Introduction 5
At the same time, the language repertoire of the Flemish is reshued in another
way. Whereas the ?normal? second language for Flemish people used to be French
? Belgium was very much a bilingual Dutch-French state ? the current tendency,
more or less completed at present, is to replace French with English. e Flemish
Government disseminates propaganda materials (including key holders, pins with
the Flemish ag, plastic bags, and so on) that carry Dutch and English texts. Two
words are printed on the key holders, pins, bags, and so on: Vlaanderen ? the Dutch
name ? and Flanders ? its English equivalent. Again, the symbolic orientation of
this reconstruction of the ?normal? linguistic repertoire is away from Belgium, and
in the direction of other international communities (the EU and, beyond it, the
world). e anti-Belgian orientation of Flemish nationalism displays itself through
a reorganisation of the linguistic resources which Flemish citizens are supposed to
use, rst, when communicating within their own community (standard Dutch),
and, second, outside their community (English). French, the language of the former
enemy, has been re-stratied and placed in a lower symbolic position than before.
Of crucial importance in this process of shaping a linguistic ideology is the role
of institutional (and/or semi-institutional) discourses. e alignment of political
ideology and language practice is oriented, stimulated and monitored by a number
of authoritative communicating actors; rst and foremost by the state and its
ocials, but also by ?secondary? institutional discourses such as scientic discourse,
media coverage and forms of widely distributed artistic or intellectual expressions
(literature, music): the mid-level and civil society actors Louis Althusser (1971)
famously called ?ideological state apparatuses?. In one way or another, each of
these communicating actors can and does claim authority over the message it dis-
seminates, either by referring to group values and group interests (as with political
communication), or by referring to standards of objectivity, methodological rigour,
standards of quality or aesthetic canons (as with science, the media and intellectual/
artistic expressions). In each case, messages are de-individualised, they are produced
and perceived as statements not pertaining to individual preferences or opinions but
imbued with a surplus value that gives them higher credibility, reliability or plau-
sibility than otherwise. e critical factor in this process of constructing authority
is that of legitimation: referring one?s statements to a higher social level, either by
framing them in a particular generic pattern (the public address, the scientic paper,
the novel), or simply by assuming an institutional persona (the politician, the intel-
lectual), thereby situating one?s statements in the context of an identiable leading
social category (cf. ompson 1990). Not all communication is socially equivalent,
some forms of discourse commonsensically appear to be more easily believed than
others. e message, largely regardless of its content, is framed or contextualised a
priori, on the basis of generic or personality features. Central in the study of lan-
guage and ideology therefore are the communicative activities of ?ideology brokers?
such as politicians, scientists, intellectuals, journalists, artists.
I chose to investigate these phenomena in a ird World context, that of
Tanzania. e reasons for this are manifold. First, Tanzania, like any other decolo-
nised state, has been faced with the task of nation building, and language (Swahili)
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