Teaching and Learning Principles/Strategies.pptx

Teaching and Learning Principles

1. Approaches to Learning- Behavioral, Cognitive Approach LEARNING PRINCIPLES

2. Approaches to Learning

3. Approaches to Learning

4. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach Is the view that behavior SHOULD BE EXPLAINED by OBSERVABLE EXPERIENCES , not by mental processes (thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be observed by others) Does not agree that mental process are appropriate subject matter for science of behavior because they cannot be directly observed. (1) Classical conditioning and (2) Operant conditioning that emphasized ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING ( learning that two events are connected or associated)

5. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate, stimuli so that a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response Stimulus: unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus Response: unconditioned response, conditioned response

6. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Systematic desensitization is a method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate DEEP RELAXATION with SUCCESSIVE VISUALIZATION OF INCREASINGLY ANXIETY PRODUCING SITUATIONS . Involves a type of COUNTERCONDITIONING

7. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING Also called INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur Consequences: rewards and punishment are contingent on the organism’s behavior

8. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING REINFORCEMENT (REWARD) a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT . Response increases because it is followed by REWARDING STIMULUS NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT . Response increases because it is followed by REMOVAL OF AN AVERSIVE (UNPLEASANT) STIMULUS PUNISHMENT a consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur

9. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS is the application of operant conditioning to change human behavior Increasing desirable behavior choose effective reinforcer Make reinforcer contingent and timely Select the best schedule for reinforcement Consider contracting Use negative reinforcement effectively Use prompts and shaping Decreasing undesirable behavior

10. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Choose effective reinforcers Reinforcement history- what has MOTIVATED the child in the past What the child want but can’t easily get Child’s perception of the reinforcer’s value Recommend NOVEL reinforcers Premack principle (David Premack ): high probability activity can serve as reinforcer for a low probability activity

11. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Make Reinforcers Contingent and Timely Reinforcers must be given ONLY AFTER THE CHILD PERFORMS THE BEHAVIOR Reinforcers must be CONTINGENT on child’s behavior Reinforcers must be given in a TIMELY way AS SOON AS POSSIBLE after the child performs the target behavior Child must see the contingency connection between the reward and their behavior

12. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Select the Best Schedule of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement Partial reinforcement

13. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Consider Contracting Reinforcement contingencies are put in writing

14. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Use Negative Reinforcement Effectively Negative reinforcement. Frequency of response increases because the response removes an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus Use of negative condition effectively

15. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Use Prompts and Shaping Prompt an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response appear, thus increasing the LIKELIHOOD THAT THE RESPONSE WILL RECUR. Can be in the form of: Instruction Verbal prompt Visual prompt Hint Bulletin

16. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Use Prompts and Shaping Shaping involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS to a specified target behavior Requires the reinforcement of a number of SMALL STEPS en route to a target behavior Takes place over an extended period of time REMEMBER TO BE PATIENT

17. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Use differential reinforcement Terminate reinforcement (extinction) Remove desirable stimuli Present aversive stimuli (punishment)

18. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Use differential reinforcement In differential reinforcement, the teacher reinforces behavior that is MORE DESIRED AND DIFFERENT than what the child is doing Example: learning activity rather games on computer

19. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Terminate Reinforcement (Extinction) Involves WITHDRAWING POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT from a child’s inappropriate behavior Example: too much attention to student’s inappropriate behavior Combine taking attention away from inappropriate behavior with GIVING ATTENTION TO APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

20. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Remove Desirable Stimuli TIME-OUT where the student is taken away from positive reinforcement RESPONSE COST refers to taking a positive reinforcer away from the student, AS WHEN THE STUDENTLOSES CERTAIN PRIVILEGES

21. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Present Aversive Stimuli (Punishment) verbal reprimand Corporal punishment

22. Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approach OPERANT CONDITIONING DECREASING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR Present Aversive Stimuli (Punishment): Drawback Presenting students with an out of control model for handling situation Instill fear, rage, or avoidance in students Students are anxious Tells students what NOT TO DO not WHAT TO DO Can turn out to be reinforcing Can be abusive

23. Approaches to Learning Cognitive Approach COGNITION =THOUGHT Social cognitive, information processing, cognitive constructivist, social constructivist

24. Approaches to Learning

25. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Bandura’s Social Cognitive Approach Observational Learning Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-Regulation

26. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Bandura’s Social Cognitive Approach Social Cognitive Theory states that social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning Albert Bandura is the main architect of social cognitive theory; believes that when students learn, they can cognitively represent or transform their experiences.

27. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Bandura’s Social Cognitive Approach Reciprocal Determinism Model consists of three main factors: Behavior Person/cognitive Environment

28. Approaches to Learning

29. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Bandura’s Social Cognitive Approach Self-efficacy belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes WAS EMPHASIZED by Bandura. Self-efficacy (Bandura) has a powerful influence over behavior

30. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning Is a learning that involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others. Involves IMITATION but is not limited to it. Eliminates TRIAL AND ERROR

31. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning (Process) Attention Retention Production Motivation

32. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning (Process) Attention Students must attend to what MODEL is doing or saying High status model, low status model

33. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning (Process) Retention Information must be coded and kept in memory so that student can retrieve it Will improve if teachers give vivid, logical and clear demonstrations

34. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning (Process) Production Motor performance of what was seen Can be improved with teaching, coaching, and practice

35. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning (Process) Motivation Reinforcement is not always necessary for observational learning; Four reinforcement types if the child did not reproduce the desired behavior: Reward the model Reward the child Self-reinforcing statement Behavior leads to reinforcing outcome

36. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Observational Learning (Process) Modeled demonstration is an intentional way where teacher can make use of observational learning; A TEACHER DESCRIBES AND SHOWS STUDENTS HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS AND SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETE ACADEMIC TASK. Other models: parents, mentors, peers, media

37. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Cognitive Behavior Approaches Emphasis is on getting students to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than letting it controlled by external factors Try to change students’ misconceptions, strengthen their coping skills, increase self-control, and encourage constructive self-regulation

38. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Self-instructional methods Are cognitive behavior techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behavior by TALKING TO THEMSELVES IN POSITIVE WAYS

39. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Self-talk Strategies Prepare for anxiety or stress Confront and handle the anxiety or stress Cope with feelings at critical moments Use reinforcing self-statement

40. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches UNCOUNTERED NEGATIVE THINKING HAS A WAY OF BECOMING A SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY.

41. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Self-Regulatory Learning Self-generation Self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal Goals can be academic or socioemotional goal (controlling one’s anger, getting along better with peers)

42. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Self-Regulatory Learners do the ff : Set goals for extending knowledge and sustaining their motivation; Aware of emotional makeup and have strategies for managing their emotions; Periodically monitor their progress toward a goal Fine-tune or revise their strategies based on the progress they are making; and Evaluate obstacles and make the necessary adaptations .

43. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Self-Regulatory Learning High-achieving students are often self-regulatory (research)

44. Approaches to Learning Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Behavior Approaches and Self-regulation Self-Regulatory Learning Model (Barry Zimmerman, Sebastian Bonner, Robert Kovach) Self-evaluation and monitoring; Goal setting and strategic planning; Putting plan into action; and Monitoring outcomes and refining strategies.

45. Approaches to Learning Information Processing Approach Information, memory and thinking Cognitive resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information; and Mechanisms of Change

46. Approaches to Learning Information Processing Approach Information, memory and thinking Information-processing approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it; central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking . Children develop gradually increasing capacity for INFORMATION PROCESSING, ALLOWING THEM TO ACQUIRE INCREASINGLY COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS.

47. Approaches to Learning Information Processing Approach B. Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information Factors to growth of cognitive resources: (a) biology (b) experience Increase in capacity and speed IMPROVES PROCESSING OF INFORMATION Increased information processing capacity= several dimensions of topic or problem simultaneously

48. Approaches to Learning Information Processing Approach C. Mechanisms of Change (Robert Siegler) Mechanisms that work together to create change in children’s cognitive skills: Encoding Automaticity Strategy construction

49. Approaches to Learning Encoding Process by which information gets stored in the memory Skill at encoding information and ignoring irrelevant information

50. Approaches to Learning Automaticity Refers to the ability to process information with little or no effort. PRACTICE allows children to encode increasing amounts of information authomatically . Ex. When children learned to read well they do not think about each letter in a word as letter instead they encode whole words.

51. Approaches to Learning Strategy construction Creation of new procedure in processing information Developing effective strategies and selecting the best one is critical aspect of becoming an effective learner

52. Approaches to Learning Self-modification Children learn to use what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation

53. Approaches to Learning Metacognition Knowing about knowing Ex. Children know best ways to remember what they have learned CHILDREN PLAY AN ACTIVE ROLE IN THEIR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT WHEN THEY DEVELOP METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES

54. Approaches to Learning Attention What is attention? Developmental Changes

55. Approaches to Learning Attention Focusing of mental resources Improves cognitive processing for many tasks Allocation of attention: Selective attention Divided attention Sustained attention Executive attention

56. Approaches to Learning Attention Allocation of attention: Selective attention Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant Ex. Focusing on ONE VOICE among man in a crowded room or a noisy restaurant

57. Approaches to Learning Attention Allocation of attention: Divided attention Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time Ex. Listening to music while reading Multitasking dividing attention not only in two activities but even in three or more

58. Approaches to Learning Attention Allocation of attention: Sustained attention The ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time Also called vigilance Ex. Listening to music while reading VERY IMPORTANT ASPECT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Ex. Reading a chapter from start to finish without interruption

59. Approaches to Learning Attention Allocation of attention: Executive attention Involves action like planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances VERY IMPORTANT ASPECT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Ex. Effectively deploying attention to effectively engage in aforementioned cognitive tasks while writing a 10 page paper for history course

60. Approaches to Learning Attention Strategies for helping students pay attention Encourage students to pay CLOSE ATTENTION and MINIMIZE DISTRACTION; Use cues of gestures to signal that something is important (raising voice, repeating something with emphasis, writing the concept on the board, be explicit) Help students generate their own cue or catch phrase for when they need to pay attention; Make learning interesting (relate ideas to students’ interests, novel, unusual, or surprising exercises, think of relevant questions); Use media and technology effectively as part of your effort to vary pace; Focus on active learning; Don’t overload students with too much information; Be aware of individual differences in students’ attention skills; Consider developmental changes in attention; Minimize distractions; OCCASIONALLY ACCEPT THE ATTENTIONAL HOLD OF THE DISTRACTION AND INCORPORATE IT INTO YOUR DAY.

61. Approaches to Learning Memory What is memory? Encoding Storage Retrieval and Forgetting

62. Approaches to Learning Memory What is memory? The retention of information over time Processes: encoding, storage, retrieval Encoding . Information gets into memory; Storage . Retention of information over time; Retrieval . Taking information out of storage.

63. Approaches to Learning Memory Encoding Rehearsal Deep processing Elaboration Constructing images Organization

64. Approaches to Learning Memory Encoding Rehearsal Conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time it stays in memory Rote repetition of information (without imparting any meaning to it) DOES NOT WORK WELL FOR RETAINING INFORMATION OVER THE LONG TERM

65. Approaches to Learning Memory Encoding Deep Processing Levels of processing theory (Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart) states that we can process information in variety of levels from shallow to deep with deeper processing producing better memory Shallow level: analyzing a stimulus’ sensory, physical feature Intermediate level: recognize stimulus and give it a label Deepest level: process information semantically in terms of its meaning

66. Approaches to Learning Memory Encoding Elaboration Refers to extensiveness of information in the process of encoding Ex. Use of examples based on self-reference

67. Approaches to Learning Memory Encoding Constructing Images Memories are stored in two ways (Allan Paivio ) Verbal codes Image code Use of imagery to remember verbal information works better for older children than for younger

68. Approaches to Learning Memory Encoding Organization The more information is presented in organize way the EASIER FOR STUDENTS TO REMEMBER Chunking is a beneficial organizational memory strategy that involves grouping or packing information into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units.

69. Approaches to Learning Memory Storage Children remember some info for: a) less than a second b)Half a minute c)Minutes, hours, years or lifetime Types of memory: Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory

70. Approaches to Learning Memory Storage Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time Sounds – several seconds Visual images- one-fourth of a second STUDENT MUST ATTEND TO THE SENSORY INFORMATION THAT IS IMPORTANT FOR LEARNING QUICKLY BEFORE IT FADES

71. Approaches to Learning Memory Storage Short-term memory Limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained at least 30 sec unless it is rehearsed or otherwise processed further, in which case it can be retained longer Limited in capacity but longer in duration Working memory (Alan Baddeley ) is a kind of mental workbench where information is manipulated and assembled to help us MAKE DECISIONS, SOLVE PROBLEMS, AND COMPREHEND WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE.

72. Approaches to Learning Memory Storage Long-term memory Holds enormous amount of information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion Q Who was your first grade teacher? Who wrote the Phil national anthem? Who was your grade six seatmate?

73. Approaches to Learning Memory Storage Long-term memory (Content)

74. Approaches to Learning Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Retrieval Searching our store of memory to find the relevant information Serial position effect. Principle that recall is better for items at t he beginning and end of a list than for items in the MIDDLE. (primacy/recency effect) Encoding specificity principle. ASSOCIATIONS formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cue.

75. Approaches to Learning Memory Retrieval and Forgetting Forgetting Cue-dependent forgetting . Retrieval failure because of lack of retrieval CUES. Interference theory . We forget not because we lose memories but rather because OTHER INFORMATION GETS IN THE WAY OF WHAT WE ARE TRYING TO REMEMBER. Decay theory . States that new learning involves the creation of neurochemical memory trace which will eventually disintegrate thus passage of time is responsible for forgetting. Transience (Daniel Schacter ). Forgetting that occurs with the passage of time.

76. Approaches to Learning Memory Strategies for helping students improve their memory Motivate students to remember material by UNDERSTANDING it rather than MEMORIZING it (*not expecting verbatim textbook responses on assessments); Repeat with variation on the instructional information and link early and often; Assist students in organizing what they put into their memory; Teach mnemonic strategies. (rhyme, songs, phrase, acronyms, keyword method) Embed memory-relevant knowledge in your teaching.

77. Approaches to Learning Metacognition Involves cognition about cognition Knowing about knowing Metacognitive knowledge involves monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts Metacognitive activity occurs when students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking Helps students perform many academic tasks more effectively Thought to students to help them solve problems

78. Approaches to Learning Metacognition Good Information Processing Model Michael Pressley and colleagues Metacognitive model Metacognitive factors: strategies, content knowledge, motivation, and metacognition Steps: Children are taught by parents and teachers to use a particular strategies; Teachers may demonstrate similarities and differences in multiple strategies in a part. Domain; General Strategy knowledge.

79. Approaches to Learning Complex Cognitive Processes Conceptual Understanding (What are Concepts, Concept Formation) Thinking (What is thinking, Reasoning, Critical Thinking, Decision Making, Creative Thinking) Problem Solving (Steps in Problem Solving, Obstacles, Problem-based, Project-based learning) Transfer (What is Transfer, Types of transfer)

80. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding key aspect of learning Important teaching goal to help students understand the main concepts in the subject matter RATHER THAN JUST MEMORIZE THE SUBJECT FACTS Enhanced when the TEACHERS EXPLORE A TOPIC IN DEPTH AND GIVE APPROPRIATE, INTERESTING EXAMPLES OF THE CONCEPTS INVOLVED.

81. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding WHAT ARE CONCEPTS? Group of objects, events and characteristics on the basis of common properties Helps us to simplify, summarize, and organize information (Quinn 2009, 2011) Help students make sense of the world Aid in the process of remembering, making it more efficient (Racine, 2011) Make communication more efficient Can be simple, clear, concrete, or complex, fuzzy, and abstract

82. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding Promoting Concept Formation LEARNING ABOUT THE FEATURES OF CONCEPTS Defining concepts Hierarchical categorization and concept maps Hypothesis testing Prototype matching

83. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding Promoting Concept Formation Learning About The Features Of Concepts Defining concepts Define the concept. Clarify terms in the definition. Give examples to illustrate the key features or characteristics. Provide additional examples.

84. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding Promoting Concept Formation Learning About The Features Of Concepts Hierarchical Categorization and Concept Maps Taking on characteristics and features from being a member of a category Concept map is a visual presentation of a concepts connections and hierarchical organization.

85. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding Promoting Concept Formation Learning About The Features Of Concepts Hypothesis Testing Determine what a concept is and is not Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy Why objects fall on the category and why others do not

86. Approaches to Learning Conceptual Understanding Promoting Concept Formation Learning About The Features Of Concepts Prototype Matching Individuals decide whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item (s) of the category

87. Approaches to Learning Thinking Involves manipulating and transforming information in memory We think to: Form concepts Reason Think critically Make decisions Think creatively Solve problems

88. Approaches to Learning Thinking Reasoning Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Critical thinking Decision making Creative thinking Convergent thinking Divergent thinking

89. Approaches to Learning Thinking REASONING Logical thinking that uses induction and deduction to reach a conclusion Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning

90. Approaches to Learning Thinking REASONING Inductive reasoning Reasoning from specific to general DRAWING CONCLUSIONS (forming concepts) about all members of a category based on observing only some of its members Good predictor of academic achievement Examples: study of samples to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample is drawn Repeated observation is an important aspect

91. Approaches to Learning Thinking REASONING Inductive reasoning TEACHERS can help improve students’ inductive reasoning by encouraging them that the conclusion they reach depends on the quality and quantity of the information available Analogy correspondence between otherwise dissimilar things, improves students’ understanding of the concepts by comparing them with ALREADY learned concept. Ex. Bethooven is to music: Picasso is to _________.

92. Approaches to Learning Thinking REASONING Deductive reasoning Reasoning from general to specific Ex. When you learn about general rule and apply it in some situations but not others Always certain in that if initial rules or assumptions are true, conclusions will be correct.

93. Approaches to Learning Thinking CRITICAL THINKING Involves thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. Mindfulness (Ellen Langer) is a key to critical thinking; means being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life’s everyday activities and tasks.

94. Approaches to Learning Thinking DECISION MAKING Evaluating alternatives and making choices among them Biases in decision making Confirmation bias. The tendency to search for and use information that SUPPORT out ideas rather than refutes them. Belief perseverance. The tendency to HOLD ON to a belief in the face of contradictory evidence Overconfidence bias. The tendency to have more confidence in judgments and decisions than we should have (based on probability or past experience) Hindsight bias. The tendency to FALSELY REPORT AFTER THE FACT that we accurately predicted an event.

95. Approaches to Learning Thinking CREATIVE THINKING Creativity is the ability to think about something in NOVEL AND UNUSUAL WAYS AND COME UP WITH UNIQUE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS

96. Approaches to Learning Thinking CREATIVE THINKING Convergent thinking. Produces one correct answer and is characteristic of the kind of thinking required on conventional intelligence test. Divergent thinking produces many answers to question and is more characteristic of creativity

97. Approaches to Learning Thinking CREATIVE THINKING Steps in the Creative Process Preparation. (curiosity is aroused) Incubation. (churn ideas in head) Insight. (Aha experience) Evaluation. Elaboration. (Creativity is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration, Thomas Edison)

98. Approaches to Learning Thinking CREATIVE THINKING Teaching and Creativity Flow. a heightened state of pleasure experienced when we re engaged in mental and physical challenges that absorb us; ACHIEVED THROUGH CULTIVATING CURIOSITY AND INTEREST. How to cultivate curiosity and interest?

99. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal

100. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Steps in Problem Solving Find and Frame Problems. Develop Good Problem Solving Strategies. Evaluate Solutions Rethink and redefine problems and solution over time.

101. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Problem solving Strategies Subgoaling . Involves setting intermediate goals that put students in a better position to reach final goal or solution. Algorithms. Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. (formulas, instructions, tests) Heuristics. Strategies or rules of thumb that can suggest solution to a problem but don’t ensure it will work. Helps in NARROWING DOWN solutions to find one that works. Means-end analysis one identifies goal of the problem (end), assesses the current situation, and evaluates what needs to be done (means)

102. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Obstacles to Problem Solving Fixation. Using prior strategy and thereby failing to examine a problem from a fresh, new perspective. Lack of motivation or Persistence Inadequate Emotional Control

103. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Problem-Based Learning Emphasis is on solving AUTHENTIC PROBLEMS like those that occur in daily life Teacher orients students to problem and gets students to explore and discover solution on their own

104. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Problem-Based Learning Orient the student to the problem. (goals, expectations, motivation) Organize students for study. Assist independent and group investigation. (information, experiments, search for explanations, and solutions) Develop and present artifacts and exhibits. (reports, videos, documentations, write ups) Analyze and evaluate the problem-solving process.

105. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Project-Based Learning Students work on a real, meaningful problems beyond those of everyday life and create tangible products Gives more attention to the end product

106. Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Project-Based Learning A driving question. (key question or problem to be solved) Authentic, situated inquiry. (learning from experts) Collaboration. (students, teachers, and community participants collaborate to find solutions to problem) Scaffolding. (learning technologies) End product. (tangible end product)

107. Approaches to Learning Transfer Applying previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation

108. Approaches to Learning Social Constructivist Approaches Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Structuring Small Group Work

109. Approaches to Learning Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE BROADER CONSTRUCTIVIST CONTEXT Constructivism emphasizes how individuals actively construct knowledge and understanding Social constructivist approach emphasizes the SOCIAL CONTEXT OF LEARNING and the idea that KNOWLEDGE IS MUTUALLY BUILT AND CONSTRUCTED .

110. Approaches to Learning Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE BROADER CONSTRUCTIVIST CONTEXT

111. Approaches to Learning Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE BROADER CONSTRUCTIVIST CONTEXT Lev Vygotsky Theories Children’s development is shaped by the cultural context in which they live. Zone of Proximal Development is Vygotsky’s term for range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children STUDENTS CONSTRUCT KNOWLEDGE THROUGH SOCIAL INTERACTIONS WITH OTHERS (culture: language, beliefs, and skills)

112. Approaches to Learning Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching SITUATED COGNITION Idea that thinking occurs (is situated) in social and physical contexts. Create learning situations that are as close to real-world circumstances as possible

113. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Scaffolding Cognitive Apprenticeship Tutoring (Classroom aides, volunteers and mentors, Peer tutors) Cooperative Learning

114. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Scaffolding DON’T DO FOR STUDENTS WHAT THEY CAN DO FOR THEMSELVES (monitor, give support, assist) Changing the level of support over the course of teaching session Teacher (or a more skilled mentor) adjust the amount of guidance to fit students current performance New learning=direct instruction Increased competence= less guidance

115. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cognitive Apprenticeship By Barbara Ragoff (developmental psychologist) Technique in which an expert stretches and supports a novice’s understanding and use of cultures skills. Active learning, situated learning Teacher models strategies for students; Teacher supports students’ effort in doing the task; Teacher encourages students to continue their effort independently.

116. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Tutoring Cognitive apprenticeship between an expert and a novice Peer tutors. Fellow students who can be effective tutors Cross-age peer tutoring. Peer is older. Same-age peer tutoring. Peer is classmate. BEING TUTORED BY SAME-AGE CLASSMATE IS MOER LIKELY TO EMBARRASS A STUDENT AND LEAD TO NEGATIVE SOCIAL COMPARISON.

117. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Tutoring (Programs) Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) Reciprocal Peer Tutoring ( RPT) Class Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) Valued Youth Program

118. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Tutoring (Programs) Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) Teacher identifies which student require help on the specific skills and which children are most appropriate for helping other children learn those skills Using the information, teacher pairs children in class Pairs are changed regularly so that all students have the opportunity of being coaches and players

119. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Tutoring (Programs) Reciprocal Peer Tutoring ( RPT) Provides opportunities for students to alternate in tutor and tutee roles

120. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Tutoring (Programs) Class Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) Tutor training Reciprocal teaching Motivational strategies like team competition

121. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Tutoring (Programs) Valued Youth Program Gives secondary school students who are NOT achieving well or at RISK for school related problems RESPONSIBILITY of tutoring elementary school children.

122. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cooperative Learning Occurs when students work in small groups to help each other learn. Groups usually stays together for weeks or months

123. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cooperative Learning Occurs when students work in small groups to help each other learn. Groups usually stays together for weeks or months Principles developed by Roger and David Johnson (1998), Robert Slavin (2010), and Spencer Kagan (2010), the leading developers in cooperative learning all of whom have slightly different approaches and emphases, but agree in a common notion that: cooperative learning is the instructional use of small group so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning ( http://www.intime.uni.edu )

124. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cooperative Learning (Five Pillars)

125. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cooperative Learning

126. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cooperative Learning

127. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Cooperative Learning

128. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Structuring Small Groups

129. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Structuring Small Groups

130. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Structuring Small Groups

131. Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Structuring Small Groups

132. Approaches to Learning Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students’ Learning Structuring Small Groups (Students’ Roles in a Group) Encourages . Motivator Gatekeeper. Equalizes participation of students in group Coach. Help with academic content Checker. Makes sure group understands the material Taskmaster. Keeps the group on task Recorder. Writes down ideas and decision Quiet captain. Monitors groups’ noise level Materials monitor. Obtains and returns supplies