Study of blood groups

Study of blood groups

1. NARAYANA SCHOOL, HALDIA
BIOLOGY PROJECT
Study of Blood Groups
—
Name- Purbesh Mondal
Class- XI
Registration number- 1994111
Session- 2021-22

2. 1
Acknowledgement
Iamoverwhelmedinallhumblenessandgratefulnesstoacknowledgemydepthtoall
thosewhohavehelpedmetoputtheseideas,wellabovethelevelofsimplicityandinto
something concrete.
IwouldliketoexpressmyspecialthanksgivinggratitudetoourBiologyteacherJagriti
Ghosh,whohelpedmeoutinvariouswaysinmakingthisprojectaswellasour
PrincipalMa’amSaheliGhoshBasuwhogavemethegoldenopportunitytodothis
wonderfulproject,whichalsohelpedmeindoingalotofresearchandIcametoknow
about so many new things.
Anyattemptatanylevelcan’tbesatisfactorilycompletedwithoutthesupportand
guidanceofmyparentsandfriends.Iwouldliketothankthemforhelpingmealotin
gatheringdifferentinformation,collectingdata,andguidingmefromtimetotimein
making this project, despite their busy schedules.

3. 2
Content
Sl. no. Topic Page no.
1. Introduction 3
2. Blood Group System 4
3. ABO blood group system 7
4. Rh blood group system 8
5. Blood Transfusion 9
6. Blood Donors and Receivers 10
7. Conclusion 11
8. Sources 12

4. 3
Introduction
Bloodisaconstantlycirculatingfluidprovidingthebodywithnutrition,oxygen,and
wasteremoval.Itisatypeofconnectivetissue.Bloodismostlyliquid,withnumerous
cellsandproteinssuspendedinit,makingblood"thicker"thanpurewater.Theaverage
person has about 5 liters of blood.
Compositionofbloodisratherinteresting.Itconsistsoferythrocytes,leukocytesand
plateletssuspendedinplasmaalongwithmillionsofdifferentmoleculeswiththeirown
specific roles and functions.
Bloodisconductedthroughbloodvessels(arteriesandveins).Bloodispreventedfrom
clottinginthebloodvesselsbytheirsmoothness,andthefinelytunedbalanceof
clottingfactors.Thesebloodvesselsformanetworkandisknownasthecirculatory
system, which also includes the organ Heart.
Eventhoughcomponentsofbloodarethesameforallhumans,therearevariousblood
types.Infact,therearemorethan40bloodgroups,butallofthemarenotclinically
significant.ThediscoveryoftheABObloodgroupcreatedgreatexcitementasuntil
then, all blood had been assumed to be the same.

5. 4
Blood Group System
During the blood transfusion, the two most important group systems examined are the
ABO-system and the Rhesus system.
KarlLandsteiner,anAustrianscientist
discoveredtheABObloodgroupsysteminthe
year1900.Inhisexperiments,hemixeddifferent
bloodtypesandnotedthattheplasmafrom
certainbloodtypesproducedagglutinatesor
formedclusterswhichwerecausedbythe
absenceofmoleculesonredbloodcellsand
resultinginantibodiestodefeatthatmolecule.
Hethenmadeanoteoftheagglutinationand
dividedthebloodtypesinto4differentgroups.
ForthediscoveryoftheABObloodgroup,hewas
awarded the Nobel Prize.
Rhbloodgroupsystem,systemforclassifying
bloodgroupsaccordingtothepresenceor
absenceoftheRh(D)antigen,oftencalledtheRh
factor,onthecellmembranesoftheredblood
cells(erythrocytes).ThedesignationRhis
derivedfromtheuseofthebloodofrhesus
monkeysinthebasictestfordeterminingthe
presenceoftheRhantigeninhumanblood.The
Rhbloodgroupsystemwasdiscoveredin1940by
KarlLandsteinerandAlexanderSolomon
Wiener.

6. 5
Thebloodgroupingsystemispivotalinbloodtransfusion.Ourimmunesystem
recognizesanotherbloodtypeasforeignandattacksitifintroducedinthebodycausing
atransfusionreaction.AnyinappropriatematchwiththeRhandABObloodtypes,
causesthemostseriousandlife-threateningtransfusionreactions.Therefore,before
blood transfusion, it is suggested to have a blood group checked.
Important terms:-
1.Antigen
Inimmunology,anantigenisamoleculeormolecularstructurethatcanbindto
aspecificantibodyorT-cellreceptor.Thepresenceofantigensinthebodymay
triggeranimmuneresponse.Thetermantigenoriginallyreferredtoasubstance
thatisanantibodygenerator.Antigenscanbeproteins,peptides(aminoacid
chains),polysaccharides(chainsofmonosaccharides/simplesugars),lipids,or
nucleic acids.
Antigensarerecognizedbyantigenreceptors,includingantibodiesandT-cell
receptors.Diverseantigenreceptorsaremadebycellsoftheimmunesystemso
thateachcellhasaspecificityforasingleantigen.Uponexposuretoanantigen,
onlythelymphocytesthatrecognizethatantigenareactivatedandexpanded,a
processknownasclonalselection.Inmostcases,anantibodycanonlyreactto
andbindonespecificantigen;insomeinstances,however,antibodiesmay
cross-react and bind more than one antigen.
Theantigenmayoriginatefromwithinthebody("self-protein")orfromthe
externalenvironment("non-self").Theimmunesystemidentifiesandattacks
"non-self"externalantigensandusuallydoesnotreacttoself-proteindueto
negative selection of T cells in the thymus and B cells in the bone marrow.
Vaccinesareexamplesofantigensinanimmunogenicform,whichare
intentionallyadministeredtoarecipienttoinducethememoryfunctionofthe
adaptiveimmunesystemtowardsantigensofthepathogeninvadingthat
recipient. The vaccine for seasonal influenza is a common example.

7. 6
2.Antibody
Anantibody,alsoknownasanimmunoglobulin,isalarge,Y-shapedprotein
usedbytheimmunesystemtoidentifyandneutralizeforeignobjectssuchas
pathogenicbacteriaandviruses.Theantibodyrecognizesauniquemoleculeof
thepathogen,calledanantigen.Eachtipofthe"Y"ofanantibodycontainsa
paratope(analogoustoalock)thatisspecificforoneparticularepitope
(analogoustoakey)onanantigen,allowingthesetwostructurestobind
togetherwithprecision.Usingthisbindingmechanism,anantibodycantaga
microbeoraninfectedcellforattackbyotherpartsoftheimmunesystem,orcan
neutralizeitdirectly(forexample,byblockingapartofavirusthatisessential
for its invasion).

8. 7
ABO blood Group system
TheABObloodgroupsystemconsistsof4typesofbloodgroup–A,B,AB,andOandis
mainlybasedontheantigensandantibodiesonredbloodcellsandintheplasma.Both
antigensandantibodiesareproteinmoleculesinwhichantigensarepresentonthe
surfaceofRedBloodCellsandantibodiesarepresentintheplasmawhichisinvolvedin
defending mechanisms.
ThebasisofABOgroupingisoftwoantigens-AntigenAandAntigenB.TheABO
groupingsystemisclassifiedintofourtypesbasedonthepresenceorabsenceof
antigens on the red blood cells surface and plasma antibodies.
●Group A – contains antigen A and antibody B.
●Group B –contains antigen B and antibody A.
●Group AB –contains both A and B antigen and no antibodies (neither A nor B).
●Group O – contains neither A nor B antigen and both antibodies A and B.
TheABOgroupsystemisimportantduringblooddonationorbloodtransfusionas
mismatchingofbloodgroupscanleadtoclumpingofredbloodcellswithvarious
disorders.Itisimportantforthebloodcellstomatchwhiletransfusingi.e.
donor-recipientcompatibilityisnecessary.Forexample,apersonofbloodgroupAcan
receivebloodeitherfromgroupAorOastherearenoantibodiesforAandOinblood
group A.

9. 8
Rh Blood Group System
TheRhbloodgroupsystemconsistsof50definedbloodgroupantigens.IntheRh
system, the most important antigens are D, C, c, E, and e.
InadditiontotheABObloodgroupingsystem,theotherprominentoneistheRhblood
groupsystem.Abouttwo-thirdsofthepopulationcontainsthethirdantigenonthe
surfaceoftheirredbloodcellsknownasRhfactororRh(D)antigen;thisdecides
whetherthebloodgroupispositiveornegative.IftheRhfactorispresent,anindividual
isrhesuspositive(Rh+ve);ifanRhfactorisabsenttheindividualisrhesusnegative
(Rh-ve)astheyproduceRhantibodies.Therefore,compatibilitybetweendonorand
individual is crucial in this case as well.
TheRhantigenposesadangerfortheRh-negativeperson,wholackstheantigen,if
Rh-positivebloodisgivenintransfusion.Adverseeffectsmaynotoccurthefirsttime
Rh-incompatiblebloodisgiven,buttheimmunesystemrespondstotheforeignRh
antigenbyproducinganti-Rhantibodies.IfRh-positivebloodisgivenagainafterthe
antibodiesform,theywillattacktheforeignredbloodcells,causingthemtoclump
together,oragglutinate.Theresultinghemolysis,ordestructionoftheredbloodcells,
causes serious illness and sometimes death.

10. 9
Blood transfusion
Abloodtransfusionisaroutinemedicalprocedureinwhichdonatedbloodisprovided
toyouthroughanarrowtubeplacedwithinaveininyourarm.Thispotentially
life-savingprocedurecanhelpreplacebloodlostduetosurgeryorinjury.Ablood
transfusionalsocanhelpifanillnesspreventsyourbodyfrommakingbloodorsomeof
yourblood'scomponentscorrectly.Bloodtransfusionsusuallyoccurwithout
complications. When complications do occur, they're typically mild.
Peoplereceivebloodtransfusionsformanyreasons—suchassurgery,injury,disease
andbleedingdisorders.Atransfusionprovidesthepartorpartsofbloodyouneed,with
redbloodcellsbeingthemostcommonlytransfused.Youcanalsoreceivewholeblood,
whichcontainsalltheparts,butwholebloodtransfusionsaren'tcommon.Researchers
areworkingondevelopingartificialblood.Sofar,nogoodreplacementforhumanblood
is available.

11. 10
Blood donors and receivers
Individuals of blood group O- are called as universal donors, whereas individuals
of blood group AB+ are universal recipients.

12. 11
Conclusion
EventhoughmanystudieshaveproventheassociationbetweenABObloodtypesand
diseasesbydescribingpossiblemechanisms,othersdidnotconfirmitandmakingthe
exactdecisionfallsintouncertaintyduetoinconsistentresults.Nevertheless,evidences
werecollectedtomakethissuppositionclear.ABOmayinfluencetheriskofdifferent
diseasesbydifferentknownandunknownmechanisms.ItisnowclearthatABOblood
typesarenottheexactcauseofdiseases,buttheycanbesusceptibleandsurrenderto
diseaseandhealthproblems.Ingeneral,non-Obloodtypesaremoresusceptibleto
diseasesthanO.Itcanbeusefultoincreasetheknowledgeofpersonsinthisaspect
becauseindividualswithhighriskbloodtypescouldbescreenedandtrainedfor
modifyingtheirlifestyles,healthbehavior,andenvironmentandotherattemptsthat
mayincreasepublichealth.Theimportanceofhumanbloodtypescanbeseenmore
clearlyinthecontextofpopulationmovementandthepersistentcombatbetween
humansandinfectiousdisease.Evidenceforselectionbyinfectiousdiseasesatthelevel
oftheABOandsecretorgenesispersuasive,butforotherbloodgroupantigens,
foundereffectsappearmorelikelytoaccountforthedistributionofbloodgroup
polymorphismsexceptforpartsoftheworldinwhichmalariaisendemic.Availabledata
suggeststhatsurvivalsfrommalariahavebeenthemostsignificantselectiveforce
actingonthebloodgroups.Moreover,furtherinvestigationshavetobemade
particularlyonthemolecularlevelofABObloodgroupsandtheirassociationwith
various diseases.

13. 12
Sources
●https://byjus.com/biology/blood-groups/
●https://www.britannica.com/science/Diego-blood-group-system
●https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody
●https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen
●https://www.britannica.com/science/Rh-blood-group-system
●https://www.webmd.com/heart/anatomy-picture-of-blood

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