modgil , "Personal disorganisation represents the deviant behaviour of an individual".2.2.2. Characteristics of Personal DisorganisationCharacteristics of personal disorganisation are as follows:1) Personal disorganisation occurs when certain rules and regulations are not followed by the individual. These can be specific custom or a way of life in general. Thus, personal organisation is uncertain in nature.2) It arises when there is a sense of mistrust among group members. Mistrust can lead to disagreements and causes personal disorganisation.3) It indicates more individuality because individuals experiencing personal disorganisation showcase a diverse range of interests and attitudes. Forexample , a personally disorganised person may not observe the fasting dayswhich may create a problem between him and other members of the society

38. 4) It disregards the all the values and customs formulated by society members.5) It rises when there is lack of clarity in the role and status of an individual.6) It occurs when society loses the control over a person.2.2.3. Types of Personal DisorganisationFollowing are the types of personal disorganisation:1) Chronic Disorganisation : A disorganisation that frequently causes debilitating disorder state is known as chronic disorder. An individual has failed self-help efforts and past disorganisation history who is suffering from chronic disorganisation . Messy, packrat or collector are the terms associated with this disorganisation.2) Situational Disorganisation : When big life events interrupt existing organisational structures, this is known as situational disorganisation . Most of the time, this is just transitory, and once the incident has passed, most individuals are able to resume their normal routine. A new kid in the family, a move, or an illness is all examples of situational disorganisation.3) Habitual Disorganisation : Bad behaviours that have evolved over time cause habitual disorganisation . This is a self-inflicted state of disorganisation . Procrastination and overscheduling our lives are frequently to blame.4) Historical Disorganisation : An individual's upbringing has an influence on historical disorganisation . People frequently imitate the setting in which they grew up. They were never taught any organisational skills that would enable them to live a more organised lifestyle.5) Social Disorganisation : The social environment influences the social disorganisation . It is the standard to accumulate more belongings than neighbour , which leads to having more than one can use or keep in one area, which leads to hiring a storage unit or, worse such as purchasing a bigger home.2.2.4. Aspects of Personal DisorganisationFollowing are the main aspects of personal disorganisation:1) Mild Disapproval: In this aspect of personal disorganisation , social disapproval of an individual is not so aggressive. As a result, positive response can be shown by the individual towards the society. This type of personal disorganisation has very influence on the social orders.2) Major Disapproval: This type of personal disorganisation is related to violent social disapproval and despite that individuals may show some positive responses towards social norms.3) Retreatism : This can be seen as the person is living in the non-real worldand avoiding reality. The response of the person towards the socialdisapproval is quite subjective and the person goes back to the personallydefined inner space. These activities will not be accepted by society. Thus,the individual finds himself in the mechanical world resulting in the loss ofindividuality and follows the addictive life by going for substance abuse,alcoholism , and committing suicide.

39. 2.2.5. Causes of Personal DisorganisationCauses of personal disorganisation are as follows:1 ) Failure to Adopt Social Norms: An individual's failure to live in accordance with the social norms can be caused by any factor. These factors may be either inherent or present in the society where the individual lives. For example, a person may have a mental disability by birth that prevents him to be united with society.2) Influence of Others: An individual can be personally disorganised by the influence of his/her peers. The habits and ideals of an individual are greatly influenced by his/her peers.3) Financial Condition: The financial condition of an individual is also a reason of personal disorganisation . An individual can be personally disorganised by the excess or lack of money.4) Family Problems: Family problems may cause personal disorganisation . A person may be personally disorganised when he does not get requiredemotional support from the family when he needed it most. As a result, the person isolates himself from the family and the society.5) Unemployment and Poverty: An individual may also be personally disorganised in case of unemployment and poverty. In this condition, individual's main focus is sustenance and thus, he/she does not follow the rules of the society.6) Consumption of Alcohols and Drugs: Consumption of alcohols and drugs is also a reason for personal disorganisation.7) Modern Industrialisation : Personal disorganisation can also be caused by modern industrialisation . Because of modern industrialisation , an individual may not follow his/her own traditions and customs.2.3. SOCIAL GROUP2.3.1. Meaning and Definition of Social GroupA social group is formed when two or more people interact deliberately to reach a common consensus. Group members are mutually dependent and sensitive to the needs of other members of the group. There are groups in every organisation and they not only affect the behaviour of its members, but also influence the other groups and the whole organisation . Such groups are formed by the organisation , as well as by its members for their own satisfaction. Therefore, these groups are necessary for the functioning of organisations.According to Stephen Robbins, "A group may be defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives".According to Marvin Shaw, "A group comprises, of two or more persons who interact with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person".

40. According to Edgar H. Schien , "A group may be defined as a social phenomenon in which two or more persons decide to interact with one another, share common ideology and perceive themselves as a group".According to David H. Smith, "A group is a set of two or more individuals who are jointly characterised by a network of relevant communications, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated normative strength".2.3.2. Characteristics of Social GroupsCharacteristics of social group include:1) Two or More Persons: There should be minimum two persons to form a group because a single person cannot interact. However, there is no definite limit of the maximum number of people in a group, but the group size may be determined by rules and regulations of the organisation in this context. It can even depend on the communication occurring between the members in case of informal groups.2) Collective Identity: Group members should be aware of their group membership. Each group member must know that he is a member of specific group and hence should act as an active participant.It is the understanding of each other which differentiates a group from an unorganised collection of individuals. In the case of collection of individuals, they are usually not aware of each other and even if they are aware, they may not interact with each other in a constructive manner.3) Interaction: Group members interact among themselves. Each member in a group shares his/her ideas with other members, and this sharing of thoughts can take place in person, in writing, over the telephone, through internet, or by any other means of communication. Though, it is not essential that all group members should interact all the time, but each member must interact time-to-time with other group members.4) Shared Goal Interest: Group members must support the achievement ofshared goals. However, it is not necessary that each member always supports or agrees with the overall objectives of the group. A group has a variety of goals or interests, so each member of the group can share at least one of the concerns of the group. It is the consensus of the goals of a group, which connects the members with each other and keep them together.2.3.3. Classification of Social GroupsSocial groups can be classified into following types:1 ) Primary and Secondary Groups: Primary groups are characterised by close, face-to-face association and collaboration among members. Generally, there is a high degree of mutual dependency among members. Primary groups are also the fundamental source of socialisation in society. This is thecentral place for development and maintenance of attitudes, values andguidelines , e.g., the family and peer group.

41. Secondary groups are marked by large size and identification of the individuals through inherent values and beliefs rather than real interaction. This group consists of members who are seldom in direct contact. They are usually large and formally structured, e.g., trade unions, membership organisations such as the National Trust, etc.2) Membership Groups and Reference Groups: Membership groups are those, to which the individual truly belongs, but they are formed for some purpose and expect its members to participate actively in this group, e.g., clubs, cooperatives, workers union, etc. Reference groups are those with which an individual identifies or to which he likes to belong, e.g., friends, family, etc.3) In-Groups and Out-Groups: In-groups correspond to a group of people who hold the existing values in a society or workplace, or at most, occupy a central place in social functioning, e.g., team members, family members, etc.Out -groups are the masses which are considered as secondary or insignificant in the culture, e.g., street performers, hawkers.4) Interest and Friendship Groups: Interest group consists of people who may unite to achieve a specific objective with which they are associated.Friendship groups consist of people who have some common characteristics. People belonging to a particular region or holding a particular view point or speaking similar language are inclined to form friendship groups.5) Formal and Informal Groups: When groups are formed by the organisations themselves to achieve some particular set of goals or to complete certain tasks, these groups are called as formal groups. Departments, divisions, taskforce, project groups, quality circles, committees are some examples of formal groups.Informal groups are the groups, which are formed in response to the need for social contact. These groups are formed internally within the organisation , or spontaneously by the members themselves. They are created to meet the social requirements related to the job. Several common examples of informal groups are "tea or coffee groups" and clubs.6) Temporary and Permanent Groups: Temporary groups are formed for fulfilling definite goals. They have a very small lifespan. They cease to exist after attaining the desired objectives. Problem-solving and discussing ideas are the main roles of temporary groups. Meetings, committees are examples of such groups.Permanent groups consist of group activities, group performances, job assignments, etc. A team is a permanent group. Trade unions and commercial associations are examples of permanent groups.7) Nominal and Non-Performing Groups: Nominal groups are problem- solvinggroups . Group members exchange their ideas in a planned manner and discusstheir different options in order to select the best option. This is a nominal groupbecause employees are members of the group only for the sake of name.Non -performing groups exist only on paper. They are formed anddeveloped without performance. They have some goals, but they do not make

42. 2.4.1. Meaning and Definition of Social ProcessHuman beings are social animals. Men cannot live in isolation. They live in. different types of groups and associations. The behaviour of a person in a group is influenced by the behaviour of other members of the group. This interaction is the core of social life. Social interaction can be seen as the dynamic interaction of a person with different social set-ups. It is a fundamental activity that forms the human nature and social set-up. These types of social interactions are termed as social processes.Social process is the way through which people establish relationship with other and interact. It refers to those actions, activities and operations which involve the interaction between people. People interact, adjust and establish relationships with others through social interaction. Hence, social process and social interaction are closely linked with each other.According to Horton Hunt, "Social process refers to the repetitive form of behaviour which is commonly found in social life".According to Ginsberg, "Social processes mean the various modes of interaction between individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay".According to Gillin and Gillin , "Social process means those ways of interacting which we can observe when individuals and groups meet and establish system of relationships or what happens when changes disturb already existing modes of life".2.4.2. Forms of Social ProcessThe major forms of social process are:Forms of Social ProcessCooperationConflictCompetitionAccommodationAssimilationIsolation2.4.3. CooperationThe word 'cooperation" is a combination of two Latin words 'Co" which means 'together' and ' Operari " which means "to work'. Thus, cooperation means working together to attain common goals or objectives. When people work together to achieve common goals then it is referred to as cooperation. It can be seen as one of the basic processes of social life. It is an integrating activity.

43. An individual cannot survive without cooperation. Thus, it is very important for the life of human being. It is required for the fulfilment of both social and psychological needs.According to Merrill and Eldredge , "Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end".According to Green, "Cooperation is the continuous and common endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to realise a goal that is commonly cherished".According to Fairchild, "Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organised way for the attainment of common objective".2.4.3.1. Characteristics of CooperationCharacteristics of cooperation are as follows:1) Social Interaction: It is a type of social interaction which interacts with two or more individuals and groups.2) Conscious Process: It is conscious process which requires that individualswork consciously.3) Personal Process: It is a personal process in which individuals and groups personally meet with each other for the fulfilment of common goal.4) Continuous Process: It is a continuous process which never ends. There is a sense of continuity in the collective efforts.5) Universal Process: Cooperation is a universal process which is found in every groups, societies and nations.2.4.3.2. Types of CooperationTypes of cooperation are explained below:1) Direct Cooperation: It indicates direct relationship between individuals or groups. In direct cooperation, people do similar things together such as, working together, playing together, travelling together, etc. When people directly cooperate with each other for the fulfilment of common goal then it is referred to as direct cooperation.2) Indirect Cooperation: In this type of cooperation, people work separately to achieve the common goal. It is based on the principle of specialisation of functions and division of labour . In indirect cooperation people do different things together for achieving a common goal. For example, lecturer, office assistant, typist, accountant and librarian of a college perform different tasks together to achieve the common goal.3) Primary Cooperation: This type of cooperation is generally found in primary groups and playgroups of kids. It is a type of cooperation in which people work together without any self-interest. In primary cooperation, every member works for the betterment of others. Therefore, primary association results in primary cooperation.

44. 4) Secondary Cooperation: Secondary cooperation is a type of cooperationin which people cooperates with each other for the fulfilment of selfish interests. Secondary cooperation is a feature of modern industrial society. It is most commonly found in secondary groups such as, political, economic, social, religious groups in which employment is based on specialisation function and division of labour . It does not provide equal benefits to all the members because every individual may work for his own status, prestige and power.5) Tertiary Cooperation: Tertiary cooperation is a type of cooperation in which mutual adjustments are made by various groups to meet a particular situation. It is voluntary in nature where people or groups cooperate with each other on the basis of their own interest. People involved in this cooperation are selfish and opportunistic. For example, cooperation between two political parties to defeat their rivalry party is a type of tertiary cooperation.2.4.3.3. Importance of Cooperation Following are the importance of cooperation:1) Promoting Psychological and Emotional Stability: It promotes emotional and psychological stability of the group members. Cooperation provides harmonious environment in which every member of the group works together. Thus, heavy and boring work may seem interesting if the work is distributed among individuals.2) Helps to Achieve Higher Productivity: People or groups who work in cooperation may be more productive than those who work individually. In a competitive group, every member achieves higher productivity when they compete with other members of the group.3) Helps Society to Progress: Cooperation plays a very important role in the success of agriculture, industry, science and technology, communication, transport, etc. A person who cooperates with other may seems to be enthusiastic. This can be seen as the main aspects of people's collective life.4) Helps to Solve Real Life Problems: Most real-life issues can easily be resolved through cooperation than competition. Cooperation is mostly required in hospitals where patients, physicians and nurses all are cooperating with each other. There is no competition within the hospital. However, there might be a competition between different hospitals to attract the patients. Coordination is required for the success of hospital.2.4.4. CompetitionCompetition is a dissociative social process. It is the most fundamental form of social struggle or opposition. Competition can be defined as the struggle between two or more individuals for the same object that is limited. For example, every individual of the society has to face competition for social status, jobs, fame, power and various other things which cannot be received by asking. Therefore, competition is everywhere that can prevail in number of ways. It may vary interms of the scope, extensiveness, and nature among different systems. It mayalso improve the economy, innovation, and productivity.

45. According to Bogardus , "Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the demand".According to Mazumdar , "Competition is impersonalised struggle among resembling creatures for goods and services which are scarce or limited in quantity".According to Anderson and Parker, "Competition is that form of social action in which we strive against each other for the possession of or use of some limited material and non-material good".2.4.4.1. Characteristics of CompetitionCharacteristics of competition are as follows:1) Continuous Process: There is no endpoint of competition. People always compete with each other for the power, status, wealth, etc. Therefore, competition is a continuous process.2) Universal Process: It exists in all classes of people such as, doctors, students, farmers, lawyers, as well as all types of societies. For example, doctors compete for patients, students compete for marks, lawyers compete for clients, political parties compete for power, etc.3) Impersonal Activity: In most cases, competition is aimed at achieving a certain goal rather than competing against one another. It might happen even when no one is aware of the existence of others. Sometimes, people involved in competition are completely unfamiliar with one another. As a result, it is an impersonal activity.In some cases, competition can be personal. Competition between two people for the election of any position in office is the example of personal competition.4) Unconscious Activity: Competition is an unconscious activity because sometimes people have no information about their competitors but their focus remains on the goal accomplishment.5) Constructive or Destructive Competition: Competition may be both healthy and unhealthy. There will be destructive competition when one of the two or more rivals tries to win at the expense of others. This type of competition can be seen among large businesses and capitalists in order to bankrupt small businesses. However, in case of constructive competition, there is a mutual assistance and stimulation.2.4.4.2. Types of CompetitionFollowing are the types of competition:1) Social Competition: Social competition is mostly observed in open societies where people compete to get higher status in the society. In this competition, ability, merit, talents and capacities of individuals are recognised.2) Economic Competition: Economic competition is the most essential and, at the same time, the most ferocious kind of competition. It may be seen in the manufacturing, distribution, and consumption of commodities.

46. 3) Political Competition: In today's society, there is constantly competition for political power. Political parties are always engaged in a battle for power. This type of competition is most noticeable during elections.4) Cultural Competition: Cultural competition has been observed between two or more cultural groups. Examples of such competition can be found in human history.5) Racial competition: Competition between Whites and Blacks, Aryans and Dravidians, etc., are the examples of racial competition.2.4.4.3. Function/ Role of CompetitionFollowing are the roles or function of competition:1) Assignment of Status to Individuals: Competition determines the role and status of the different people in any community. There is a relationship between social status and competition. Most of the people compete to retain their status while others compete to improve their status.2) Source of Motivation: Competition motivates people to attain recognition and to win prize in the society. It also increases the efficiency of the people because they work hard to achieve their goals.3) Contributes to Socio-Economic Progress: Fair competition is essential for welfare of human. It is a sign of progress in both social and economic terms. The competitive spirit of the people allows all types of advancement. Scientific breakthroughs and inventions are the results of competition.4) Provides for New Experience: It provides an opportunity to the people so that they can address their needs for better recognition and new experience.Difference between Cooperation and CompetitionCooperation1) Cooperation is the act of working together to achieve a common goal.2) Co-operation necessitates attributes such as natural awareness. understanding, helpfulness, and a selfless attitude.3) The scope of cooperation is limitless.4) Cooperation is generally useful because it usually yields excellent results.5) People are more satisfied and fulfilled when they work together.2.4.5. ConflictCompetition1) Competition is a process in which individuals or organisations compete for a specific aim or objective.2) Self-confidence, high ideals, an adventurous spirit, and a willingness to endure and strive are all required forcompetition.3) Competition is bound by rules and regulation and thus has limits.4) Competition that is constructive is always good, but competition that is uncontrolled is always detrimental or hazardous.5) Competition can result in both satisfaction and discontent.Conflict refers to demonstration of anger, revolt, negative behaviour , violence, enmity and misconception. It is a result of differences in opinions of people or groups working within an organisation . Reasons can be numerous, ranging from

47. allocation of resources to division of work, to overall functioning of the organisation . Diversity within the organisation in terms of goals, objectives, philosophies and viewpoints results in conflict. Conflicts can arise within an organisation or between two organisations or between organisation and their external environments. It crops up when one party gets the notion that the other party might adversely affect its wellbeing.2.4.5.1. Types of conflictTypes of conflict are as follows:1) Intra-Personal/Intra-Individual Conflict: Intra-personal conflict is psychological in nature and crops up within the personality of a person. Very often, person is not able to realise that he is in a state of conflict. Though, it might be evident or latent. This type of conflict is usually associated with the goals an individual intends to achieve or the roles he wants to perform. Intra- personal conflicts are of three kinds:i ) Conflict Originating from Frustration: When a person is not able to achieve his target due to certain hindrances, he becomes frustrated. These hindrances can be either covert (inward or mental-socio psychological) or overt (outward or physical). Hence, frustration model helps in interpreting the general behaviour as well as the specific factors related to on-the-job behaviour.When a person is frustrated, he acquires any of the following defence techniques:a ) Aggression: This refers to the attack of the symbolical or physical barriers.b ) Withdrawal: This refers to backing-off from the barrier. In such cases, the person tries to stay away from the circumstances which may lead to conflict.c ) Fixation: This refers to the continuous effort to crack and rise above the obstacle.d ) Compromise: This refers to the exploration of a new objective.ii ) Conflict Originating from Goals: Sometimes, goals having both positive and negative characteristics become a source of conflict. Opposing goals also lead to conflict. In case of frustration, person is not able to reach his target due to obstacles in his path whereas in case of goal conflict, two or more goals are in conflict with each other.iii ) Conflict Originating from Role: A person performs numerous roles. Even though each of his roles inside the organisation is crucial to his behavioural study, yet his organisational role is more crucial. All the employees working in the healthcare organisation are expected to act in a desired manner. When 'what a role demands' is significantly different from the ' behaviour that the health care employee projects', a role conflict originates. This happens because expectation of either the healthcare employee or the healthcare organisation remains

48. 2) Inter-Personal/Inter-Individual Conflict: Conflict arises when two people of different personality strive to attain rare privileges like power, status, position, resources, promotion, etc. They might also enter into conflict because of differences in opinions, morals or attitudes. In an healthcare organisation , disparity among healthcare employees arises due to the following reasons:i ) Personal Differences: Difference in culture, upbringing, family values and socialisation processes give a different identity to every individual. Since the education, family background and morals of individuals may vary significantly, and hence become the root cause of conflict.Discrepancies cropping up as a result of these differences become very emotional and adopt moral nuances. A minor discrepancy regarding who is rationally correct gets converted into a major conflict regarding moral values.ii ) Information Deficiency: Lack of proper communication in the organisation is the basis for this conflict. The parties involved in the conflict might have different information about the same thing or even wrong information. This source of conflict, unlike personal differences is more rational and can be easily rectified by providing correct and timely information.iii ) Role Incompatibility: Both inter-group conflicts and intra-individual role conflicts are the originators of this kind of conflict. In today's horizontal organisational set-up, the roles and responsibilities of nursing leader are excessively inter-dependent, although the individual responsibilities of the nursing leader may be mismatched.iv ) Environmental Stress: A stressful environment enhances this kind ofconflict . Downsizing, limited resources, increasing competitive pressure, technological advancements, etc., are important sources of environmental stress.2.4.5.2. Measurements to Overcome/ Conflict Resolution StrategiesAnyone in the nursing profession who is confronted with interpersonal conflict has a number of choices for dealing with it.Following are the five ways or strategies in which conflict can be resolved:1) Competing: Nurse with competing conflict resolution strategies have a tendency to be overly assertive and focused on "winning" the arguments rather than finding the best potential solution.2) Obliging: People-pleasers are nurses who utilise obliging as their primary conflict resolution strategy. Obliging places a high importance on others while placing a low value on oneself, sometimes expressing low self- esteem. It is also a tactic that may be utilised to purposefully enhance another person's status, making them feel better about an issue. This is especially beneficial if one's position inside the firm is not politically precarious.

49. High (Cooperative Behaviour ) AccommodatingConcern for OtherLowCompromisingAvoiding (Uncooperative Behaviour )59LowConcern for SelfCompetingHigh (Unassertive Behaviour )Figure: Conflict Resolution Strategies(Assertive Behaviour )3) Avoiding: The nurses who choose to avoid all the sources that can result in conflict are said to have avoiding as their conflict resolution strategy. Avoiding, just like obliging, increases the likelihood of a group adopting unexamined (or under examined) ideas, which can be harmful in the long-term.4) Compromising: Nurses who approach interpersonal conflict resolution from a compromise mind-set instead of a "me versus you" mind-set seek to find a solution that makes both parties at least somewhat happy. Both parties willhave something they want and will be able to go on with developing a solution as a result of this.5) Collaborating: In collaborating conflict resolution strategy, nurse incorporate others ideas into their own. This method increases group buy-in and general satisfaction with the final decision.2.4.5.3. Difference between Competition and Conflict Difference between competition and conflict is as follows:1Competition) Competition is impersonal in nature.2) Competition is a continuous process.3) Competition is unconscious activity and people involved in competition do not know about their competitors.4) Competition is based on non-violence.5) Competition encourages hard work.6) Competition can be both positive and negative.7) Competition increases the occurrence of cooperation.ConflictConflict is personal in nature.Conflict is not a continuous process. It is a specific event in time.Conflict is a conscious process and people involved in conflicts are fully aware of each other.Conflicts may involve violent methods.Conflict discourages hard work.Conflict may bring negative results.Conflict is an end to cooperation.Copyrigated

50. 2.4.6. AccommodationApplied SociologyThe social life of human beings is intolerable, if duration of conflict continue is not definite. Thus, efforts are always initiated for resolving the conflicts. Accommodation is a process through which individuals or groups resolve their conflicts. Accommodation can be defined as the process of adjusting oneself into a new environment. It is a process of social adjustment. Many sociologists define accommodation as the process through which people who are once in conflict can work together in a common place.According to Mac Iver and Page, "Accommodation refers particularly to the process on which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment".According to Lundberg, "Accommodation has been used to designate the adjustments which people in groups make to relieve the fatigue and tensions of competition and conflict".2.4.6.1. Characteristics of AccommodationCharacteristics of accommodation are mentioned below:1) Natural Result of Conflict: Accommodation is the final outcome of the conflict. People who are aware of the importance of accommodation are easily accommodated. Accommodation is not achieved in those cases where some sort of conflict present.2) Conscious or Unconscious Activity: The adjustment of an individual with social environment is commonly unconscious. Accommodation of a new born baby with his family, accommodation of a person within the society, etc., is the examples of unconscious accommodation. It becomes conscious only in those cases where people involved in conflict make efforts to end the conflict.3) Continuous Process: Accommodation is not limited to any social event. People accommodate with various situations throughout their life. Thus, it is a continuous activity.4) Universal Process: It is present in every society and in every situation. A society cannot run smoothly if it continuously deals with the conflict.5) Associative Social Process: It brings unity and integrity within the society. It also boosts the mutual relationship between the people and groups. Thus, it is an associative social process.6) Mixture of both Love and Hate: Accommodation involves both love and hate because cooperation is obtained through love and conflict results from the hate.2.4.6.2. Forms or Methods of AccommodationAs per Gillin and Gillin , there are following methods or forms of accommodation:1) Coercion: Coercion means use of force. In coercion, two parties exist and one party is stronger than other. In this type of accommodation, the weak party accepts the terms of the stronger party because of the fear. For example, in the case of war, the winning country imposed its will on the defeated country.