The Age of Enlightenment - deals with major thinkers

A simple presentation on the Age of Enlightenment for High School and Higher Secondary School level students

1. AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT World History

2. In the Salon of Madame Geoffrin in 1755. Reading of Voltaire's tragedy, The Orphan of China, in the salon of Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin , by Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier, c. 1812[a]

3. What was the Age of Enlightenment? The Age of Enlightenment (also the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment) was a European intellectual and philosophical movement that flourished primarily in the 18th century. Characterized by an emphasis on reason, empirical evidence, and scientific method, the Enlightenment promoted ideals of individual liberty, religious tolerance, progress, and natural rights. Its thinkers advocated for constitutional government, the separation of church and state, and the application of rational principles to social and political reform.

4. What is THE Age of Enlightenment? The Enlightenment emerged from and built upon the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, which had established new methods of empirical inquiry through the work of figures such as Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Francis Bacon, Pierre Gassendi, Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton. Philosophical foundations were laid by thinkers including René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, and John Locke, whose ideas about reason, natural rights, and empirical knowledge became central to Enlightenment thought.

5. The dating of the period of the beginning of the Enlightenment can be attributed to the publication of René Descartes' Discourse on the Method in 1637, with his method of systematically disbelieving everything unless there was a well-founded reason f or accepting it, and featuring his famous dictum, Cogito, ergo sum (" I think, therefore I am "). Others cite the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment. European historians traditionally dated its beginning with the death of Louis XIV of France in 1715 and its end with the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of Immanuel Kant in 1804.

6. The movement was characterized by the widespread circulation of ideas through new institutions: scientific academies, literary salons, coffeehouses, Masonic lodges, and an expanding print culture of books, journals, and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and religious officials and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, socialism, and neoclassicism, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was marked by an increasing awareness of the relationship between the mind and the everyday media of the world,and by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious dogma — an attitude captured by Kant's essay Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?, where the phrase sapere aude ('dare to know') can be found.

7. Characteristics of the Age of Enlightenment During a period called the Age of Enlightenment, many European countries experienced a time of intellectual growth. However, each region had its own particular focus during this time. There were two main ways of thinking during the Enlightenment. The first was known as the Radical School of thought, which promoted ideas like freedom of speech, democracy, and getting rid of religious authority.

8. The second way of thinking was called the Moderate School of thought. This school tried to find a compromise between making changes and keeping the existing religious and political systems in place. As time went on, science became increasingly important in Enlightenment discussions and thinking. When it comes to issues like race, gender, and social class, historians tell us that the values of the Enlightenment weren't initially meant to apply to everyone in the way we understand today. Most Enlightenment thinkers believed that rights and freedoms were not passed down through family lines, but they didn't necessarily argue for equality for all. However, their ideas did inspire later movements that fought for the rights of people of color, women, and the working class.

9. Principles of the Age of Enlightenment Enlightenment poets and philosophers championed ideas like church-state separation, constitutional government, tolerance, fraternity, liberty, and progress. They questioned religious orthodoxy, emphasizing scientific methods and reductionism. Reductionism in philosophy suggests entities of one kind are connected to or defined by entities of another kind. Enlightenment thinkers valued empiricism and rationality for human progress. They opposed special privileges for monarchy, clergy, and nobility. Their writings inspired people to question their governance. These ideas are believed to have influenced the French Revolution and the American War of Independence.

10. Significant Thinkers & Their Ideas Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

11. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) He was a mathematician and astronomer from Italy. Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion, and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of the pendulum and "hydrostatic balances". He was one of the earliest Renaissance developers of the thermoscope and the inventor of various military compasses. With an improved telescope he built, he observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters, and sunspots.

12. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) He also built an early microscope. He advocated the idea that the Earth revolved around the Sun in public. He had to deal with fierce hostility and persecution when he published these beliefs in the form of a book titled Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World , especially from the religious authorities. In 1633, he was put on trial for allegedly contradicting the Bible. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.

13. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

14. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) He was a French philosopher who is known as the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” He started out as a soldier, but in his free time, he was a philosopher. In a time of uncertainty, he made a fresh start by forgoing the conventional scholastic approach. His famous adage is “cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am). He created his entire philosophy utilizing a mathematical method of reasoning proceeding in this way.

15. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Father of Modern Philosophy: Descartes is widely regarded as a foundational figure in modern Western philosophy, shifting the focus from scholasticism to a more individualistic and rational approach to knowledge.  "I think, therefore I am": This famous statement, known as the "cogito," established the primacy of individual consciousness as the starting point for philosophical inquiry, according to Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy .  Mind-Body Dualism: Descartes proposed a distinction between mind (res cogitans) and matter (res extensa), a concept that has been influential in understanding the relationship between consciousness and the physical world.  Methodic Doubt: He employed a method of systematic doubt to arrive at foundational truths, a technique that influenced later philosophical and scientific inquiry. 

16. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Cartesian Coordinate System: Descartes's invention of the Cartesian coordinate system revolutionized the way we represent and analyze geometric shapes and equations. It allows for the mapping of points in space using numerical coordinates.  Analytical Geometry: By combining algebra and geometry, Descartes created a new field of study that allowed for the solution of geometric problems using algebraic methods and vice versa.  Foundational Work for Calculus: His work in analytical geometry laid the groundwork for the development of calculus, a crucial branch of mathematics, according to Brainly.in.   

17. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Notation System: He introduced the use of x, y, and z to represent unknowns in equations, a convention still widely used today.  Influential in the Scientific Revolution: Descartes's mechanistic view of the universe, where natural phenomena are explained by physical laws and the interaction of matter, contributed to the Scientific Revolution.  Optics: He made significant contributions to the field of optics, including the first publication of the law of refraction of light (Snell's law).  Natural Philosophy: Descartes also proposed a naturalistic account of the formation of the Earth and planets, which was a precursor to the nebular hypothesis

18. John Locke (1632-1704) John Locke (1632-1704)

19. John Locke (1632-1704) John Locke, a pivotal figure of the Enlightenment, significantly impacted political philosophy, epistemology, and education. He's renowned for his theories on natural rights, social contract, and empiricism, influencing revolutions and shaping modern liberal thought Empiricism:Locke championed empiricism, the idea that knowledge is derived from sensory experience, rather than innate ideas. His "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" explored the mind as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) at birth, filled by sensory input.

20. Social Contract Theory: In "Two Treatises of Government (1689)," Locke argued that government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed. Individuals, in a state of nature, possess inherent natural rights (life, liberty, and property). They form a social contract to establish a government that protects these rights, and can legitimately be overthrown if it fails to do so. Political Liberalism: Locke's ideas on limited government, individual liberty, and the right to revolution became foundational to classical liberalism. His concept of a separation of powers also influenced the development of democratic institutions. John Locke (1632-1704)

21. Religious Toleration: Locke advocated for religious tolerance in his "Letter Concerning Toleration," arguing that the state should not interfere with individuals' religious beliefs, provided they do not threaten public order. Influence on the American Revolution: Locke's writings, particularly his ideas on natural rights and government by consent, were highly influential on the American revolutionaries, directly shaping the Declaration of Independence. Educational Theory: Locke's emphasis on experience and reason in learning influenced educational thought, advocating for a more practical and individualized approach to education. John Locke (1632-1704)

22. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

23. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Isaac Newton's contributions to science and mathematics were profound and far-reaching. He is best known for formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which revolutionized our understanding of the physical world. Additionally, he invented the reflecting telescope and made significant advancements in optics and calculus Laws of Motion: Newton's three laws of motion are fundamental to classical mechanics. They describe how objects move under the influence of forces, explaining concepts like inertia, acceleration, and the relationship between force and motion

24. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Law of Universal Gravitation: This law explains the force of attraction between any two objects with mass, including celestial bodies like planets and stars. It unified the physics of the heavens and the Earth. Reflecting Telescope: Newton's design for a reflecting telescope, which uses mirrors instead of lenses, solved the problem of chromatic aberration (color distortion) and allowed for clearer images Calculus: Newton independently developed calculus, a powerful mathematical tool for understanding rates of change and continuous quantities. It was essential for solving problems related to his theories of motion and gravity

25. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Optics: Newton's work on light and color revealed that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum. He also demonstrated that these colors can be recombined to form white light. Other Mathematical Contributions: Newton made significant advancements in various areas of mathematics, including the binomial theorem, series expansions, and the classification of curves.

26. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

27. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) He was one of the intellectuals who helped lay the foundation for the French Revolution. He was the author of “The Social Contract”, which was his most significant work. In this, he pointed out that, human beings are inherently competitive with one another, but despite that, they band together to establish in groups in order to have a better chance of prevailing in the conflicts and winning. The Social Contract, according to Rousseau, was the cornerstone of modern civilization and society.

28. Political Philosophy: Rousseau's "Social Contract" (1762) famously argued that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the governed, not from divine right or hereditary rule. He championed the idea of popular sovereignty, where the collective will of the people is the ultimate source of political power. His ideas were a major influence on the French Revolution and the development of modern democratic thought Educational Theory: In his influential work " Emile " (1762), Rousseau presented a groundbreaking philosophy of education that prioritized natural development and experience over rote learning. He advocated for a child-centered approach, emphasizing learning through observation, interaction with the natural world, and following the child's natural inclinations Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

29. Moral Psychology: Rousseau explored the nature of human beings, arguing that people are born good but are corrupted by society. He highlighted the importance of emotions and individual conscience in moral development. He also questioned the assumption that the majority is always right, emphasizing the need for a government that secures freedom, equality, and justice for all Influence on the French Revolution: Rousseau's ideas on popular sovereignty, liberty, and the social contract were central to the revolutionary spirit of the French Revolution. His writings were widely read and debated, and his concepts were used to justify the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)